NOTES IN BAKING & PASTRY ARTS MANAGEMENT

Since the dawn of time, grain has dominated the existence of man. In early development, man
was a hunter of meat. Wild grains kept him alive on the trail. When man discovered that wild grain seed
would bear in a climate and site of his own choosing, he realized that he could live with other men, with
less dependence on his hunting ability.
At first, man satisfied his hunger by eating raw grain seeds. Next he learned to grind the seeds
between stones to make flour. Then, more than 8,000 years ago, the Swiss Lake Dwellers learned hoe to
mix flour and water into a dough. They poured the mixture on heated stones to bake it. It was flat, hard on
the outside and soft o the inside. But the same means of baking bread prevailed through the civilization of
the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Assyrians, and Egyptians.
In about 3,000 B.C., in some unknown manner, the raised loaf of bread was discovered. Perhaps-
and this is the accepted version of the first “leavened” or raised bread – a baker in the Royal Egyptian
household set aside some dough made of wheat flour and forgot about it. His dough soured and expanded.
The frightened baker kneaded it into newly made dough and baked it on hot stones. His first trial was
successful. The royal household liked his bread and he kept his job.
Almost 5,000 years later-in the 17th century – a scientist found out what saved the Egyptian
baker’s job. Through the microscope lens, yeast cells were which bread dough raises was revealed.
The flat bread baked in the Valley of the Nile was a mixture of water, grain, meal and sugar.
When the dough was put aside, wild yeast cells in the air settled on the dough. The wild yeast spores and
the sugar combined, breaking up r fermenting the pockets which puffed up the dough. Then the heat from
the baking stones caused further rising action, and when cooled, the bread retained its exaggerated shape.

THE HISTORY OF BAKING

Public bakeries were established in Greece sometime between 300 and 200 B.C. they were
started by freed men who originally were slaves brought to Greece by manual labor and eventually given
their liberty. Once given freedom, they followed they same jobs they performed in bondage. Baking was
one of these jobs.
As the Roman Empire formed, absorbing Greece, the conquerors also absorbed the baking
industry. A baker’s guild, a union of owners, was established to set standards for quality and
employment.

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 The bakers of Rome became so important that legislator began regulating their trade about 200
B. C., when a relief law was passed demanding a free donation of grain to people unable to earn a
livelihood. The law stated that the grain must be ground and baked for bread. In effect, the bakers
became civil servants, unable to leave their jobs under threat of punishment. The bravers one deserted
their shops, moving to other cities and taking other jobs.
By 400 A.D., The Roman Empire had been overrun by the Huns in Europe. The Roman Legions
lost to the Moslems in the Mediterranean area. Two hundred years later the Roman Empire existed in the
name only.

BAKING EMERGES
So began the Dark Ages in Europe with the Moslems only encouraging sea trade for their benefit
and the Huns continuing their harassment in Northern Europe. The Feudal lords closed their cities gates
and forbade all but the simplest incoming necessities. Baking was reduced to a mean, unwanted
occupation.
By this time, wheat had practically disappeared. The best bread that bakers could produce was a
black variety made of rye or barley. However, the Crusaders altered all Europe during the last years of the
11th Century. As they drove the Moslems back to Asia, they also reestablished commerce. Baking again
became an honored profession. Farmers were encouraged to grow wheat for bread. The bakers
reorganized guild and became powerful.

BAKING IN AMERICA
The baking industry was brought to America with the Jamestown colonist. In 1604 commercial
bakeries were operating. They met with rugged competition from colonial housewives who baked in
ovens just as efficient as those of the commercial bakers.
The baking industry saw little change from Roman times until the industrialization period in the
United States I the last half of the 19th century. The new improvements were in oven construction and
mixing troughs- and also in product. The 19 th century baker made breads, cakes, pies, biscuit, cookies and
crackers
In time, inter-colony commerce increased and wheat from newly developed western areas was
shipped to the East.

WHEAT ARRIVES IN THE PHILIPPINES

Unlike rice, wheat is not indigenous to this country. Its cultivation was only introduced by the
Spanish missionaries in the early 17 th century intended mainly for making Eucharistic wafers. Earlier
account indicated that wheat was planted in the provinces of Batangas, Laguna, Cavite and the Cagayan
Valley.

