CIE A2 LEVEL- PHYSICS [9702]

Solution:  Phase difference (𝝓): measure of how much one wave

Part (i): is out of step with another wave
The gas is being compressed so work is being done on 𝑡
the system (𝑤 = +) and when a gas is compressed, its 𝜙 = 2𝜋
𝑇
temperature rises. As the system is not providing heat, where 𝑇 is time period and 𝑡 is time lag between waves
the gas itself is heating, (𝑞 = −). Overall, increase in
work done is balanced by the gas heating so net 6.2 Simple Harmonic Motion
remains 0 and internal energy unchanged (𝑈 = 0)  Simple harmonic motion: acceleration proportional to
Part (ii): displacement and directed towards a fixed point
The solid is being heated so (𝑞 = +). As the solid is not  Requirements for SHM:
expanding, (𝑤 = 0) and therefore there is an increase o Mass that oscillates
in internal energy (𝑈 = +) o Position where mass in equilibrium
Part (iii): o Restoring force that acts to return mass to
The melting of ice requires heat energy provided so equilibrium; 𝐹 ∝ −𝑥
(𝑞 = +). No work is done on or by the system so  Defining equation of SHM:
(𝑤 = 0). Hence, there is a net increase so (𝑈 = +) 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥

{S02-P04} Question 2:
Some water in a saucepan is boiling.
a) Explain why:
i. external work is done by the boiling water
Volume increases due to evaporation (turns into a
gas) hence work is done on pushing back the
atmosphere.
ii. there is a change in the internal energy as water
changes to steam  The negative sign in the equation represents that 𝑎 and
The Ek of atoms is constant as there is no temp. 𝑥 are in opposite directions. 𝑎 is always directed towards
change but Ep changes because separation of atoms the mean position.
increases so internal energy increases because
∆𝑈 = 𝐸𝑝 + 𝐸𝐾 6.3 Equations of SHM
b) By reference to the first law and your answer in (a), Displacement:
show that thermal energy must be supplied to the 𝑥 = 𝑥0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑥0 cos 𝜔𝑡
water during the boiling process (depending on initial conditions)
∆𝑈 = 𝑞 + 𝑤
Changing from a liquid to a gas, there is an increase Velocity:
in internal energy. Work is done by the liquid so 𝑤 is
negative. For ∆𝑈 to be positive, 𝑞 must increase. 𝑣 = ±𝜔√(𝑥02 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑣 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑣 = −𝑣0 sin 𝜔𝑡
6. OSCILLATIONS (differential simplified because 𝑥0 𝜔 = 𝑣0 )
 Maximum velocity at equilibrium position and minimum
6.1 Describing Oscillations (0) at extremes
 Displacement (𝒙): instantaneous distance of the moving
object from its mean position Acceleration:
 Amplitude (𝑨): maximum displacement from the mean 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
position 𝑎 = −𝜔2 (𝑥0 sin 𝜔𝑡) 𝑎 = −𝜔2 (𝑥0 cos 𝜔𝑡)
 Period (𝑻): time taken for one complete oscillation
 Frequency (𝒇): number of oscillations per unit time
 Angular frequency (𝝎): rate of change of angular
displacement
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓

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 CIE A2 LEVEL- PHYSICS [9702]
6.4 Graphs of SHM {W08-P04} Question 3:
The needle of a sewing machine oscillates vertically
through a total distance of 22 mm,

The oscillations are simple harmonic with a frequency

of 4.5 Hz. The cloth being sewn is positioned 8.0 mm
below the needle when the it is at its maximum height.
Calculate, for the point of the needle,
6.5 Energy in SHM
i. its maximum speed
ii. its speed as it moves downwards through the cloth
Part (i):
Maximum speed can be calculated by
𝑣0 = 𝜔𝑥0
Firstly, we must find angular velocity
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2 × 𝜋 × 4.5 = 28.3 rad s-1
Next, we must find the amplitude. As the total vertical
displacement is 22 mm,
22
𝑥0 = = 11 mm
2
Kinetic Energy:
1 Substitute data calculate into first expression
𝑣 = ±𝜔√(𝑥02 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝐸𝑘 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑣0 = 28.3 × 11 × 10−2 = 0.311 ms-1
1 Part (ii):
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2 (𝑥02 − 𝑥 2 )
2 To find the velocity at that point, use the equation
Total Energy:
At 𝑥 = 0, 𝐸𝑘 is max and = to total energy 𝑣 = 𝜔√(𝑥02 − 𝑥 2 )
1 We need to find the displacement when the needle is
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2 (𝑥02 − (0)2 )
2 passing through the cloth. From annotated diagram:
1
∴ 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥02
2
Potential Energy:
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐸𝑘 + 𝐸𝑝 so 𝐸𝑝 = 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 − 𝐸𝑘 11 − 8 = 3 mm
1 1 0
= 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥02 − 𝑚𝜔2 (𝑥02 − 𝑥 2 ) 11 mm
2 2
1
𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2 Hence, substitute values into equation and calculate 𝑣
2
Graphs: 𝑣 = 28.3 × √(112 − 32 ) = 0.30 ms-1

6.6 Damping
 Damping: loss of energy and reduction in amplitude
from an oscillating system caused by force acting in
opposite direction to the motion (e.g. friction)

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 CIE A2 LEVEL- PHYSICS [9702]
 Light damping: system oscillates about equilibrium 6.9 Damping and Resonance
position with decreasing amplitude over a period of time  Effects of damping on frequency response of a system
undergoing forced oscillations:
o Decreases amplitude at all frequencies
o Slightly decreases resonant frequency
o Resonant peak becomes flatter

 Critical damping: system does not oscillate & is amount

of damping required such that the system returns to its
equilibrium position in the shortest possible time
 Heavy damping: damping is so great that the displaced
object never oscillates but returns to its equilibrium
position very very slowly

