EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Module 6

• Hareesh K
• Assistant Professor
• Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 Introduction
• Eddy currents are defined as oscillating electrical
current induced in a conductive material by an
alternating magnetic field, due to electro
magnetic induction.

• Whenever relative motion occurs between a

metal conductor and magnetic lines of force,
electric currents are induced in the surface of the
metal conductor.

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 History of EC
• Eddy current testing has its
origins with Michael Faraday's
discovery of electromagnetic
induction in 1831. Faraday
was a chemist in England
during the early 1800's and is
credited with the discovery of
electromagnetic induction,
electromagnetic rotations, the
magneto-optical effect,
diamagnetism, and other
phenomena.
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Eddy Current Testing

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 Eddy Current Testing Introduction
• The eddy current inspection method is applied to the detection of
cracks at or near the surface.

• An electrically charged coil carrying an alternate current causes an

eddy current to flow in any nearby metal.

• The eddy current may react on the coil to produce substantial changes
in its reactivity and resistance, and that reaction is used to pinpoint
small cracks or defects.

• Eddy current inspection is accurate for the detection of small flaws or

material changes that may not be detected with other inspection
methods, and the discontinuities in the casting will give an immediate
response on the monitoring equipment.

• The test only can be used with electrically conductive materials.

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Eddy Current Testing

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 Generation of Eddy Currents
Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a circular
path. They get their name from “eddies” that are formed when a
liquid or gas flows in a circular path around obstacles when
conditions are right.

Test Probe

Eddy Currents

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 Principles of Eddy Current Testing
• In eddy current testing, an AC of Frequency 1Khz – 2Khz Is
made to flow in a coil which in turn, produces an alternating
magnetic field around it.
• This coil when brought close to the electrically conducting
surface of a metallic material to be inspected, induces an eddy
current flow in the material due to electromagnetic induction
shown in the figure below.

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Principles of ECT

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• Eddy currents are created through a process called
electromagnetic induction. When alternating current is applied
to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field
develops in and around the conductor.
• This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to
maximum and collapses as the current is reduced to zero. If
another electrical conductor is brought into the close proximity
to this changing magnetic field, current will be induced in this
second conductor.
• Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a
circular path. They get their name from “eddies” that are
formed when a liquid or gas flows in a circular path around
obstacles when conditions are right.

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 Physics aspects of ECT
The factors influencing eddy current testing are
1)Conductivity
2)Permeability
3)Resistivity
4)Inductance
5)Inductive Reactance
6)Impedance

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 1. Conductivity
• Conductivity is the reverse of resistivity and is the measure of
how easily the current can flow through the material.
• Conductivity is often measured by an eddy current technique,
and inference can be then drawn about the different factors.
• In general conductivity of material Is affected by the
i. Chemical composition
ii. Heat treatment
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 2. Permeability
• Magnetic permeability is the ratio of magnetic
flux density to the magnetizing force of the
coil.

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 [Link]
• Resistance is the opposition of a body or substance to
the flow of electrical current through it, resulting in a
change of electrical energy into heat, light or other
forms of energy

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 4. Inductance
• Process of generating electrical current in a conductor by
placing the conductor in a changing magnetic field is
called electromagnetic induction or just induction. It is
called induction because the current is said to be induced in
the conductor by the magnetic field.

• When induction occurs in an electrical circuit and affects the

flow of electricity it is called inductance

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 4.1 Self inductance
• The property of self-inductance is a particular form of electromagnetic
induction. Self inductance is defined as the induction of a voltage in a
current-carrying wire when the current in the wire itself is changing. In the
case of self-inductance, the magnetic field created by a changing current in
the circuit itself induces a voltage in the same circuit. Therefore, the
voltage is self-induced.

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 4.2 Mutual Inductance
• The magnetic flux through a circuit can be related to the current in that circuit and the currents in
other nearby circuits, assuming that there are no nearby permanent magnets. Consider the
following two circuits.

• The magnetic field produced by circuit 1 will intersect the wire in circuit 2 and create current flow. The induced current
flow in circuit 2 will have its own magnetic field which will interact with the magnetic field of circuit 1. At some point P,
the magnetic field consists of a part due to i1 and a part due to i2. These fields are proportional to the currents producing
them.

• The coils in the circuits are labeled L1 and L2 and this term represents the self inductance of each of the coils. The values
of L1 and L2 depend on the geometrical arrangement of the circuit (i.e. number of turns in the coil) and the conductivity of
the material. The constant M, called the mutual inductance of the two circuits, is dependent on the geometrical
arrangement of both circuits. In particular, if the circuits are far apart, the magnetic flux through circuit 2 due to the
current i1 will be small and the mutual inductance will be small. L2 and M are constants.