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 Wheat has been consumed in the Philippines since the days of the Spanish galleon with Mexico.
There is even some evidence that wheat consumption predates that period going back to the days of the
Chinese traders a thousand years ago. However, baking technology then was primitive.
The American occupation of the Philippines saw the country importing flour from the United
States. This activity continued to increase in volume until the late fifties. By 1958, when the first
Philippine flour mill began operation, the country had become the world’s second largest flour importer.
Since 1958, flour imports practically ceased and were quickly replace by wheat imports. The U.S. and
Canada are now the major sources of wheat imports with the U.S. gaining the largest share of the market.
The U.S. dominance results from in having more wheat classes to offer at competitive prices that better
satisfy the varied and increasing sophisticated flour demand of the baking industry.

THE ADVENT OF AN IMPROVED BAKING INDUSTRY

In the early 1960’s, the baking trade in the Philippines was rated the same level as baking was in
the U.S. in the mmid-1800’s. The quality of baked goods was not conducive to increased consumption.
Because of outmoded bakeshop techniques, flour quality far exceeded the Filipino baker’s ability to use it
properly.
In 1962, Wheat Associates, USA establishment an office in the Philippines with the intent of
developing the market for wheat. In so doing, it paved the way for the advent of an improved baking
industry. Today, the quality of baked goods baking consumption. Other worthy changes in the baking
industry are evident, and many of these changes are direct result of the activities of Wheat Associates
USA.
The Year 1958-1976 witnessed the construction (see Table II) and operation of eight flour mills
scattered all over the country. The Philippine Flour mills are now adjudged to be among the newest and
most modern in the world.
Bakeries have mushroomed in almost every section of the country and the baking business now
provides useful occupations to thousand of bakers. The bureau of Public School encourages baking as a
vocation for students. The Philippine College of Arts and Trade Baker’s School in Manila offers baking
courses continuously the whole year round.

The baking Industry in the Philippines had definitely reached its debut, and is now on its
determined road towards a progressive future.

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 OVEN AND THE MILLING PROCESS IN THE EARLY TIMES

Originators & Era: By the Swiss Lake dwellers 8000 years ago
How Bread was Bake: On heated flat stones
The milling process:
Grain was ground between hollowed-out stones which held the grain while it was
pounded or rubbed with a round stone

Originators & Era: Egyptian baker 4000 years ago

How Bread was Bake: In an open earthen jar set on hot coals
The milling process
Principles of milling were the same as above but stones started to bake shape .

Originators & Era: By the Phoenicians and Greeks in 600 BC

How Bread was Bake: In a beehive oven made of adobe or bricks
The milling process
Grain were ground in an “hourglass” containing a bin or hopper into which grain was
poured. Below the hopper were two stones which continually moved against each other,
grounding the grains as they fell from the hopper. The animals and men were harnessed to the
mill to power it.

Originators & Era: By the Romans in 100 BC

How Bread was Bake: In a peel oven made of thicker adobe and bricks
Milling process
Similar to the principle of the hourglass but powered by the water and by the wind.

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 JOB OPPURTUNITIES IN BAKING

Occupational possibilities especially for a persons who has some workable knowledge of baking
especially in the urban areas, or even in the rural areas in the country. Filipinos have learned to use bread
as a part of the family food.
There are several ways by which an individual who has adequate knowledge and skills in baking
can use such skills to make one self-sufficient. Some of these are:
1. by working in the bakery
2. by accepting orders for baked products at home.
3. by putting up a bakeshop.

A. Working in a bakery. Skills learned or develop when one is still young will be the individual all
her/his life.
B. This knowledge and skills will make one an asset in a bakery where one gets employed.

In a bakery, one who has some background in baking will be employed as, first, a semi-skilled
worker at her entry level. The experience one gains at his level, plus the knowledge and training
she had as a high school student in baking, are stepping to positions the skilled level. Higher
position and better pay can then be expected.

C. Accepting orders for baked products. Housewives have now resorted to having others do
their baking. While bakeshops abound in most communities now, people prefer to have some
home-baked products instead of merely buying from a bakery counter. Accepting orders for
home-made baked delicacies is now a very lucrative self-employment. The following, however,
must be done to meet the needs of this activity:

1. Providing for a working space, equipment, and tools in the home. A part of the home kitchen
should be allotted to accommodate this needs of home baking area:
- a working surface of about 4’ x 6’
- an oven that can accommodate at least 2 double recipe baking pans
- a cooking range with its built-in oven
- a heavy-duty electric mixer
- sets of baking pans of various shapes and sizes
- a refrigerator
- freezer
- other tools and equipment for baking

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2. Providing for a small initial sum of money that can be used initially as a capital for ingredients
and the other materials that would be needed to start the self employment venture.