6.10 Purposes of Resonance

Examples of Useful Purposes of Resonance:
 Oscillation of a child's swing
 Tuning of radio receiver - natural frequency of radio is
adjusted so that it responds resonantly to a specific
6.7 Practical Examples of Damping broadcast frequency
Oscillation Damping  Using microwave to cook food - produces microwaves of
frequency equal to natural frequency of water, causing
Critical damping
Car suspension

the water molecules in food to vibrate generating heat

needed to stop
Car oscillates due to
oscillation as quickly as  Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is used in hospitals
spring like connection to create images of the human organs
possible to avoid
to wheels Examples of Destructive Nature of Resonance:
motion sickness –
hydraulic in nature  High-pitched sound waves can shatter fragile objects e.g.
shattering of a glass when a soprano hits a high note
Tall buildings

Large weight hung at  Buildings that vibrate at natural frequencies close to the
the top of the building frequency of seismic waves collapse during earthquakes
During earthquakes
to supply a counter  A car suspension system vibrates when going over
oscillation bumps which would give large amplitude vibrations

6.8 Natural Frequency and Resonance

7. ELECTRIC FIELDS
 The electric field of a charge is the space around the
 Natural frequency 𝒇𝟎 : the unforced frequency of
charge in which an electric force due to that charge is
oscillation of a freely oscillating object
experienced
 Free oscillation: oscillatory motion not subjected to an
external periodic driving force; oscillates at natural freq.
 Forced oscillation: oscillation caused by an external
driving force; frequency is determined by driving force
 Resonance: the maximum
amplitude of vibration when
impressed frequency equals  Direction of field lines show the direction of the field –
natural frequency of always from the positive charge to the negative
vibration  Higher density of lines shows a stronger region of field

Page 11 of 34
11/30/2019 Chapter 06: Oscillations «The Penguin IB Physics Guide The Penguin IB Physics Guide

OSCILLATIONS AND WAVE MOTION

Oscillation/Periodic/Vibrational is a type of motion in which an object moves along the same path in a
regular manner.

Wave pulse: Isolated disturbance travelling in undisturbed medium.

Continuous wave: Regular periodic disturbance to a medium

Progressive/Travelling wave: Movement of disturbance from a source transferring energy but not
material to surrounding medium.

Transverse wave: Displacement of particles of medium perpendicular to direction of wave motion

EM waves:

– Transverse waves

– Travel through vacuum

– Two sinusoidal fields (E and B) in phase, perpendicular

– Undergo reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, polarization

(Gamma – X – UV – Visible – Infra-red – Micro – Radio) –> increasing

Longitudinal wave: Displacement of particles of medium parallel to direction of wave motion. (series
of compressions and rarefactions)

For hammer hi ing a rod, transmi ed wave pulse in rod is longitudinal: Hammer causes the atoms of
the rod to vibrate in the same direction of the horizontal motion of the hammer.

Wavefront: Line joining points of a wave in phase

Wavelength: Distance between to points in phase

Ray: Direction of wave motion

Wave speed: Distance wave profile moves per unit time ( speed of oscillating particles within
wave)

Intensity: Rate of flow of energy per unit cross-sectional area perpendicular to direction of wave
motion, Wm-2.

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Graph of distance x (from source) moved by particles against time:

Direction of motion always towards equilibrium

For longitudinal wave, x-axis intercepts are alternating points of compression and rarefaction.

Graph of displacement d of particles against distance x from the source at a particular moment in
time:

Can be used to determine wavelength.

To determine direction of motion/velocity of particles, draw 2nd wave slightly displaced to the right
along the wave motion.

For both graphs, acceleration always directed towards equilibrium point. Hence by comparing
direction of velocity and acceleration, can determine if a wave a speeding up or slowing down at that
point.

To identify regions of compression and rarefaction for longitudinal wave:

1. C, R must lie on x-intercept

2. Determine point where particles to the right and left are moving towards equilibrium à
compression
3. Determine point where particles to the left and right are moving away à rarefaction

Beat frequency:

When two waves of nearly the same frequency interfere, the intensity of the resulting wave varies
with a frequency called the beat frequency.

Rate at which volume is heard to be oscillating from high to low volume, equal to difference in
frequency of two notes which interfere to produce beats (sounds from two sources e.g. two tuning
forks, produce sounds with slightly different frequencies that interfere to produce detectable beats)

Hence 2Hz for beat frequency = When 2 complete cycles of high and low volumes heard every second

For car B moving away with frequency fB and car A moving towards observer with frequency fA, beat
frequency heard = fA – fB

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For situation involving two tuning forks: To decrease beat frequency/ difference in frequency, add a
weight e.g. gum to the mass of the higher frequency tuning fork. The weight increases the mass of the
prong and hence decreases its vibrational frequency, lowering its frequency.

Simple Harmonic Motion

A type of oscillation (transverse wave) in which acceleration/net force acting is directly proportional
to displacement from equilibrium position and acceleration/net force acting is always directed
towards this position.

Displacement: Distance from rest position to stated direction, a vector.

Amplitude: Maximum magnitude of displacement from equilibrium position, scalar.

Frequency: No. of complete oscillations per unit time.

Period: Time taken for one complete oscillation.

Angular frequency

SHM for object starting at equilibrium position/ Graph of x, v, a against time t:

SHM for objecting starting at amplitude/ Graph of x, v, a against time t::

Graph of velocity against displacement x of object:

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Velocity is maximum when object at equilibrium position,

Velocity is minimum/zero when object at amplitude.

Graph of acceleration against displacement x of object:

Acceleration is maximum when object at amplitude.

Acceleration is minimum/zero when object at equilibrium position.

Phase difference: Phase angle between two oscillations which have the same frequency.

Graph of energy against displacement x of SHM motion:

INSANELY IMPORTANT TO KNOW!!!!!!!!!!!

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Hence

Thus for mass moving on a horizontal spring on a frictionless surface with amplitude A and time
period T and energy E…

If amplitude is doubled to 2A, time period stays constant, however energy is 4E.