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 5. Inductive Reactance
• The reduction of current flow in a circuit due to induction is called inductive
reactance. By taking a closer look at a coil of wire and applying Lenz's law, it can be
seen how inductance reduces the flow of current in the circuit. In the image below, the
direction of the primary current is shown in red, and the magnetic field generated by
the current is shown in blue. The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by
taking your right hand and pointing your thumb in the direction of the current. Your
fingers will then point in the direction of the magnetic field. It can be seen that the
magnetic field from one loop of the wire will cut across the other loops in the coil
and this will induce current flow (shown in green) in the circuit. According to Lenz's
law, the induced current must flow in the opposite direction of the primary current. The
induced current working against the primary current results in a reduction of current
flow in the circuit.

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 6. Impedance
• Electrical Impedance (Z), is the total opposition that a circuit presents to
alternating current. Impedance is measured in ohms and may
include resistance (R), inductive reactance (XL), and capacitive
reactance (XC). However, the total impedance is not simply the algebraic
sum of the resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive reactance.

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Equipment and accessories for
ECT

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• Special instruments have been developed in incorporating various
methods of detecting and amplifying small impedance changes
• A sine wave oscillator generates sine current, at an specified
frequency, that passes through a test coil.
• Since the impedance of two coils is never exactly equal, balancing
is required to eliminate the voltage difference between them.
• Once balanced, the presence of a defect in one coil creates a small
unbalanced signal which is then amplified, filtered and displayed
on the storage oscilloscope after converting to DC signal
• Modern ECT instruments use both amplitude and phase
information of the eddy currents.

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 The common accessories are
1. Coils
Coils are necessary in ECT to produce a sufficient
magnetic filed from limited current or a sufficient
current from a limited magnetic field
This type of magnetic field from a coil is similar to that
from a permanent magnet.

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[Link] current generation
When the coil is brought in close proximity with the conductive material,
the alternating magnetic filed will pass through the material.
The coil can be placed onto the material sideway to the object and eddy
current will be induced into the material.
It can be shown that they normally have circular paths at right angles to
the primary field parallel to the coil windings.

3. Eddy current detection

The eddy current in the conducting material generate their own magnetic
field which in fact opposes and modifies the primary magnetic filed.
This in turn modifies the primary current usually in both phase and
amplitude
If the current flowing through the primary field is shown on a display
then variations in it can be seen in the presence of defects
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4) Probe Selection

The selection of a test coil is influenced by a

number of factors
[Link] of the test specimen
[Link] distribution on variables
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 Lift off Effect
• The distance between a surface coil and test surface is called
as proximity or lift off.
• Since flux density decreases exponentially with distance from
the test coil, the amount of lift off or separation between the
coil and test specimen has a significant effect on sensitivity
• The closer the coupling between the coil and the test
specimen, the denser the eddy current filed that can be
developed, and thus more sensitivity to any material variable.
• Similarly close coupling increases the sensitivity to lift off
effect, noise due to probe nobbles, when encircling coils are
used.

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 Edge Effect
• This refers to the effect that the components edge or
Sharpe changes in geometry due to the eddy currents.
• This can be neglected by placing a balancing probe
near to the edge and scanning at that distance
• Edge effect is phenomenon that occurs when an
inspection coil is at the end of the test piece.
• At that instance, eddy current flow is distorted as
currents cannot flow at the edge

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 Fill Factor
• Fill factor is number which measures how well
the test piece fills the coil in external
encircling probes.
• Fill factor is calculated by
• Fill Factor=(Diameter test piece)2/ (Diameter coil)2

• Fill factor is the ratio of the cross sectional area of the test
piece and area of the coil section
• Fill factor should be as near as unity

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 End Effect
• In eddy current testing, end effect is defined as
the disturbance of the magnetic field eddy
distribution, impedance due to proximity of
the coil to an abrupt change in geometry.

• The end effect is common for cylindrical parts

being inspected with encircling or inner
diameter coils

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Impedance plane diagram for
magnetic material

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 Impedance plane Diagram
• In an eddy current testing instrumentation, eddy
current circuits usually have only resistance and
reactance components.
• During inspection, eddy current signals generated
during testing of components are displayed by
impedance plane diagram.
• The strength of the eddy currents and the magnetic
permeability of the test material causes the eddy
current signal on the impedance plane.