3. Providing for helpers that could be trained to help the individual who sets up this small business.
A delivery boy would also be needed to deliver orders for baked delicacies if the family does not
have a vehicle to do this. This personnel could also be trained to do odd jobs in relation to the
cottage industry.

4. Providing for adequate advertisement so that friends, relatives, acquaintances and even strangers,
would be aware that a particular individual is engaged in this business. This is achieved through:
- testimonies from persons who have tried and tested the products
- putting up a simple sign in the vicinity of the house like: “Orders of Cakes Accepted”
- advertising in the TV or over the radio
5. Establishing good will and confidence of the costumers. This is a very necessary that can be
maintained. This can be achieved by:
a. By exercising courtesy in dealing with costumers
b. By being reliable and honest. Once one has agreed to deliver on a particular
date and time, be sure that this is done. Otherwise the customers will lose their
confidence to you.
c. By maintaining the quality standard of baked products.

D. Putting up a Bakery and Bake Shop. At this stage of a girl’s life, getting into something big like
establishing a bakery and a bake shop may be too ambitious or even impossible. It does not harm,
however, to get information on this which might be useful later in one’s life.
1. Personnel needs of bakery – A bakery needs the following personnel:
- manager- the manager is usually the owner. He manages the entire operations.
- Chief baker- he is commonly called the “maestro.” He takes charge of the preparation of
recipes for baking
- Assistant baker- the understudy of the chief baker. He assists the chief baker.
- Oven helpers- they attend to the baking of the breads in the big oven.
- Cashier- handles the money from the actual sales of the day. He operates the cash register.
- Counter salesgirls- they attend to the finishing of the baked products from the baking
pans, and other jobs.

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 BAKING TOOLS AND UTENSILS

Croissant Cutters
Stainless steel blades cut 3 triangles. Heavy steel rods for continuous use. Slanted cutting edges. Cuts
6"x4" sections. Wooden Handle.

Adjustable Stainless Dough Wheel

Stainless steel adjustable pastry cutter. Consist of (6) individual two inch diameter wheels adjustable up to
5" spacing. Perfect for preparing a large assortment of puff pastries or danish doughs as turnovers,
croissant, danish and the like.

Stainless Steel Pie Cutters

Stainless steel pie cutter from Allied Metal.

Multiple Disc Cutter

Features hard stainless steel blades with plastic handles. Multi disc cutter is for cutting Sicilian pizza,
breadsticks, cookie or brownie dough and other bakery products.

Lattice Cutting Roller

Made of polyacetal. Ivory color. Distance between blades is .25 inches. Can be used for many purposes;
such as strudel, cakes and pastries for cutting puff pastry.

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Doughnut / Cookie Cutters
Doughnut cutter (right). Cookie Cutter (left). Heavy weight stainless steel. Sanitary one piece
construction. Designed for commercial use.

BAKING SUPPLIES

Baking Sheets

You should have a minimum of two baking sheets as part of your baking tools. If you are planning to do a
lot of cookie baking we recommend that you have at least four heavy-duty flat aluminum baking sheets.
Since only one or two can be in the oven at the same time, having four will allow you to have two in the
oven and two out of the oven to cool and then refill. They come in different sizes. You should choose the
size that fits well in your oven. The 17 x 14 inch size is right for most home ovens.
Shiny aluminum pans work best for cookies. Pans with a dark surface absorb more heat which can cook
the bottoms of the cookies faster than the tops.

Baking or Jelly Roll Pans

Bar cookies are mostly baked in 13x9x2-inch metal pans or glass baking dishes. If you are going to use
the glass baking dish, you will need to adjust your oven temperature. Bar cookies will usually cook in
metal pans at 350 degrees. You will need to bring the temperature down to 325 degrees when using glass.

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Cookie Cutters
Made of steel, copper or plastic. Cookie cutters are available in a variety of shapes and sizes, to cut
cookie dough into specific shapes.

