DECember 2009 | Volume III | Issue XI

pedia
IN THIS ISSUE
Fundamentals of Infrared
Temperature Measurement

Thermal and Hydraulic

Characteristics of Two-Phase Flow
in Microchannel Heat Sinks

Thermal Challenges in
Automotive High Density
Lithium-Ion Battery Packs

Thermal Challenges of
Multi-Core Processors

Cooling News
 SUBSCRIBE ON LINE AT:
www.qats.com/qpedia

Advanced Thermal Solutions is a leading engineering and manufacturing company supplying com-
plete thermal and mechanical packaging solutions from analysis and testing to final production. ATS
provides a wide range of air and liquid cooling solutions, laboratory-quality thermal instrumentation,
along with thermal design consulting services and training. Each article within Qpedia is meticulously
researched and written by ATS’ engineering staff and contributing partners. For more information
about Advanced Thermal Solutions, Inc., please visit www.qats.com or call 781-769-2800.

EDITOR ADVERTISING
KAVEH AZAR, Ph.D. TO PLACE AN AD IN QPEDIA:
President & CEO,
Advanced Thermal Solutions, Inc. Contact John O’ Day at 781.949.2521
Qpedia was launched in 2007 as a technology
MANAGING EDITOR eMagazine focused on the thermal management of
BAHMAN TAVASSOLI, Ph.D. electronics. It is designed as a resource to help the
engineering community solve the most challenging
Chief Technology Officer, thermal problems.
Advanced Thermal Solutions, Inc.
The eMagazine is published monthly and distributed
at no charge to over 21,000 engineers worldwide.
NORTH AMERICA Qpedia is also available online or for download at
ADVANCED THERMAL SOLUTIONS, INC. www.qats.com/qpedia.
89-27 Access Road Norwood, MA 02062 USA Qpedia’s editorial team includes ATS’ President
T: 781.769.2800 | F: 781.769.9979 | www.qats.com & CEO, Kaveh Azar, Ph.D., and Bahman
Tavassoli, Ph.D., the company’s chief
EUROPE technologist. Both Azar and Tavassoli are
internationally recognized experts in the
ADVANCED THERMAL SOLUTIONS, B.V. thermal management of electronics.
De Nieuwe Vaart 50 | 1401 GS Bussum
The Netherlands For more information on how you can generate
T: +31 (0) 3569 84715 | F: +31 (0) 3569 21294 awareness about your company or products,
www.qats-europe.com
contact John O’ Day at 781.949.2521.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, or stored in a retrieval system
of any nature, without the prior written permission of the publishers
(except in accordance with the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988).

The opinions expressed in the articles, letters and other contributions

included in this publication are those of the authors; and the publication
of such articles, letters or contributions does not necessarily imply that
such opinions are those of the publisher. In addition, the publishers
cannot accept any responsibility for any legal or other consequences
which January arise directly or indirectly as a result of the use or adaptation
of any of the material or information in this publication.

2
 DECember 2009 | Volume III | Issue XI

Features
6 Fundamentals of Infrared Temperature Measurement
Consider the need to measure the temperature of an object without dis
turbing it. Contact might damage or destroy the object, change its temper
ature by altering its heat transfer characteristics, or cause contamination.
It might be moving or inaccessible. These are prime conditions for using
infrared temperature measurement.

12 Thermal and Hydraulic Characteristics of Two-Phase

Flow in Microchannel Heat Sinks
Compared with single-phase flow in microchannels, two-phase flow can
dissipate more heat while maintaining only a small temperature rise. The
combined benefits of evaporation and microstructure channels make
two-phase flow a promising cooling method for high power density
devices.

6
18 Thermal Challenges in Automotive High Density
Lithium-Ion Battery Packs
Lithium-ion batteries commonly allow double the energy density per unit
volume than NiMH batteries, while occupying a lighter package due to
the lower density of lithium metal. But, like most other batteries, lithium-

10
ion variants can mechanically and chemically break down and lose their
ability to store and deliver a charge at high temperatures.

22 Thermal Challenges of Multi-Core Processors

From the early 16 MHz 486 processors to the Intel 3.8 GHz Pentium 4,

16
processor clock speed has been increased constantly for added
performance. This has led to very high levels of power density within the
CPU and many resulting consequences. Among these are increased
thermal stress and the need for a large cooling system.

22
26 Cooling News
New products, services and events from around the industry.

December 2009 |Qpedia 3

TWO THERMAL MANAGEMENT POWERHOUSES JOIN FORCES
“Around the world, the first name in heat
sinks is Aavid Thermalloy. They’re the
experts in thermal management technology
and manufacturing and provide a worldwide
distribution capability that marries uniquely to
our innovative products...”
Dr. Kaveh Azar, President and CEO
Advanced Thermal Solutions, Inc.

“We’ve long recognized that ATS develops

many of the industry’s most innovative heat
sinks and attachment systems, and that their
products offer cooling solutions that can
benefit many of our worldwide customers...”
Alan Wong, CEO
Aavid Thermalloy, LLC

AAVID THERMALLOY TO GLOBALLY DISTRIBUTE ATS HEAT SINK AND ATTACHMENT PRODUCTS
Aavid Thermalloy, LLC, the world’s oldest and one of the largest suppliers of thermal management products to the
worldwide electronics marketplace, has signed a distribution agreement with Advanced Thermal Solutions, Inc. (ATS), a
leader in innovative component cooling solutions. Aavid Thermalloy, with its global customer base and broad network of
sales offices, representatives and distributors, will now have access to ATS’ high performance heat sink and attachment
technologies to address the cooling of today’s and tomorrow’s electronic devices.