Resonance (SHM WAVES):

Damped oscillation: An SHM that is subjected to frictional or other dissipative forces.

Light-damping: Minimal dissipative force, definite oscillations, amplitude decays exponentially with
time

Heavy-damping: No oscillations occur, amplitude decays very slowly over time

Critical damping: Suitable dissipative conditions, returns to equilibrium in shortest possible time

Application: Shock absorbers in cars use slightly under critical damping. Light-damping à Too
bouncy. Over-damping à Car cannot respond fast enough to further bumps in the road.

Natural frequency: Frequency of an oscillating system with no external force

Forced oscillation: Oscillating system in which periodic force is applied

Driving frequency: Frequency of a periodic force

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Resonance: Forced oscillation where driving frequency equals the natural frequency, resulting in
maximum energy transfer from the periodic force to the system, causing it to oscillate with maximum
amplitude.

Microwave oven: Frequency of microwaves corresponds to natural frequency of water molecules in

food. Resonance occurs, molecules in food absorb energy and heat up.

Radio station: Natural frequency of electrical receiving circuit in radio matches frequency of radio
waves emi ed by station. Resonance occurs and required frequency is isolated and amplified.

Wind instruments: Resonance occurs between vibration of air columns and vibrating reeds, amplify
the note.

Bridge collapse: When frequency of external driving force (cars passing over, wind) matches natural
frequency of the mechanical bridge structure, resonance occurs and resulting oscillation may cause
structure to rupture.

Aircraft: Designers must ensure that natural frequency of wing vibration does not match angular
frequency of the engines at cruising speed.

Motion sickness: When subsonic frequencies match natural frequency of internal organs in human
body. Giddiness, blurred vision.

Barton’s pendulum: Used to demonstrate forced oscillation and resonance. Driver pendulum released,
after some time pendulums oscillate with very nearly the same frequency but at different amplitudes.

Reflection and Transmission:

When waves pass through a medium, they are reflected, transmi ed, or absorbed.

Obstacle/fixed/rigid end: Inverted (shape) reflection. Wall exerts an equal and opposite force to resist
movement; a short impulse. From less dense to denser, hence phase change occurs for reflected pulse.
(No transmission if boundary is infinitely dense; total reflection)

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Free end: Upright (shape) reflection. From denser to less dense, hence reflected pulse no phase
change.

(For both, inverted sequence of reflected pulse, and transmi ed pulse has no phase change.)

Transmission: DIFFRACTION OF WAVES:

Bending/Spreading of waves passing an obstacle or through an aperture

Observable only when

IMPORTANT:

Sound wave has long wavelength hence can diffract easily (hence sounds can be heard from different
rooms). However light has very short wavelength hence can only be diffracted through very small
openings (card pinhole, fine silk handkerchief).

Ripple tank: Used to demonstrate diffraction of waves.

Principle of superposition: When two or more waves of same kind exist simultaneously in a medium,
resultant displacement of the waves is the vector sum of the displacement due to each wave acting
independently

Interference: When two or more coherent sources superpose one another producing a resultant wave/
When two waves meet at a point the amplitude of the resultant wave is the vector sum of the two
waves acting independently.

An interference pa ern consisting of clear lines of constructive and destructive interference is seen.

Coherent sources:

– Same frequency

– Constant phase difference

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For observable interference pa ern:

– Coherent sources (hence saying same frequency and constant phase difference only counts
as one point)

– Roughly the same amplitude/intensity (for the sources)

– Same plane of polarization

– Waves from source meet at a point

Constructive interference: Waves arrive in phase at the same point, and the resultant displacement
due to the vector sum of the two waves acting separately gives a maximum displacement.

Path difference of the waves from the two sources is zero/ differ by

Destructive interference: Waves arrive out of phase at the point, path difference of the waves from the
two sources is

Explaining why as source moves relative to another stationary source, sound detected from both
decreases and increases in intensity: Sound from two sources undergo interference. As source moves,
path difference of sound from the two sources changes. When the pd is an integral number of
wavelengths, CI occurs and sound increases in intensity. When pd is an odd integral number
of halfwavelengths, DI occurs and intensity decreases.

Standing wave (SOUND/WATER WAVES):

How is standing wave formed? As tube is vibrated, wave travels along tube and is reflected at B. On
reflection, the wave becomes inverted. The reflected wave interferes with the second incoming wave
from A. Maximum displacement thus occurs at the midpoint between A and B. Since there are always
nodes at A and B, the resulting pa ern is produced. The nodes do not appear to change with
time, wave appears to not be moving, hence a seeming ‘standing’ wave.

Formed by superposition of two waves of same type, amplitude and frequency, but travelling in
opposite directions. Know how to state conditions necessary for formation of standing wave (max
2).

Travelling and reflected waves interfere, resulting in seeming standing still of waves

Nodes: Points of DI, no displacement

Antinodes: Points of CI, maximum displacement

Resonant frequencies/Fundamental and harmonics: Frequencies of standing waves

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Vibrating air columns:

– For tube open at both ends: and all harmonics present

– For tube open at one end: and only odd harmonics present

Open at both ends: Closed at one end: Closed at both ends:

(n+1) harmonic = n overtone

Stationary/Standing Travelling
Amplitude Amplitude varies All points have
with time same amplitude
Energy Energy not Energy transmi ed
transmi ed along
the string
Wave pa ern Does not move Moves
Frequency All points have All points have
same frequency same frequency
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Phase Same phase All particles have

between all different phases
points/nodes
Wavelength Double the distance Distance between
between two nodes two points in phase
Maximum kinetic energy of each segment of the string is proportional to the square of the amplitude
of the segment.

For tube closed at one end with fine powder sprinkled along its length and source of sound placed at
open end of tube, powder will be seen to form equally spaced heaps in the tube. A standing wave has
been set up in the tube causing heaps to form at the nodes (points of DI, no displacement) and the
powder to be pushed away at the antinodes (points of CI, max displacement).