Cookie Scoop
Next to the baking sheets, our cookie scoop is one of our most used baking tools. It looks like a small ice
cream scoop. It is used to scoop out equal amounts of cookie dough for making drop cookies. Scoops
come in different sizes and because not all manufacturers sizes are the same, be sure to look at the volume
of the scoop before purchasing. 1 1/2 – 2 Tablespoon sizes are good for drop cookies.

Cookie Press
A cookie press or cookie gun is a hollow cylinder with a plunger that pushes dough through a decorative
tip at the end of the tube. If you plan on making Spritz cookies then you will need one of these as part of
your baking tools.

Double Boiler
A Double Boiler consists of two pans that nest together. The top pan hold the food to be melted (like
chocolate), the bottom pan holds and inch or two of water, which is heated to a simmer. The heat from the
boiling water gently melts the chocolate in the upper pan.

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 Electric Hand Mixer

It is not absolutely necessary to go out and buy a Stand Mixer if you don't have one. You should have at
least an electric hand mixer in your collection of baking tools. It will take more time but it will do the job.
Choose one that has a powerful motor and feels good in your hands. Most of the weight should be up
front over the beaters.

Stand Mixer

A stand mixer is by far the easiest to use. If you plan on baking lots of goodies throughout the year, a
stand mixer would be a wise investment. Stick with the brand names. Nothing is worse than an under-
powered mixer. Kitchen Aid and Hamilton Beach make good ones. You should also have at least three
attachments. A Whisk, Dough Hook and Paddle.

Food Processor
Here is another handy device to have. A food processor makes quick work of chopping, mincing and
grinding. You don't have to go out and buy the big super deluxe model. A basic model will do for most
jobs.

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 Metal Cooling Racks

Metal cooling racks are a grid of wires that stand on short legs. Their function is to let air circulate
underneath and around the cookies to help them cool without getting soggy. You will need enough rack
space to cool two baking sheets worth of cookies at a time. A 12x18 Rack is sufficient for this purpose. If
counter space is a problem, you can purchase stackable cooling racks like the one in the photo.

Mixing Bowls
A good set of different sized mixing bowls should be part of your baking tools. The best mixing bowls are
made of Ceramic or stainless steel. Look for deep bowls with high sides. Stainless steel bowls are good
for making your own Double Boiler. Nested bowls will take up less room in your cabinets. We don't
recommend plastic bowls since they are porous and can retain oils and odors that can transfer to other
ingredients.

Parchment Paper
This is used for lining baking pans to provide a non-stick surface. It comes available in rolls.

Pastry Bag
Pastry Bags are used for decorating cakes and cookies with icing. There are three types of pastry bags,
reusable, disposable and parchment cones. They come in various sizes and can be made of a variety of
materials. Decorating Tubes are the tips that fit on the bottom of reusable or disposable pastry bags. They
come in different tip designs which produce different decorations when you squeeze the filling through
them, called piping.

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Pastry Brush
This is a small flat brush from 1/2 to 2 inches wide which is used to apply egg wash or glaze to cookies.

Sifter
A sifter is used to aerate and remove lumps from flour and other dry ingredients. Turning the handle
pushes the ingredients through a fine metal mesh giving it a uniform consistency.

Oven Thermometer
An accurate oven thermometer is a good thing to have. Some ovens, new or old, can have inaccurate
settings. Use an oven thermometer every time you bake.

Timer
A timer is essential to baking cookies and should be part of your baking tools. If you don't have a timer
built into your oven, you can pick one up at just about any store that has cooking supplies.

Whisks
Whisks are used for whipping ingredients that need a lot of air incorporated into it and for folding
ingredients into delicate mixtures. It is a good idea to have a few whisks of different sizes for cookie
baking.

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Zester
This tool consists of a handle with a blade with sharp-edged holes at its end. It is used to remove the zest
from citrus.

Another Baking Supplies

Baking Mats Baking Tools

and Flexi Pans Baking Molds Baking Pans & Utensils

Cake Rings & Silicone Baked Goods

Pan Extenders Bakeware Display Cases
Tart & Quiche Pans

Chocolate
Tempering
Machines Rolling Pins Bakery Cases Bread Slicers

Display Cases Cake

and Bun & Sheet Decorating
Merchandisers Pans Pie Pans Supplies

Dough
Dockers
Dough Rollers
Merchandising
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 Dough Mixers Bins

BAKING INGREDIENTS

WHEAT AND FLOUR

Flour is a finely ground meal or powdery product obtained from milling cereal
grains, root crops, starchy vegetables and other foods. In the Philippines, we have different
kinds of flour like wheat flour, rice flour, potato flour, soya flour, fish flour, and several others.
The term unqualified refers to all-purpose wheat flour.