As part of the agreement, ATS will supply Aavid Thermalloy, with its complete line of maxiFLOW™ heat sinks whose
patented design and thermal performance is unmatched in the electronics cooling market. In addition, Aavid Thermalloy
will also distribute ATS’ patented maxiGRIP™ heat sink attachment systems. Its compact design securely attaches heat
sinks to hot components on densely populated PCBs, and detaches quickly and cleanly when needed.

Please contact Aavid or ATS for more information regarding product availability.

Advanced Thermal Solutions, Inc. Aavid Thermalloy

89-27 Access Road | Norwood, MA | USA 70 Commercial St. | Concord, NH | 03301 | USA
T: 781.769.2800 | F: 769.769.2800 T: 603.224.9988 | F: 603.223.1790
www.qats.com www.aavidthermalloy.com
4
Heat issues
have you
tangled up?
LET THE EXPERTS AT ATS SHOW YOU HOW TO ENSURE PRODUCT RELIABILITY, SPEED
TIME-TO-MARKET AND REDUCE COSTS WITH EXPERT THERMAL MANAGEMENT ANALYSIS
AND DESIGN SERVICES.

Advanced Thermal Solutions, Inc

89-27 Access Road | Norwood, MA | 02062 | USA
T: 781.769.2800 | F: 769.769.9979 |www.qats.com

October 2009 |Qpedia 5

Fundamentals
of Infrared Temperature Measurement

The advantages of infrared thermometry play an important role Emissivity is defined as the ratio of thermal energy emitted by
in thermal management. Consider the need to measure the a graybody to that of a blackbody
temperature of an object without disturbing it. Contact might at the same temperature. A graybody is defined as an object
damage or destroy the object, change its temperature by that has the same spectral
altering its heat transfer characteristic, or cause contamination. emissivity at every wavelength [2]. It is defined as:
The object might be moving or inaccessible. These are prime
conditions for using infrared temperature measurement, a Where,
non-invasive process, but one that must be done correctly.
All objects with temperature above -273oC emit radiant energy
proportional to the fourth power of their absolute temperature.
Figure 1 shows the amount of radiation emitted at different
temperatures as a function of wavelength. The area under the
curves shows the amount of energy. At lower temperatures, E(T) = radiation from a graybody body at temperature T
most radiated energy is in the IR region. As the temperature Eb(T)= radiation from a blackbody at temperature T
increases, the wavelength corresponding to peak radiation Є = emissivity
moves to smaller values toward the visible region [1].
Where,

r = absorbtivity
a = reflectivity
t = transmissivity
According to Kirchhoff’s law, the emissivity of a graybody
surface is equal to its absorbtivity:.
ε= r
e =1 - a - t
Most objects of interest for temperature measurement are
opaque, therefore
e =1 - a

Figure 1. Distribution of Energies as a Function of Wavelength for Blackbodies [1].

6
But shiny surfaces like glass, plastic and silicon have
transmission different than zero. For example, glass is
opaque at 5 m m. In these circumstances, one can use filters
to measure these objects in their opaque IR regions [3].
The emissivity of a metal depends on wavelength,
temperature and surface condition. Because metals often
reflect, they tend to have a low emissivity, which can cause
significant errors. In such cases, it is important to use an
instrument which measures infrared radiation at the particular
wavelength and within the particular temperature range Figure 3. Components of an IR Measuring System [3].
at which the metals have the highest possible emissivity.
With most metals, the measurement error becomes more
significant with increasing wavelength; hence, it is best to There are two types of detectors used in IR: quantum
measure the IR in the lowest possible wavelength. detectors and thermal detectors. Quantum detectors
Figure 2 shows the % error for different wavelengths (photodiodes) interact directly with the impacting photons,
and temperatures if a 10% error is made in emissivity resulting in an electrical signal. Thermal detectors, on the
measurement [3]. other hand, change their temperature depending upon the
impacting radiation. Temperature change creates a voltage
similar to a thermocouple. Thermal detectors are much slower
in the millisecond range due to self-heating, as compared
to quantum detectors in the ns or m s range. Among the
detectors, thermopile has the least sensitivity to temperature
and PbS has the greatest sensitivity.
Most infrared thermometers have the ability to compensate
for different emissivity values for different materials. In gen-
eral, the higher the emissivity of an object, the easier it is to
obtain an accurate temperature measurement using infrared.
Objects with very low emissivities (below 0.2) can be difficult
applications. Some polished, shiny metallic surfaces, such as
aluminum, are so reflective in the infrared that accurate tem-
perature measurements are not always possible.

There are five ways to determine the emissivity of a material

Figure 2. Percentage Error in Temperature Measurement for a 10%
to ensure accurate temperature measurements [4]:
Error in Emissivity as a Function of Wavelength [3].
1. Heat a sample of the material to a known temperature us-
ing a precise sensor, and measure the temperature using the
IR instrument. Then adjust the emissivity value to force the
Figure 3 shows the components of an infrared measuring
indicator to display the correct temperature.
device. The emitted radiation is collected by optics and
passed to a detector. 2. For relatively low temperatures (up to 500°C), a piece of
masking tape, with an emissivity

December 2009 |Qpedia 7

of 0.95, can be measured. Then adjust the emissivity value References:
to force the indicator to display the correct temperature of the
1. www.wikepedia.org.
material.
2. Barron, R., Principles of Infrared Thermometry,
3. For high temperature measurements, a hole (with a depth
at least 6 times its diameter) can be drilled into the object. This Williamson Corporation.
hole acts as a blackbody with emissivity of 1.0. Measure the
temperature in the hole then adjust the emissivity to force the 3. Principles of Infrared Temperature Measurement,
indicator to display the correct temperature of the material.
SA Instrumentation and Control, August, 2006.
4. If the material or a portion of it can be coated, a dull paint
4. Introduction to Infrared Thermometers,
will have an emissivity of about 1.0. Measure the temperature
of the paint then adjust the emissivity to force the indicator to Omega Engineering.
display the correct temperature.