Increasing the temperature for the same frequency of the sound increases the separation of the heaps
in the tube. The wavelengths of the sound waves have increased for the same frequency, indicating
that the speed of sound increases when the temperature rises.

Doppler effect (SOUND WAVES):

The change in observed frequency of a wave due to relative motion between a source of sound and
the observer (and the medium)

(wavelength remains the same, detected wave speed different)

Hence for moving observer: Apparent frequency heard by the observer will be lower, as the observer
moves away from the source, the relative velocity of the source and the observer is smaller.

When drawing convergence of the waves, remember that the wavefronts cannot overlap

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Chapter 12
Oscillations
• fT=1 – freq f(Hz) time period T(s) =1
• f=1/T = 2π f T=2π T =2π /
 What causes periodic motion?
• If a body attached to a
spring is displaced from
its equilibrium position,
the spring exerts a
restoring force on it,
which tends to restore the
object to the equilibrium
position. This force
causes oscillation of the
system, or periodic
motion.
• Figure at the right
illustrates the restoring
force Fx.
 Characteristics of periodic motion
• The amplitude, A, is the maximum magnitude of displacement
from equilibrium.
• The period, T, is the time for one cycle.
• The frequency, f, is the number of cycles per unit time.
• The angular frequency, , is 2π times the frequency:  = 2πf.
• The frequency and period are reciprocals of each other:
f = 1/T and T = 1/f.

Simple harmonic motion (SHM)

Simple Harmonic Oscillator (SHO)
• When the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement from
equilibrium, the resulting motion is called simple harmonic motion (SHM).
• An ideal spring obeys Hooke’s law, so the restoring force is Fx = –kx, which
results in simple harmonic motion.
 Simple harmonic motion viewed as a
projection

• Simple harmonic motion is the projection of uniform

circular motion onto a diameter

Characteristics of SHM

• For a body vibrating by an ideal spring:

 m
k f  1 m
k T  1  2  2 m
2 2 f  k

• Follow Example 14.2 and Figure 14.8 below.

 Displacement as a function of time in SHM
• The displacement as a
function of time for SHM
with phase angle  is
x = Acos(t + )
• Changing m, A, or k changes
the graph of x versus t, as
shown below.

Displacement, velocity, and acceleration

• The graphs below show x, vx, and ax for  = π/3.
• The graph below
shows the effect of
different phase angles.
 Behavior of vx and ax during one cycle

• Figure shows how vx

and ax vary during
one cycle.

SHO - mass and amplitude

An object on the end of a spring is oscillating in simple harmonic motion. If the amplitude
of oscillation is doubled, how does this affect the oscillation period T and the object’s
maximum speed vmax?

A. T and vmax both double.

B. T remains the same and vmax doubles.
C. T and vmax both remain the same.
D. T doubles and vmax remains the same.
E. T remains the same and vmax increases by a factor of

2.
SHO – mass and amplitude

An object on the end of a spring is oscillating in simple harmonic motion. If the amplitude
of oscillation is doubled, how does this affect the oscillation period T and the object’s
maximum speed vmax?

A. T and vmax both double.

B. T remains the same and vmax doubles.
C. T and vmax both remain the same.
D. T doubles and vmax remains the same.
E. T remains the same and vmax increases by a factor of .

This is an x-t graph for an

object in simple harmonic
motion.

At which of the following times does the object have the most negative velocity vx?

A. t = T/4
B. t = T/2
C. t = 3T/4
D. t = T
E. Two of the above are tied for most negative velocity
This is an x-t graph for an
object in simple harmonic
motion.

At which of the following times does the object have the most negative velocity vx?

A. t = T/4
B. t = T/2
C. t = 3T/4
D. t = T
E. Two of the above are tied for most negative velocity

Energy in SHM
• The total mechanical energy E = K + U is conserved in SHM:
E = 1/2 mvx2 + 1/2 kx2 = 1/2 kA2 = 1/2 mvx-maximum2 = constant
 Energy diagrams for SHM

Vertical SHM – Mass and Spring

Gravity does NOT matter here

• If a body oscillates vertically from a spring, the

restoring force has magnitude kx. Therefore the
vertical motion is SHM.
• For a pendulum Gravity DOES matter.
 Angular SHM – old mechanical watch
• A coil spring exerts a restoring torque z = –, where  is called the
torsion constant of the spring.
• The result is angular simple harmonic motion.

Vibrations of molecules
Intermolular forces

• Figure shows two atoms having centers a distance r apart, with

the equilibrium point at r = R0.
• If they are displaced a small distance x from equilibrium, the
restoring force is Fr = –(72U0/R02)x, so k = 72U0/R02 and the
motion is SHM.
• Van der Waal like forces.
 The simple pendulum
• A simple pendulum consists of a point mass
(the bob) suspended by a massless,
unstretchable string.
• If the pendulum swings with a small
amplitude  with the vertical, its motion is
simple harmonic.
• I = , I = moment inertia = mL2
• = torque = L*m*g sin( )
• = angular accel = d2 /dt2
• Eq. motion d2 /dt2 = (g/L) sin( ) ~ (g/L)
• Solution is (t) = Asin( t+ ) - SHO
• A – amp, - phase – both set by initial cond
• = (g/L)1/2 angular freq (rad/s)
• T=2π/ = 2π (L/g)1/2
• Note T ~ L1/2 and g-1/2

The physical pendulum

• A physical pendulum is any
real pendulum that uses an
extended body instead of a
point-mass bob.
• For small amplitudes, its
motion is simple harmonic.
• Same solution as simple
pendulum – ie SHO.
• = (g/L)1/2 angular freq
(rad/s)
• T=2π/ = 2π (L/g)1/2
 Tyrannosaurus rex and the physical
pendulum
• We can model the leg of Tyrannosaurus rex as a physical pendulum.
• Unhappy T Rex – cannot use social media in class.