KINDS OF WHEAT FLOUR

The flour with which this manual is concerned is wheat that is best for baked goods. It is unique
among the cereal flours in that when mixed with water in correct proportion, the protein will form an
elastic dough which is capable of holding gas and which will set to a spongy structure when heated in the
oven.
There are three main kinds of wheat flour in the Philippines.
Cake Flour
All purpose Flour
Bread Flour
Aside from the three types of flour, one other type of flour abundant in the market today are ready
mixes or “pre-mixed” flour. Ingredients such as salt, Baking powder, milk solids, and sugar have been
added to the flour. This saves time for the busy housewife. The package contents are simply mixed with
liquid and is ready for baking. Ready mixes come in boxes for muffin, cookies, cake, pancakes, cupcakes,
doughnuts, and even bibingka and siopao. It is wise to follow directions closely the first time these mixes
can be varied, But it is important to be acquainted with its performance first.

COMPONENTS OF WHEAT FLOUR

The mixture of wheat proteins which forms the tough, rubbery, elastic substance when flour is
mixed with water or other liquids is called gluten. It exists in dry protein form in flour. Gluten is
composed of approximately equal proportions of glutenin and gliadin. Glutenin gives the dough strength
to hold leavening gases and determines the structure of the baked products. Gliadin gives elastic or
stretching property of gluten.

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 The enzymes of flour are principally diastase and protease. Under proper conditions, diastase acts
upon some of the starch, liquefies it, and converts it into malt sugar. This is very important for the
fermentation of lean dough in which little or no sugar or syrup is used. Protease converts a portion of the
proteins into a soluble form which adds to the elasticity of the gluten by mellowing and softening

MAIN KIND OF WHEAT FLOUR IN THE PHILIPPINES

CAKE FLOUR (WEAK

BREAD FLOUR ALL PORPOSE FLOUR
FLOUR SOFT FLOUR)
(STRONG FLOUR OR (FAMILY FLOUR, GENERAL
HARD FLOUR) FLOUR, OR PASTRY FLOUR)
PROTEIN CONTENT 12.14% 10.11% 6-9%
HIGH BLUTEN MEDIUM GLUTEN WEAK GLUTEN
STRENGHT STRENGHT STRENGHT
SOURCE Hard red spring (Dark Combination of bread flour and U.S Western white, soft
Northern Spring) or hard cake flour sources red winter white and
red winter white club wheat
PRODUCT UTILIZATION Breads, rolls and other A good median in the flour Cakes, cookies, pastries,
sweet yeasts-raised varieties which can substitute for crackers and other
products. either bread flour or cake but specialty products such as
requires more kneading for bread noodles.
and less mixing in cakes to
control gluten development.
IDENTIFICATION When rubbed between the A combination of the qualities of When rubbed between the
fingers, feels gritty, bread flour and cake flour fingers. Feels sleek,
sandy, dry and granular velvety and smooth

Has a creamy color Whiter than bread flour

and all purpose flour.
When pressed together,
does not lump easily When pressed together,
clump a bit and tends to
hold its shapes.
LEAVENING AGENTS Biological leavening Either yeast or chemical Chemical leavening
agents like yeast. leavening agent agents like baking soda
and baking powder

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 PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOUR
A. Whitish color. Flour color is important because if affects the brilliancy of the finished bread.
Although it is generally thought that whiteness in flour means quality, This is not always true. It
has been shown that some baked products can usually be produced from a long extraction,
unbleached flour.

B. Strength. Strength in the flour is the ability of the flour to produce a large loaf brought about by
the presence of protein of sufficient quantity and quality to retain the gas and sufficient diastatic
activity to produce sugar uniform gas production.

C. Tolerance. Tolerance of a bread flour means its ability to withstand any processing abuse brought
about by mixing, fermentation, make-up and all other baking processes and still produce
satisfactory result. Tolerance is often correlated with the quality of the gluten.