5. Standardized emissivity values for most materials are avail-

able. These can be entered into the instrument to estimate
the material’s emissivity value. In principal, IR thermography
is a viable technique for measuring surface temperatures.
Engineers must make sure that emissivity matching is done
properly as discussed in this article. They also have to con-
sider the cost of the unit and the range of spatial resolution for
each particular application.

First Volume of
Qpedia Thermal
eMagazine
Articles Now
Available in
Hardcover Book!
ATS has published Qpedia Thermal eMagazine, Volume
1, Issues 1-12, a hardbound, full-color book that compiles
46 technically comprehensive articles offering expert-level
coverage on a wide range of heat management issues that
impact virtually all of today’s electronic devices.

Qpedia Thermal eMagazine, Volume 1, Issues 1-12, ISBN-

978-0-615-23660-5, the hardbound, full color book can be
ordered for $94.95 (USD) by calling 781-769-2800 or by
email [email protected]. Contact ATS or visit www.qats.
com/qpedia.asp for details.

8
November 2009 |Qpedia 9
For more information or to learn about specific
opportunities available, please contact John O’Day at
781.949.2521
 89-27 Access Road | Norwood, MA 02062 USA| T: 781.769.2800 | F: 781.769.9979 | www.qats.com

FEEL LIKE YOU ARE ALWAYS BATTLING HEAT PROBLEMS?

Advanced Thermal Solutions, Inc. (ATS), a leading electronics cooling provider, offers comprehensive thermal
management analysis and design services tailored to help bring telecommunications, networking, embedded computing
and other high performance electronic products to market faster, ensure their reliability and reduce development costs.

Learn more about ATS’ thermal design and testing services by visiting www.qats.com or by calling 781-769-2800.

SERVICES MARKETS
Evaluation Telecommunications
Analysis Networking
Design Embedded Computing
Testing Consumer
Manufacturing LED Lighting

Advanced Thermal Solutions, Inc.

89-27 Access Road | Norwood, MA | 02062 | USA
T: 781.769.2800 | F: 769.769.9979 |www.qats.com

October 2009 |Qpedia 11

Thermal and Hydraulic
characteristics of Two-Phase Flow
in Microchannel Heat Sinks

Broadly used in boilers, power plants and refrigeration local heat transfer coefficient and describing the flow pattern
systems, boiling in conventional size plain tubes has been induced by the boiling process. Because of the small scale
extensively investigated. For twenty years, boiling processes hydraulic diameters of microchannels, the boiling heat
and two-phase flow in small channels have drawn attention transfer coefficient is strongly dependent on flow pattern,
as needs have increased for high heat flux dissipation which is affected by channel size, geometry, fluid type, vapor
and miniaturization of electronic devices. However, two- property and local heat flux. This article summarizes recent
phase flow in small channels is hard to predict because research on two-phase flow microchannel heat sinks, and
of the insufficient knowledge of flow patterns and poor the resulting advantages and disadvantages, versus single-
boiling correlations. Therefore, these systems are difficult to phase flow microchannel heat sinks.
implement in electronic devices. Bertsch et al. [10] investigated flow boiling of refrigerant
Continuous reductions in chip sizes and increases in power HFC-134a in a multi-microchannel copper cold plate. The
densities are pushing engineers to find new ways to package heat transfer coefficient was measured locally for the entire
chips and transfer heat from chip to ambient. Compared range of vapor qualities starting from subcooled liquid to
with singlephase flow in microchannels, two-phase flow superheated vapor. The copper cold plate contained 17
can dissipate more heat while maintaining only a small parallel, rectangular microchannels (0.762 mm wide) of
temperature rise. The combined benefits of evaporation and hydraulic diameter of 1.09 mm and an aspect ratio of 2.5.
microstructure channels make two-phase flow a promising The schematic diagram of the test setup and a photo of the
cooling method for high power, high density devices. manifold are shown in Figure 1. Eleven thermocouples were
Introducing two-phase flow to cooling systems also brings placed underneath the microchannels along its centerline to
challenges to system design and operation. Problems monitor the temperature distribution.
associated with two-phase flow, such as critical heat flux,
high pressure drop and flow stability, are forcing researchers
to learn more about the characteristics of two-phase flow in
small channels.
Two-phase heat transfer experiments have been conducted
on single microchannels (Lazarek and Black [1], Yu et al.
[2], Jiang et al. [3], Hetsroni et al. [4], Lee et al. [5]) and
on multiple parallel microchannels (Qu and Mudawar [6, 7],
Balasubramanian and Kandlikar [8], Xu et al. [9]). The
fluids tested have included water, R134a, R113, FC-77,
among others. Most of these studies focus on predicting a

12
 Bertsch found that in the single-phase region, the higher
mass flow rate leads to greater heat dissipation while
maintaining the same wall superheat. However, after the
onset of nucleate boiling (ONB), all boiling curves collapse
onto a single curve irrespective of mass flow rate, indicating
the dominance of nucleate boiling over convective heat
transfer in this heat sink configuration.