Damped oscillations
• Real-world systems have
some dissipative forces that
decrease the amplitude.
• The decrease in amplitude is
called damping and the
motion is called damped
oscillation.
• Figure illustrates an oscillator
with a small amount of
damping.
• The mechanical energy of a
damped oscillator decreases
continuously.
 Forced oscillations and resonance
• A forced oscillation occurs if a driving force acts on an oscillator.
• Resonance occurs if the frequency of the driving force is near the natural frequency of
the system.

Forced oscillations and resonance

• A forced oscillation occurs if a driving force acts on an oscillator.
• Resonance occurs if the frequency of the driving force is near the natural frequency of
the system.
 Car shock absorbers - Damped oscillations

Forced oscillations and resonance

Structural Failure
• Nov 7, 1940
• The Tacoma Narrows Bridge suffered spectacular structural failure
• Wind driven osc - too much resonant energy. Too little damping
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nFzu6CNtqec
Simple Harmonic Oscillator (SHO)

Pendulum
 Simple Pendulum

Two pendulums – same natural freq

Coupled on wire
Christian Huygens First Pendulum Clock
1656

US Time Standard 1909 to 1929

Pendulum is in low pressure vessel
NBS – National Bureau of Standards – now NIST (Natl Inst Sci and Tech)
Riefler regulator
Vacuum Pendulum – 1 sec / year!!
Synchronized to second pendulum clock

Foucault Pendulum 1851

Precession of Pendulum
Showed Earth Rotates
Seconds Pendulum – 2 sec period
Used to Measure Gravity
11/30/2019 Damping | Mini Physics - Learn Physics Online

An oscillation is damped when the amplitude and mechanical energy of a system gradually
decreases to zero as a result of dissipative forces.(air resistance, friction, internal forces)

Amplitude and frequency will be reduced during damping.

Damping is the process whereby energy is taken from the oscillating system.

When there is damping, amplitude decrease and period increase.

Types of Damping
1. Light damping

Defined oscillations are observed, but the amplitude of oscillation is reduced gradually with
time.

Light Damping

2. Critical Damping

The system returns to its equilibrium position in the shortest possible time without any
oscillation.

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11/30/2019 Damping | Mini Physics - Learn Physics Online

Critical and heavy damping

3. Heavy Damping

The system returns to the equilibrium position very slowly, without any oscillation. Heavy
damping occurs when the resistive forces exceed those of critical damping.

Critical Damping is important so as to prevent a large number of oscillations and there being too
long a time when the system cannot respond to further disturbances.

Instruments such as balances and electrical meters are critically damped so that the pointer
moves quickly to the correct position without oscillating.
The shock absorbers on a car critically damp the suspension of the vehicle and so resist the
setting up of vibration wich could make control difficult or cause damage.

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11/30/2019 Natural Frequency | Mini Physics - Learn Physics Online

Natural frequency of the system is the frequency at which it will vibrate freely.

Since every real oscillating systems experiences some degree of damping, if no external energy is
supplied, the system eventually comes to rest.

For the oscillating system to maintain a constant amplitude of oscillation, it is necessary to apply an
external oscillating forces.(driving force)

Forced oscillation is motion produced when a system is acted upon by an external periodic force.

The system will oscillate with the frequency of the driving force and not with the natural frequency.

Resonance occurs when the amplitude of forced vibration reaches a maximum when the driving
frequency equals the natural frequency of the driven system.

At resonance, there is a maximum transfer of energy from the driving system into the
oscillating system.

Amplitude of vibration depends on:

The relative values of the natural frequency of free oscillations and the frequency of the
driving force.
The extent to which the system is damped.

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11/30/2019 Periodic motion | Mini Physics - Learn Physics Online

Periodic motion is the regular, repetitive motion of a body which continually retraces its path at
regular intervals.

Period T of a periodic motion is the time to make one complete cycle.

Frequency f of a periodic motion is the number of cycles per unit time.

1
T = f
T=1f

Angular frequency ωω of a periodic motion is the rate of change of angular displacement with
respect to time.

2π
ω = 2πf = T
ω=2πf=2πT

Displacement x x of an object is the distance of the oscillating particle from its equilibrium position
at any instant.

Amplitude x o xo of a periodic motion is the magnitude of the maximum displacement of the

oscillating particle from the equilibrium position.

x = x o sin (t 2π
T
) x=xosin(t2πT), used when motion starts from equilibrium position.

x = x o cos (t 2π
T
) x=xocos(t2πT), used when motion starts from extreme displacement.

If motion starts at somewhere between the amplitude and equilibrium, use:

x = x o sin (t 2π
T
) + ϕ x=xosin(t2πT)+ϕ OR
x = x o cos (t 2π
T
) + ϕ x=xocos(t2πT)+ϕ, where ϕ ϕ is the distance from equilibrium

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11/30/2019 Questions for Oscillations (JC) Set 1 | Mini Physics - Learn Physics Online

Questions for Oscillations (JC) Set 1

A mass attached to the lower end of a vertical spring is performing simple harmonic motion.
Which of the following statements is correct?

1. When the kinetic energy of the oscillator is equal to its potential energy, the oscillator is
neither at the rest position nor at its maximum displacement position.
2. The kinetic energy of the oscillator is a maximum when the tension in the spring is at
maximum.
3. The velocity of the mass is zero when its acceleration is zero.
4. The acceleration of the mass is a maximum when it passes through the centre of the
oscillation.

Click to show/hide

Option 2: The kinetic energy of the oscillator is zero when the tension in the spring is at
maximum.
Option 3: The velocity of the mass is at a maximum when its acceleration is zero.

Option 4: The acceleration of the mass is zero when it passes through the centre of its
oscillation.

Answer: 1

A particle oscillating in simple harmonic motion has its motion timed at t = 0 s when it is at
the 50 cm mark. It travels between the 50 cm and 70 cm marks with a period of 2.0 s. Where is
the position of the particle at time t = 0.75 s?