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Impedance plane diagram for non-
magnetic material

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 Depth of Penetration
• Eddy current concentrates near to the surface adjacent to an
excitation coil and their strength decreases with distance from
coil
• ie, Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth.
This phenomenon is known as the skin effect
• Skin effect arises when the eddy current flowing in the test
object at any depth produces magnetic fields which opposes
the primary field, thus reducing the net magnetic flux and
causing a decrease in eddy current flow as the depth increases.
• It is mathematically convenient to define the “standard depth
of penetration” where the eddy current is 37% of its surface
value.

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Relation Between Frequency and
Depth of Penetration

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 Special Applications of ECT
1 Detection of Defects
Defects such as cracks are detected when they disrupt the path of eddy
currents and weaken their strength. The images to the right show an eddy
current surface probe on the surface of a conductive component
factors such as the type of material, surface finish and condition of the
material, the design of the probe, and many other factors can affect the
sensitivity of the inspection. Successful detection of surface breaking and near
surface cracks requires:
•A knowledge of probable defect type, position, and orientation.
•Selection of the proper probe.
•Selection of a reasonable probe drive frequency.
•Setup or reference specimens of similar material to the component being
inspected and with features that are representative of the defect or condition
being inspected for.

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The basic steps in performing an inspection with a surface probe are the
following:

[Link] and setup the instrument and probe.

[Link] a frequency to produce the desired depth of penetration.
[Link] the instrument to obtain an easily recognizable defect response using
a calibration standard or setup specimen.
[Link] the inspection probe (coil) on the component surface and null the
instrument.
[Link] the probe over part of the surface in a pattern that will provide
complete coverage of the area being inspected. Care must be taken to maintain
the same probe-to-surface orientation as probe wobble can affect interpretation
of the signal. In some cases, fixtures to help maintain orientation or automated
scanners may be required.
[Link] the signal for a local change in impedance that will occur as the
probe moves over a discontinuity.

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 2. Conductivity Measurement
• The technique usually involves nulling an absolute probe in air and placing the
probe in contact with the sample surface. For nonmagnetic materials, the
change in impedance of the coil can be correlated directly to the conductivity
of the material. The technique can be used to easily sort magnetic materials
from nonmagnetic materials but it is difficult to separate the conductivity
effects from the magnetic permeability effects, so conductivity measurements
are limited to nonmagnetic materials.
• It is important to control factors that can affect the results such as the
inspection temperature and the part geometry. Conductivity changes with
temperature so measurements should be made at a constant temperature and
adjustments made for temperature variations when necessary. The thickness of
the specimen should generally be greater than three standard depths of
penetration. This is so the eddy currents at the back surface of the sample are
sufficiently weaker than the variations in the specimen thickness that are not
seen in the measurements.
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 3. Thickness Measurements
The thickness of non-metallic coatings on metal substrates can be determined
simply from the effect of lift-off on impedance. This method has widespread use
for measuring thickness of paint and plastic coatings. The coating serves as a
spacer between the probe and the conductive surface. As the distance between the
probe and the conductive base metal increases, the eddy current field strength
decreases because less of the probe's magnetic field can interact with the base
metal. Thicknesses between 0.5 and 25 µm can be measured to an accuracy
between 10% for lower values and 4% for higher values. Contributions to
impedance changes due to conductivity variations should be phased out, unless it is
known that conductivity variations are negligible, as normally found at higher
frequencies.

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Fairly precise measurements can be made with a standard eddy current flaw
detector and a calibration specimen. The probe is nulled in air and the
direction of the lift-off signal is established. The location of the signal is
marked on the screen as the probe is placed on the calibration specimen in
areas of decreasing coating thickness. When the probe is placed on the test
surface, the position of the signal will move from the air null position to a
point that can be correlated to the calibration markings.

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 Advantages of Eddy Current Inspection
• Sensitive to small cracks and other defects
• Detects surface and near surface defects
• Inspection gives immediate results
• Equipment is very portable
• Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
• Minimum part preparation is required
• Test probe does not need to contact the part
• Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials

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Limitations of Eddy Current Inspection
• Only conductive materials can be inspected
• Surface must be accessible to the probe
• Skill and training required is more extensive than other
techniques
• Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
• Reference standards needed for setup
• Depth of penetration is limited
• Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil
winding and probe scan direction are undetectable

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 Applications
• Crack detection
• Material thickness measurements
• Coating thickness measurements
• Conductivity measurements for:
– Material identification
– Heat damage detection
– Case depth determination
– Heat treatment monitoring

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