Figure 1. Test Section Assembly. Top: Exploded View Showing: (A)

Inlet Piece, (B) Pre-Evaporator, (C) Adiabatic Piece, (D) Test Piece, Figure 2. Measured Single-Phase Heat Transfer Coefficient [10].
(E) Post-Evaporator, (F) Outlet Piece, (G) Rubber Compression,
(H) Front and Back Pieces, (I) Bottom Piece, (J) Side Pieces and
(K) Top Piece with Fluid Ports. Bottom: Photo of the Assembly
[10].

The measured single-phase heat transfer coefficient for the

above setup is shown in Figure 2.
These measurements were carried out with highly
subcooled liquid at an outlet pressure of 750 kPa, and flow
rates between 10 and 15 g/s (40.5 and 60.8 kg/m2s) with a
Re (Reynolds number) from 3000 to 4000. The measured
single-phase heat transfer coefficients were compared with
predictions from the single-phase heat transfer correlations
suggested by Churchill [11] and by Sieder and Tate [12].
The experimental data matched the predictions well in the
single-phase regime. As the heat flux exceeded 6 W/cm2,
the measured heat transfer coefficients deviated due to the
onset of subcooled boiling in the experiments. This led to far Figure 3. Boiling Curve at a Pressure of 750 kPa and Four Mass
larger heat transfer coefficients than in single-phase flow. Fluxes from 20.3 to 81.0 kg/m2s [10].

Figure 3 shows the boiling curve at a pressure of 750 kPa

and four mass fluxes from 20.3 to 81.0kg/m2s.

December 2009 |Qpedia 13

Figure 4 shows the local heat transfer coefficient at a fixed Lei et al. [13] studied the two-phase process inside single-
saturation pressure of 550 kPa for four refrigerant mass layer and multi-layer microchannel copper heat sinks.
flow rates as a function of vapor quality. Figure 5 shows the Figure 6 shows the test setup for their experiments. The
relation between the local heat transfer coefficient and the microchannel copper heat sink sits in a manifold made from
vapor quality for different saturation pressures. By analyzing PEEK. Two electrical cartridge heaters deliver heat to the
both plots, Bertsch concluded that the local heat transfer heat sink from the top. The dimension and size of the heat
coefficient is a strong function of mass flow rate and vapor sink are shown in Figure 7. Five copper heat sinks from
quality, but it is almost independent of saturation pressure. single-layer channel to five layer channels were tested. Each
He also found that the two-phase heat transfer coefficient heat sink was composed of several parts and the individual
peaks at a vapor quality of about 0.2. Comparing the local layers were soldered together. All heat sink samples had the
heat transfer coefficient of single-phase flow, the boiling heat same length and width: 30.5 × 12.7 mm, channel dimensions:
transfer coefficient is 2 to 4 times higher. 0.508 × 0.508 mm, base thickness: 0.508 mm, and wall
thickness: 1.016 mm. For each layer, there were eight
identical square channels. Five thermocouples were installed
above the microchannel and were evenly spaced along the
centerline of the heat sink.

Figure 4. Heat Transfer Coefficient at a Fixed Saturation Pressure

of 550 kPa and Four Different Mass Fluxes as a Function of Vapor
Quality [10].

Figure 5. Heat Transfer Coefficient at a Fixed Refrigerant Mass Figure 6. Test Module Configuration [13].
Flux of 40.5 kg/m2s and Three Different Saturation Pressures as a
Function of Vapor Quality [10].

14
 When liquid evaporates as it passes through a channel, the
pressure drop in the two-phase flow regime is much larger
than in the single-phase flow regime. With same input power,
the vapor quality at 20 ml/min is larger than at 40 ml/min, as
is the boiling intensity. The more intense boiling makes the
pressure drop at 20 ml/min larger than at 40 ml/min.
It is also interesting to observe that the average heat sink
surface temperature for 20 and 40 ml/min at heat fluxes
from 200 to 400 W is very close. This is an indication of the
dominance of nucleate boiling in small channels.
Figure 7. Copper Heat Sink Geometric Configuration [13].

Figure 8 shows the boiling curve for a single-layer copper heat

sink. Water was used as the working fluid and its saturation
temperature was 97.3°C at the local ambient pressure of
92 kPa. The inlet water temperature was controlled to 23°C
and the water flow rate was kept constant. The measured
pressure drops across the heat sink at different heat flux are
shown in Figure 9. For the flow rate of 20 ml/min, the heat
flux needed to fully saturate the 23°C water is 103.4
Watts.
In the single-phase flow regime, the average surface
temperature increases nearly linearly with the increase of
input power. The pressure drop is small because of the small Figure 8. Boiling Curve for a 1-Layer Copper Heat Sink [13].
flow rate and it decreases slightly with the increase of power
due to the rise in average bulk fluid temperature.
When the input power is more than 100 W, the average
surface temperature begins to level off with respect to the
heat flux, after the boiling begins. The pressure drop then
climbs as more vapors are generated. Following the start of
boiling, the surface temperature and inlet pressure begin to
oscillate. At a flow rate of 40 ml/min, the heat needed to get
the water fully saturated is 206.8 W. Flow boiling begins when
the input power exceeds 200 W. In the two-phase regime,
the average heat sink surface temperature increases nearly
linearly with the increase of input power in the range of 242.9
to 644.7 W, and the temperature and pressure oscillations
are moderate.
Compared with the pressure drop at 20 ml/min in the two-
phase regime at the same input power, it is interesting to
discover that the pressure drop at 40 ml/min is lower.
Figure 9. Pressure Drop for a 1-Layer Copper Heat Sink [13].