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1. 53 cm mark
2. 57 cm mark
3. 63 cm mark
4. 67 cm mark

Click to show/hide

The equilibrium position is at the 60 cm mark. The +ve is to the right of the 60 cm mark, the -
ve is to the left. Since timing begins at the amplitude position (the 50 cm mark),
x = -xocos(2πt/T)
x = – (10)cos[(2π)(0.75)/2)
x = 7.1

x = 7.1 corresponds to the 67.1 cm mark.

Answer: 4

A pendulum with a bob of mass m and a string of length L is displaced from its equilibrium
position O by a small angle and then released. At the same time, a bob of mass M is dropped
and falls vertically downwards through a distance L. A point P is directly below bob of mass
M and it happens to be at the same horizontal level as O. The dimensions of the two bobs are
the same.

Which bob will arrive at its destination first – bob of mass m reaching its equilibrium position
O or bob of mass M arriving at the point P?
(Ignore air resistance and you may wish to use: Period of pendulum, T = 2π(L/g)1/2)

1. Bob of mass m.
2. Bob of mass M.
3. The two bobs arrive at their destinations at the same time.
4. The heavier ball will reach its destination first.

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Click to show/hide

The bob of mass m will take tm = T/4 s to reach its equilibrium position O
tm = ¼ T
= ¼(2π(L/g)1/2
= 1.6(L/g)1/2

The bob of mass M experiences free-fall and the time, tM it takes to travel a vertical distance L
to arrive at point P is

tM = (2L/g)1/2
= 1.4(L/g)1/2

Since tm > tM, therefore bob of mass M will reach its destination first.

Answer: 2

A particle is performing simple harmonic motion between two points A and B. If the period of
oscillation is 3.0 s, what is the particle’s maximum acceleration?

1. 4.2 cm s-2
2. 8.8 cm s-2
3. 9.8 cm s-2
4. 18 cm s-2

Click to show/hide

Use amax = -ω2(-xo), where T = 3s, xo= 2 cm

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11/30/2019 Resonance | Mini Physics - Learn Physics Online

Resonance

1. Pros
Production of sound in wind instruments
Reception of radio signal. Electrical resonance occurs when radio circuit is tuned so that
its natural frequency is equal to that of the incoming radio signal

2. Destructive nature
Fatal damage to human internal organs at high levels of vibration
Resonance of bridges due to strong winds or synchronized marching

To help you understand resonance:

Breaking a wine glass using resonance:

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11/30/2019 Revision Notes on Oscillations | askIITians

Simple harmonic motion (SHM):- Simple harmonic motion is the motion in which the restoring force is
proportional to displacement from the mean position and opposes its increase.

Simple harmonic motion (SHM):- A particle is said to move in SHM, if its acceleration is proportional to the
displacement and is always directed towards the mean position.

Conditions of Simple Harmonic Motion

For SHM is to occur, three conditions must be satisfied.

(a) There must be a position of stable equilibrium

At the stable equilibrium potential energy is minimum.

2 2
So, dU/dy= 0 and d U/dy > 0

(b) There must be no dissipation of energy

(c) The acceleration is proportional to the displacement and opposite

in direction.
2
That is,a = -ω y

Equation of SHM:-
2 2 2
(a) F = -ky (b) d y/dt +ω y = 0

Here ω = √k/m (k is force constant)

Displacement (y) :- Displacement of a particle vibrating in SHM, at any instant , is defined as its distance from
the mean position at that instant.

y = r sin (ωt+?)

Here ? is the phase and ris the radius of the circle.

Condition:

When, ? = 0, then, y = r sinωt

and

When, ? = π/2, then,y = rcosωt

Amplitude (r):-

Amplitude of a particle, vibrating in SHM, is defined as its maximum displacement on either side of mean
position.

As the extreme value of value of ωt = ± 1, thus, y = ±r

2 2
Velocity (V):-V= dy/dt = rωcos(ωt+?)= vcos(ωt+?) = ω√r -y

Here v is the linear velocity of the particle.

Condition:- When, y = 0, then, V = v = rω

and

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When, y = ±r, then, V=0

A particle vibrating in SHM, passes with maximum velocity through the mean position and is at rest at the
extreme positions.
2 2 2 22
y /r + y /ω r = 1
2 2
Acceleration (a): a = dV/dt = (-v /r) sinωt = -ω y

Condition:-

When, y = 0, then, a = 0

And,
2
When, y = ±r, then, a = ±ω r

A particle vibrating in SHM, has zero acceleration while passing through mean position and has maximum
acceleration while at extreme positions.

(i) Acceleration is directly proportional to y (displacement).

(ii) Acceleration is always directed towards the mean position.

Time period (T):- It is the time taken by the particle to complete one vibration.

(a) T = 2π/ω

(b) T =2π√(displacement/acceleration)

(c) T = 2π√m/k

Frequency (f):-It is the number of vibrations made by the body in one second.

(a) f=1/T

(b) f=1/2π√k/m

Angular frequency (ω):-

(a) ω = 2π/T

(b) ω =√(acceleration /displacement)

Relation betweenAngular frequency (ω) and Frequency (f):- ω = 2πf=√k/m

Phase:-

(a) Phase of a particle is defined as its state as regards its position and direction of motion.

(b) It is measured by the fraction of time period that has elapsed since the particle crossed its mean position,
last, in the positive direction.

(c) Phase can also be measured in terms of the angle, expressed as a fraction of 2π radian, traversed by the
radius vector of the circle of reference while the initial position of the radius vector is taken to be that which
corresponds to the instant when the particle in SHM is about to cross mean position in positive direction.