December 2009 |Qpedia 15

When compared with single-phase flow in microchannels, Temperature Heat sink for Cooling of Electronic Devices, Int.
the thermal benefits of two-phase flow are obvious. The J. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol. 45, 2002.
boiling heat transfer coefficient is multiple times larger than 5. Lee, M., Cheung, S., Lee, Y., Wang, M. and Zohar, Y.,
the single-phase heat transfer coefficient. In the process of Size and Shape Effects on Two-Phase Flow Patterns in
boiling, the large, latent heat of working fluid keeps the Microchannel Forced Convection Boiling, J. Micromech.
heat sink temperature rise smaller. By using a refrigeration Microeng. Vol. 13, 2003.
system, sub-ambient cooling can also be achieved. 6. Qu, W. and Mudawar, I., Flow Boiling Heat Transfer in
However, unlike single-phase flow in microchannels with Two-Phase Micro-channel Heat Sinks––I. Experimental
well characterized flow and heat transfer, two-phase flow in Investigation and Assessment of Correlation Methods, Int. J.
microchannels hasn’t been fully understood. The boiling heat Heat Mass Transfer, Vol. 46, 2003.
transfer coefficient has strong dependency on mass flow rate 7. Qu, W. and Mudawar, I., Transport Phenomena in Two-
and vapor quality, as shown in this paper. The heat transfer Phase Micro-Channel Heat Sinks, J. Electronic Packaging,
coefficient is also associated with boiling flow pattern, heat Vol. 126, 2004.
flux and channel geometry. Compared to single-phase flow, 8. Balasubramanian, P. and Kandlikar, S., Experimental
two-phase flow in microchannels has a much larger pressure Study of Flow Patterns, Pressure Drop, and Flow Instabilities
drop due to the evaporation of the liquid. A special pump or in Parallel Rectangular Minichannels, Heat Transfer
compressor is needed to handle the two-phase flow, which Engineering, 2005.
complicates the system design. There are also flow stability 9. Xu, J., Shen, S., Gan, Y., Li X., Zhang, W. and Su, Q.,
issues related to two-phase flow in multiple parallel Transient Flow Pattern Based Microscale Boiling Heat
microchannels, as reported by Lei [13], Hetsroni [14] and Transfer Mechanisms, J. Micromech. Microeng., Vol. 15,
Wu [15]. Flow instabilities in two-phase flow systems are 2005.
more severe than those in single-phase systems. They can 10. Bertsch, S., Groll, E. and Garimella, S.., Refrigerant Flow
lead to large-scale temperature and pressure fluctuations. Boiling Heat Transfer in Parallel Microchannels as a Function
There are special considerations related not only to thermal of Local Vapor Quality, Heat Mass Transfer, 2008.
performance, but also to reliability for designing two-phase 11. Churchill, S., A Comprehensive Correlating Equation for
flow microchannel cooling systems for electronic devices. Laminar, Assisting, Forced and Free Convection, Am. Inst.
Even though the two-phase flow has a high heat transfer Chem. Eng. AIChE J. Vol. 23 (1), 1977.
coefficient, researchers have to overcome the above 12. Sieder, E. and Tate, G., Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop
challenges to bring a practical heat sink to the market. of Liquids in Tubes, Indust. Eng. Chem., Vol. 28, 1936.
13. Lei, N., The Thermal Characteristics of Multilayer
References: Minichannel Heat Sinks in Single-Phase and Two-Phase
1. Lazarek, G. and Black, S., Evaporative Heat Transfer, Flow, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Arizona, 2006.
Pressure Drop and Critical Heat Flux in a Small Vertical 14. Hetsroni, G., Mosyak, A., Segal, Z., and Pogrebnyak,
Tube with R-113, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol. 25, 1982. E., Two-Phase Flow Patterns in Parallel Microchannels,
2. Yu, W., France, D., Wambsganss, M. and Hull, J., Two- International Journal of Multiphase Flow, Vol. 29, 2003.
Phase Pressure Drop, Boiling Heat Transfer, and Critical 15. Wu, H. and Cheng, P., Liquid/Two-Phase/Vapor Alternating
Heat Flux to Water in a Small-Diameter Horizontal Tube, Int. Flow During Boiling in Microchannels at High Heat Flux, Int.
J. Multiphase Flow, Vol. 28, 2002. Comm. Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 30.,2003.
3. Jiang, L., Wong, M. and Zohar, Y., Forced Convection
Boiling in a Microchannel Heat Sink, J. Microelectromech.
Syst., Vol. 10, 2001.
4. Hetsroni G., Mosyak A., Segal Z. and Ziskind G., A Uniform

16
January 2009 |Qpedia 17
Thermal Challenges
in Automotive High Density Lithium-Ion Battery Packs

We may not want to think about it, but eventually we are going
to run out of cost effective fossil fuels. When this happens,
what will be our means of personal transportation for our
daily business? We’re still trying to develop the ultimate
power system, one that is clean and uses sustainable
energy sources. In the meantime, we have hybrid-electric
vehicles (HEV) which are cleaner, more fuel efficient and
more practical than most other options. These vehicles use
a battery and motor to generate mechanical energy when an
idling combustion engine is not needed.
The batteries used in automobiles are large, heavy and
designed to pack energy into as small a space as possible.
Most currently produced vehicles use nickel metal hydride
(NiMH) battery technologies. These allow energy to be
packed within a lightweight and modular package as
Figure 1. Location and Orientation of the Toyota
compared to using stacks of lead acid battery cells. As seen Highlander Hybrid Battery Pack [1].
in Figure 1, the battery pack for today’s Toyota Highlander
Hybrid is stowed underneath the rear passenger seats. Note
the individual modules for easy installation and access, There are two main types of lithium-ion cell chemistries –
along with the three individual blowers to the right that draw cobalt and manganese (spinel) [2]. The cobalt variety is
cooling ambient airflow through the battery compartment. common in cell phones and notebook applications and, while
allowing denser energy packing than manganese spinel
chemistries, it is also more temperature dependent and
The automotive market will eventually switch to more costly. Spinel variants are slightly cheaper and are more
efficient and powerful lithium-ion batteries. They commonly stable than cobalt chemistries.
allow double the energy density per unit volume than NiMH Like most other batteries, lithium-ion variants can
batteries, while occupying a lighter package due to the mechanically and chemically break down and lose their
relatively low density of lithium metal. Commonly seen in ability to store and deliver charge at high temperatures.
cell phone and notebook consumer markets, we have The polymer- or fiber-based cell dividers become inherently
already witnessed the possibility of thermal failure within weaker at higher temperatures, which can induce failure
these batteries as evidenced by the recent battery recalls of at the cell wall. At high temperatures, irreversible chemical
Apple and Dell. reactions may occur which reduce the ability of a battery to
hold a charge.

18
Noxious or flammable gasses may be produced by these transient heat loads, so long as there is still material which
reactions which can present a public safety hazard. Unlike can change phase. Some developments, such as using
the NiMH batteries, lithium batteries can also suffer from graphite-impregnated paraffin waxes as filler material within
thermal runaway – a condition whereby the battery becomes the unused spaces between cells or structures, can lead to
unstable and chemical reactions create rapid and strong heat better response under sudden heat loads [3].
generation which can cause an explosion or meltdown. On a more macroscopic system level, heat needs to be
Discharge capacity is also lowered during cold temperatures, extracted in some way from the battery pack to the ambient.
as shown in Figure 2 below. The discharge capacity is The battery compartment can be treated similarly to how
lowered because, at colder temperatures, the electrolytic thermal designers often treat electronics enclosures. Natural
solution has a higher impedance [2]. convection cooling or even conduction cooling may be an
effective mode of heat transfer if the heat density is low enough
and there is adequate space to feature such a design. The
benefit of high reliability due to the lack of moving parts can
be attractive from the consumer’s point of view. Conduction
cooling is a possibility that could be particularly effective for
aluminum chassis vehicles. Aluminum has excellent thermal
conductivity to spread the heat generated from the battery
pack throughout the entire vehicle.
Where heat loads cannot allow natural convection or
conduction cooling, the use of forced air may be an attractive
option when the surface area of the battery pack is increased
with fins or other geometries. Packaging issues become
apparent when designing the channels to allow the system to
Figure 2. Discharging Performance of a Sample Lithium-Ion Bat-
adequately breathe because of the reduced volume that can
tery Pack as a Function of Temperature [3].
be used. Filtration of the cooling airflow may be a necessity
given the extreme and variable conditions a vehicle may
For these reasons, while the lithium-ion battery may be the operate in. This includes dust storms or snowy conditions,
best energy carrier, the need arises for thermal management where ice and sand can be lodged in intake systems.
of the battery pack to avoid the issues of freezing and, Liquid cooling is another option for cooling these battery
particularly, of overheating. The battery designer must be packs. The batteries can be cooled by using a jacket or cold
aware of the effects of cooling and heating on the battery plate which features a mixture of ethylene glycol and water,
and all the other packaging issues when placing a large similar to the convectional means of cooling combustion
battery system within a consumer-oriented vehicle. engine blocks. A recent development from Dana Corporation
The battery must operate intermittently, which creates cycles circulates the battery electrolyte through a heat exchanger
of charge when braking, discharge when accelerating, and which heats a glycolbased fluid used in climate control
latency when not in use. The thermal mass of the battery systems in the passenger cabin [4]. Recent developments in
pack therefore becomes important because of the transient aluminum brazing make this possible by ensuring good wall
nature of the battery. To slow the thermal response of the strength to separate the two fluids in the heat exchanger.
battery pack to stop function-like heat loads, increasing Complex electronics used for monitoring cell temperatures
the thermal mass of the system can dampen the effects of are important for recognizing failure or delivering fan power
sudden heat generation. Increasing inter-cell conductivity can when it is needed. The ability to recognize and shut down the
also insure cell temperature uniformity, and this is important cells before a situation occurs -- such as thermal runaway --
to reducing potential hot spots within the battery pack. The is quite important. These systems may monitor the entire
proposed use of a phase change material may also interest battery pack as a system, or monitor the individual battery
a thermal designer as the material will absorb and store the modules so that the controller has the option of shutting down

December 2009 |Qpedia 19

a particular battery module instead of the entire system. This References:
can allow the vehicle to go into a “limp home” mode where 1. The Hybrid Car Battery: A Definitive Guide,
it can still operate, although erratically or sluggishly, to a http://www.hybridcars.com/hybrid-car-battery,
nearest repair shop. Shutting down a module at the site of November 2008.
local failure is also important in preventing further damage to 2. Lithium-ion Safety Concerns,.
other battery modules. http://www.batteryuniversity.com/partone-5B.htm,
The engineers who will design the next hybrid vehicle February 2007.
battery packs will need to be cognizant of the growing need 3. Battery Thermal Management,
for thermal management, especially when the use of lithium- http://www.mpoweruk.com/thermal.htm, 2005.
ion battery packs becomes more prevalent. The increased 4. US: Dana Develops Battery Cooling Tech,
need for thermal protection, due to safety considerations; http://www.just-auto.com/article.aspx?id=102032,
the reduced thermal capacity, due to lesser mass; and the November 2009.
reduced workable volume are among the challenges to be
faced. The hybrid vehicle we may soon drive must have
reliable and intelligent cooling systems to cool down their
high-density battery packs.