Energy in SHM:-
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11/30/2019 Revision Notes on Oscillations | askIITians

(a) Kinetic Energy (Ek):-

2 2 2 22 2
Ek = ½ mω (r -y ) = ½ mω r cos ωt
22
When, y = 0, then, (Ek)max = ½ mω r (maximum)

And

When, y = ±r, then, (Ek)min =0 (minimum)

(b) Potential Energy (Ep):-

22 22 2
Ep = ½ mω r = ½ mω r sin ωt
22
(Ep)max = ½ mω r

(c) Total Energy (E):-

22
E = Ek +Ep=½ mω r = consereved

E = (Ek)max =(Ep)max
22
Average Kinetic Energy:-<Ek> = (¼) mω r
22
Average Potential Energy:-<Ep> = (¼) mω r

<E/2> = <Ek> = <Ep>

Spring-mass system:-

(a) mg=kx0

(b) Time period, T = 2π√m/k = 2π√x0/g

Massive spring:-Time period, T = 2π√[m+(ms/3)]/k

Cutting a spring:-
'
(a) Time period, T = T0/√n
'
(b) Frequency,f =√(n) f0
'
(c) Spring constant,k =nk

(d) If spring is cut into two pieces of length l1 and l2 such that, l1= nl2, then,

k1 = (n+1/n)k,

k2 = (n+1)k

and

k1l1 = k2l2

Spring in parallel connection:-

?(a) Total spring constant, k =k1+k2

(b) Time period, T = 2π√[m/(k1+k2)]

(c) If T1 = 2π√m/k1 and T2 = 2π√m/k2, then,

2 2 2 2 2
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11/30/2019 Revision Notes on Oscillations | askIITians
2 2 2 2 2
T= T1T2/√ T1 + T1 and ω =ω1 +ω2

Spring in series connection:-

(a) Total spring constant, 1/k =

1/k1+1/k2or, k = k1k2/ k1+k2
2 2 2
(b) Time period, T =T1 + T2

(c) T = 2π√[m(k1+k2)/k1k2]
2 2 2
(d) 1/ω = 1/ω1 +1/ω2

(e) f = 1/2π √[k1k2/m(k1+k2)]

Law’s of simple pendulum:-?

°
Laws of isochronisms:- Its states that (≤4 ), the time period of a simple
pendulum is independent of its amplitude.

Laws of length:- It states that time period of a simple pendulum varies

directly as the square root of its length.

T∝√l

Law of acceleration due to gravity:- It states that, the time period of a

simple pendulum varies inversely as the square root of acceleration due to
gravity at that place.

T∝1/√g

So, Time period of simple pendulum, T = 2π√l/g

(a) When placed inside a lift being accelerated upwards, the effective value
of g increases. Thus the time period of pendulum decreases.

(b) When placed inside a lift being accelerated downwards, the effective value
of g decreases. Thus the time period of pendulum increases.

(c) Time period of the pendulum increases at higher altitudes due to decrease
in g.

(d) Time period of the pendulum at a place below the surface of earth decrease due to increase in g.

(e) At the center of earth (g=0). So the time period is infinite.

(f) Time period is greater at equator than at poles.

(g) Due to decrease in the value of g due to rotation of earth, the time period of
the pendulum increases as the earth rotates about its axis.
2 2
(h) Equation of motion:-d θ/dt +(g/l)θ = 0

(i) Frequency, f =1/2π √(g/l)

(j) Angular frequency, ω =√(g/l)

Second Pendulum:-A second’spendulumis thatpendulum whose time perios is two second.

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11/30/2019 Revision Notes on Oscillations | askIITians

(a) T = 2 sec

(b) l = 0.9925 m

Mass-less loaded spring in the horizontal alignment:-

Force, F = -kx

Acceleration, a =-kx/m

Time period, T = 2π√m/k

Frequency,f = 1/2π√k/m

Time period of mass-less loaded spring in the vertical alignment:-

T = 2π√m/k and T = 2π√l/g

Time period of bar pendulum:-

T = 2π√I/mgl

Here I is the rotational inertia of the pendulum.

and

T = 2π√L/g
2
Here, L = (k /l)+l

Time period of torsion pendulum:-

(a) T=2π√I/C

Here I is therotational inertia of the pendulum and C is the restoring couple per unit
angular twist.
2 2
(b) Equation of motion:-d θ/dt +(C/I)θ = 0

Here, θ =θ0 sin (ωt+?)

(c) Angular frequency, ω = √C/I

(d) Frequency, f = 1/2π√C/I

Conical Pendulum:-

Time period, T = 2π√(Lcosθ/g)

Velocity, v = √(gRtanθ)

Restoring couple (τ):-

? =Cθ

Here C is the restoring couple per unit angular twist and θ is the twist produced in the wire.

Liquid contained in a U-tube:-

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11/30/2019 Revision Notes on Oscillations | askIITians

Time period, T =2π√l/g

Electrical oscillating circuit:-

Time period, T =2π√LC

Here, L is the inductance and C is the capacitance.

Angular frequency, ω = 1/√LC

Ball in a bowl:-

Time period, T = 2π√[(R-r)/g]

Free vibrations:- Vibrationsof a body are termed as free vibrations if it vibrates in the absence of any constraint.

Damped Vibrations:-?
2 2 2
Equation:d y/dt + 2µdy/dt+ω y = 0
-µt
Here amplitude, R = Ae

And
' 2 2
ω = √ω -µ

(a) µ<<ω signifies the body will show oscillatory behavior with
gradually decreasing amplitude.

(b) µ>>ω signifies the amplitude may decrease from maximum

to zero without showing the oscillatory behavior.

(c) In between the above two cases, the body is in the state of critically damped.
' ' 2 2
(d) Time period of oscillation, T = 2π/ω = 2π/√ω -µ . Thus, presence of damping factor µ in the denominator
indicates an increase of time period due to damping.

Forced vibrations:- Forced vibrations is the phenomenon of setting a body into vibrations by a strong periodic
force whose frequency is different from natural frequency of body.
2 2 2
Equation: d y/dt +2µdy/dt+ω y = (F0/m) cospt

Here,µ = r/2m and ω=√k/m

Solution: y =Acos [pt-?]