Candlestick Sensor TM

ATS’ Automatic Temperature and Velocity Measurement Systems deliver unmatched

accurate, stable and versatile performance for all aspects of thermal analysis. Fully
automated, these research-quality instruments take accurate single- or multi-point
measurements of air temperature, velocity and surface temperature in complex
environments, such as PCBs and electronics enclosures.

Flexible, robust, base-and-stem design allows continuous

repositioning and reading
Measures temperature and velocity
Narrow and low profile minimizes the flow disturbance
Temperature range from -30°C to 150°C (±1°C)

TEMPERATURE
AND

VELOCITY
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

89-27 Access Road, Norwood, MA 02620 USA | T: 781.769.2800 | F: 781.769.9979 | www.qats.com

20
November 2009 |Qpedia 21
Thermal Challenges
of Multi-Core Processors

The push for more powerful computing solutions has been

a constant force since the inception of the microprocessor.
Moore’s Law states that the number of transistors per area
will double roughly every two years. This law reflects the
continuing exponential growth in processing power that the
industry expects and consumers will demand. From the
early 16 MHz 486 processors to the Intel 3.8 GHz Pentium
4, processor clock speed has been increased constantly for
added performance. This has led to very high levels of power
density within the CPU and many resulting consequences.
Among these are increased thermal stress and the need for
a large cooling system. The increase in temperature also has
a huge effect on leakage current within the processor and
the mean time to failure of the chip. Temperature also affects
the actual performance of the processor, as it increases
Figure 1. The Tilera TILE-Gx100, 100-core Processor [1].
interconnect delay [1].
With a clear need to control temperature, the power limit Tilera has announced a powerful new line of multi-core
of microprocessors has hit somewhat of a wall over recent processors, including a 100 core chip, the Gx100, which will
years. From the 115 W single core Pentium 4 to the 130 draw nearly 55 W of power at maximum performance [1].
W Quad Core i7-975 processor thermal design power These chips are made using the 40-nanometer process and
(TDP) has increased only marginally despite a 4-8 times will ship in early 2011. The Tilera chip uses a switch inside
improvement in computing ability. This thermal limit is due each core, instead of the normal bus. This approach allows
to the cost and complexity of high performance cooling for faster communication between the cores and provides a
solutions, including those for ATX desktop chassis and rack more efficient overall processor. The lower thermal power
mounted server environments. This article covers the latest of the new Tilera chip will allow it to be used in PCI and 1U
multi-core processors and thermal management issues. applications, where space for a thermal solution is limited.

22
Figure 2. Die Layout of the 48 Core Intel Figure 3. Flowchart Showing Software-Level
“Bangalore” Processor [2]. Cooling Technique [4].

Intel also has introduced a new multi-core processor, the 48 Intel has also developed software-based thermal control
core “Bangalore” chip [2]. It is targeted at the server and for its upcoming 48 core processor. The frequency of each
datacenter markets where efficiency and speed are crucial. tile (2 cores) can be changed independently, which allows
The new chip offers the performance of 48 cores, while for throttling to limit thermal output [2]. The voltage of each
consuming only 125 W, the equivalent of a modern four core group of tiles (8 cores) can also be varied to allow for high
processor. Intel has stayed within the preconceived thermal resolution control of the processor’s dissipation. Intel
wall while boosting performance significantly. estimates the 125 W processor can be throttled to just 25 W
Along with advanced mechanical thermal solutions, such as when temperature or work load deems it necessary.
heat pipes and liquid cooling, the introduction of multi-core
processors opens the door for die level cooling. Innovative
research in this area has been performed by Donald and
Martonosi, who state “Thermal-aware techniques at the
architecture level have gained momentum over the past
five years as a means for optimizing processor performance
while also abiding by rapidly worsening thermal constraints.
Thermalaware architecture techniques are related to power-
aware techniques, but are a distinct area because of thermal-
aware design’s concern both with local hotspot constraints
as well as with aggregate thermal limits” [4].
An example of the software technique is shown below.
It helps control hot spots on the die as well as the overall
processor temperature.

Figure 4. Voltage and Frequency Control of the

“Bangalore” Processor [2].

December 2009 |Qpedia 23

The transition from current multi-core (2-8 cores) to future References:
“many-core” (40-100 cores) processors is undeniable for 1. Sims, T., Tilera Announces the World’s First 100-Core
high powered applications. The need for more capable Processor with the New TILE-Gx Family, Tilera Corporation,
thermal solutions dictates that a two path solution is needed. http://tilera.com/news_&_events/press_release_091026.
It is no longer acceptable to design an efficient heat sink or php.
liquid cooling system without also providing software-level 2. Rattner, J., Single-Chip Cloud Computer,
thermal control. Intel Corporation.
http://download.intel.com/pressroom/pdf/rockcreek/SCC_
Announcement_JustinRattner.pdf.
3. Ayoub, R. and Rosing, T., Dynamic Thermal Management
for Multi-Core Processors,
University of California, San Diego,
http://seelab.ucsd.edu/papers/rayoub_islped09.pdf.
4. Donald, J. and Martonosi, M.,
Techniques for Multi-core Thermal Management:
Classification and New Exploration, Proc. International
Symposium on Computer Architecture (ISCA), 2006.