2 2 2 22 2 2
Amplitude:- A = F0/m√4µ p +(p -ω ) and Amax = F0/2µm√ω -µ

This state of forced vibrations in which the amplitude reaches a maximum value is known as amplitude
resonance.

Amplitude vibration depends upon value of ω = √k/m. Greater the value of stiffness (k), smaller is the
amplitude.

Resonance:- Resonance is the phenomenon of setting a body into vibrations by a strong periodic force whose
frequency coincides with the natural frequency of the body.

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11/30/2019 Simple Harmonic Motion | Mini Physics - Learn Physics Online

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is defined as the oscillatory motion of a particle whose
acceleration a is always directed towards a fixed point and is directly proportional to its
displacement x from that fixed point but in the opposite direction to the displacement.

Negative sign indicated that the acceleration is always in a direction opposite to the displacement.

Fixed point is usually called the equilibrium position, the position at which no net force acts on the
oscillating particle.

When the particle is displaced from the equilibrium position, it experiences a restoring force which
tends to bring it back to the equilibrium position.

Restoring force always directed towards equilibrium position

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Velocity of SHM:

v = ωx o cos(ωt) v=ωxocos(ωt) or v =– ωx o sin(ωt) v=–ωxosin(ωt)

−−−−−
v = ±ω√ x 2o – x 2 v=±ωxo2–x2

At equilibrium (x=0) position, vmin = ±ωx o vmin=±ωxo

At position of maximum displacement (x = x o x=xo), vmin = 0 vmin=0

Acceleration of SHM:

a ∝ −x a∝−x → → a =– ω2 x a=–ω2x

a =– ω2 x o cos(ωt) a=–ω2xocos(ωt) OR a = ω2 x o sin(ωt) a=ω2xosin(ωt)

The acceleration of the particle in SHM is not constant as it varies proportionally with displacement.
Hence, kinematics equations of motion cannot be applied.

Kinetic Energy:

1
Ek = 2
mω2 x 2o cos 2 (ωt) Ek=12mω2xo2cos2(ωt) OR

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11/30/2019 Simple Harmonic Motion | Mini Physics - Learn Physics Online
1
Ek = 2
mω2 (x 2o – x 2 ) Ek=12mω2(xo2–x2)

Potential Energy:

1
Ep = 2
mω2 x 2o sin 2 (ωt) Ep=12mω2xo2sin2(ωt) OR

1
Ep = 2
mω2 x 2 Ep=12mω2x2

Total Energy:

1
ET = 2
mω2 x 2o ET=12mω2xo2

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11/30/2019 Simple Harmonic Motion | S-cool, the revision website

*Please note: you may not see animations, interactions or images that are potentially on this page
because you have not allowed Flash to run on S-cool. To do this, click here.*

Basic Oscillations

The time taken for an oscillating object to complete one full oscillation is called the time period, T. It is
measured in seconds.

If a number of oscillations are involved we can work out the time period by dividing the total time taken by
the number of oscillations completed:

The frequency, f, of oscillations is the number of oscillations undergone in one second, and is measured
in hertz (Hz).

The frequency and the period can therefore be related as:

The displacement of an oscillating particle is the distance the particle has been moved from its equilibrium
position.

The amplitude of an oscillation is the maximum displacement of the vibrating object from the equilibrium
position (its usual position).

Note: Always check the x-axis on the graph, as it is easy to confuse wavelength and time period on diagrams!

Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a particular type of oscillation. It is useful because its time period stays
the same even when its amplitude changes. We'll come to the full definition later!

Lets think about a simple example of shm to work out the relationship between displacement, velocity
and acceleration:

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Now remember that displacement, velocity and acceleration are all vectors, and as a result, direction is
important. Let's choose anything in the up-wards direction to be positive,anything downwards to
be negative. (If you decide to do the opposite, it doesn't matter - just stick to your choice.)

If we set this system oscillating by lifting the mass and letting it go, then the system starts with:

Maximum positive displacement (because it's above the middle).

Zero velocity (it's not moving at the first instant).

Maximum negative acceleration (because it is about to start moving down).

The interaction below shows how velocity and acceleration change in simple harmonic motion. It shows the
relationship between velocity and acceleration. Click "next" to see each part of the motion...

The displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass are related as shown above. To draw these, think
about what the object is doing at each point as it oscillates from the start position described above.

As it passes through the equilibrium position on the way down it's at maximum speed down (negative), its
displacement is zero and because the spring is at its equilibrium position, there is no resultant force on the
mass so it is not accelerating.

At the bottom, the mass stops momentarily as it changes direction, so velocity is zero. The displacement is a
maximum in the negative direction, so the acceleration is a maximum in a positive direction as the spring tries
to shorten again.

The important point to note is the phase difference between these three variables...

1. The velocity, v, is zero where there are stationary points at the peaks and troughs of the displacement graph
and the velocity is a maximum when the displacement is zero. (Don't forget the gradient of the
displacement graph will equal velocity.)

2. The displacement and acceleration graphs are 180 degrees out of phase and therefore look like a mirror
image of each other in the time axis. (Don't forget the gradient of the velocity graph will equal
acceleration.)

Definition of Simple Harmonic Motion:

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All of the above leads us to the formal definition of shm:

A body is undergoing SHM when the acceleration on the body is proportional to its displacement, but
acts in the opposite direction.

Acceleration is proportional to displacement

aα-s

It's also important to note that for SHM, the time period of the oscillations is constant and doesn't change even
if the amplitude is changing.

There are two common examples of simple harmonic motion:

Where m = mass (kg) Where L = length of pendulum (m)

and k = spring constant (Nm-1) g = acceleration due to gravity (ms-2)

SHM is used to explain the behaviour of atoms in a lattice, which oscillate like masses on springs.

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