Need Something Special?

Let the experts at ATS design a custom heat sink solution that will enable you to ensure product
reliability, speed time-to-market and reduce costs. Learn More About ats’ expert thermal management
analysis and design services by visiting www.qats.com.

Advanced Thermal Solutions, Inc.

89-27 Access Road | Norwood, MA | 02062 | USA
T: 781.769.2800 | F: 769.769.9979 |www.qats.com

24
Cooling News
New Products, Services and Events from around the Industry

Next Generation Series

Thermoelectric Assemblies
Laird Technologies has released a Softer Option for High-Conduc- Low-Vibration Fans Reduce Hard
modified Tunnel Series of compact tivity Gap Pads Drive Crash Risks
thermoelectric assemblies (TEAs), Bergquist has introduced Gap Pad Aerco has introduced a range of Delta
designed with a patented, high- 1500S30, extending its family of S- low-vibration fans designed specifically
performance cross flow technology to class low-modulus gap pads. The new for cooling 19 inch, 1U, rack-mounted
maximize heat transfer when pulling formulation achieves thermal conduc- servers addressing the three common
air through a heat exchanger. Heat tivity of 1.3W/m-K and has a bulk-hard- problems associated with cooling mod-
is absorbed and dissipated through a ness rating of 30 (Shore 00). The low- ern, high-performance boards: airflow,
high density heat sink equipped with pressure conformability and wet-out vibration and energy consumption.
sheet metal shrouds and fans. Tunnel characteristic of Gap Pad 1500S30 Board fans usually must run at high
Series TEAs are designed to achieve excludes interfacial air even when sur- speed to provide sufficient cooling for
a high coefficient of performance faces have high roughness or uneven densely packed enclosures. The re-
(COP) to minimize power consumption topography. The material’s outstanding sultant increase in vibration can prove
with reliable solid-state operation that conformability reduces stress on com- problematic for sensitive equipment
does not use a compressor or CFC ponent leads, prevents bowing of circuit such as hard drives. The new Aerco
refrigerants. Both air-air (AA) and boards, and provides low-stress vibra- Delta fans vibrate up to 50% less than
direct-air (DA) cooling configurations tion damping and shock absorption. traditional fans in critical speed areas.
are available.

26
 used to completely convert incoming
computer aided design data to intelli-
gent objects, such as the chips, capac-
itors, resistors and other components
on a printed circuit board, as well as
heat sinks with complex shapes. The
intelligence in the model enables auto-
matic meshing such as increasing the
grid density in critical areas.

Fan and Filter Units Dissipate

Programmable Isothermal Sys- Heat Cost Effectively
tem Provides Highly Accurate, With airflows from 20m³/h - 700m³/h
Adjustable Heat Source and IP ratings up to IP56, new fan and
The CIP-1000 controllable isothermal filter units from Rittal are ideal for dis-
plate from Advanced Thermal Solu- sipating heat loads cost effectively for
tions provides a surface that can be applications in all industries. The pre-
precisely temperature-controlled from requisite is that the ambient air must be
10 to 170°C with an accuracy of +/- relatively clean with a temperature be-
0.1°C. The CIP-1000 system features low the desired enclosure internal tem-
More Thermally Conducive
a 75 mm diameter isothermal copper perature. Rittal’s super slim-line vent
Mounting Tape
plate whose constant temperature can grille guarantees optimum air through-
Keratherm KL 90 highly thermally con-
be raised or lowered both automatically put with low noise generation.
ductive, double-sided adhesive tape
and manually. provides 1.4W/mK of thermal conduc-
A three wire RTD sensor and integral tivity – three times higher than other
PID controller ensure specific, uniform thermal tapes – for more effective heat
temperature across the entire plate. transfer from hot components to heat
A separate controller unit allows both sinks. The tape’s thermal impedance
pre-programmed and hands-on tem- is 208°C-mm2/W (0.32°K-in2/W). Avail-
perature management. able from MH&W Intl., KL 90 tape con-
sists of a ceramic-filled acrylic adhesive
film that provides exceptional bonding
properties, and replaces the use of me-
chanical fasteners, reducing costs and
assembly time. A fiberglass-reinforced
version, KL 91, is available for higher
New Electronic Cooling Software levels of ruggedness, peel strength and
Future Facilities has introduced 6Sig- conformability to irregular surfaces.
maET electronic cooling software for
electronics thermal analysis. 6Sig-
maET dramatically streamlines model
creation, gridding, solving and post-
processing. An automated process is

December 2009 |Qpedia 27

 Getting your company’s message
out to over 17,000 engineers and
industry professionals has never
been easier.
Advertise in Qpedia Today!
Qpedia was launched in 2007 as a technology eMagazine
focused on the thermal management of electronics. It is
designed as a resource to help the engineering community
solve the most challenging thermal problems.

The newsletter is published monthly and distributed at no

charge to over 17,000 engineers worldwide. Qpedia is also
available online or for download at www.qats.com/qpedia.
Qpedia’s editorial team includes ATS’ President & CEO
Kaveh Azar Ph.D., and Bahman Tavassoli Ph.D., the
company’s chief technologist. Both Azar and Tavassoli
are internationally recognized experts in the thermal
management of electronics.

For more information on how you can generate

awareness about your company or products,
contact John O’Day at 781.949.2521.

www.qats.com | 781.769.2800 | 89-27 Access Road Norwood, MA 02062 USA

28 October 2009 |Qpedia 28