D. High absorption. High absorption is the ability of a flour to carry the maximum amount of
moisture in the dough and still produce a quality loaf of bread.

It is dependent upon the amount and quality of protein which varies in different flours.
Absorption of moisture varies from 54 to 65% based upon the weight of the flour and the way
flour is to be used.

E. Uniformity. Uniform quality of every flour shipment is a bakers dream. It will be too
cumbersome for the baker to keep changing his formulation and processes every time a new flour
shipment arrives.

However, when one considers that each class of wheat represents several varieties, that the wheat
are milled into different extractions, that different bleaching agents and flour improvers can be
added to each extraction, and that many mills and processors can blend combinations of these
flours, one can sew the unlimited possibilities for providing the flour user with flour of any
functional property desired.

THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF WHEAT FLOUR

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 Wheat flour provides generous amount of protein and considerable amounts of carbohydrates and
fats. Most of the flour that we use for bread and pastry making here in the Philippines is enriched. “
Enrichment” of flour that date back to 1941. It involves the addition of the B-complex vitamins: thiamine,
which prevents beriberi, and is essential for healthy nerves; necessary for healthy skin and hair, and
niacin, which prevent pellagra, a chronic disease of the skin which also affects the nervous system. Also
added to flour in the process of enrichment is the mineral iron, which prevents anemia or a low supply of
red blood cells.

LIQUID: WATER OR MILK

WATER
Liquid in baking may be plain water, milk or fruit juices.
Water is the cheapest ingredient in baking and one of the indispensable ones because of its function
in transforming the protein of the flour into gluten. Aside from this function, the other uses of water are:

1.) Controls dough consistency and dough temperature

(Warning or cooling the dough).
2.) Dissolves salt and suspend and distribute non-flour ingredients evenly so complex reactions
(enzyme activities and other chemical changes) of baking can take place.
3.) Wets and swells starch to render it digestible.
Table IV shows the three types of water and their effects on baking.

MILK AND ITS USES

Other than hard type breads and roll, milk is the basic means of supplying liquid to the dough or
cake mix. In so far as the baker is concerned, milk means the whole, fresh and clean lacteal secretion of
the mammary glands. The term unqualified refers to whole cow’s milk
Several kinds of milk may be used. Whole fresh liquid (sweet) milk, evaporated milk, skim milk,
cream milk, dry milk and butter milk or sourmilk are suitable. Diluted condensed milk may also be used,
but it will yield sweeter bread.
In using fresh liquid milk or buttermilk, it will be necessary to scald and cool the milk in order to
destroy the enzymes that interfere with yeast action or produce an undesirable flavor. The use of
evaporated milk eliminates the scalding step and is thus preferred.

Dairy – Dairy products add flavor and moisture to baked foods, and help to promote browning. Whole
milk produces the best flavor and texture in baked foods; however you may substitute reduced fat milks.

Buttermilk – Buttermilk is the sour-tasting liquid that is left over after milk or cream has been
churned to make butter. It is also made by adding bacteria to fat-free or reduced fat milk.

17
Evaporated Milk – Evaporated milk is milk that has been thickened by removing some of the
water by evaporation. Do not use evaporated milk as a substitution for sweetened condensed
milk.

Fat-Free Milk – Fat–free milk is also called skim milk or nonfat milk. This is milk with most or
all of its fat content removed.

Half and Half – Half and half is made with equal parts of cream and whole milk.

Powdered Milk – Powdered milk is milk that has had all moisture removed, producing a powder.
When reconstituted with water, it can be used in place of regular milk.

Sour Cream – Sour Cream is a smooth thick cream that has been soured artificially. Sour cream
has a tangy flavor.

Sweetened Condensed Milk – Sweetened condensed milk is whole milk that has been thickened
by removing some of the water by evaporation, then sugar is added producing a thick, sweet
product. Do not use sweetened condensed milk as a substitution for evaporated milk.

Whipping Cream – Whipping cream is also called heavy cream. This is a cream with a high fat
content that can be whipped to make it thicker.

Whole Milk – Whole milk is milk from which almost no fat has been removed.

Yogurt – Yogurt is made from milk that is fermented with bacteria to give a tangy or slightly sour
flavor and a thick and creamy consistency. It can have added sweeteners, flavorings or fruit.

Uses of milk

1.) Increase of absorptive qualities and dough strength-Milk acts as a strengthening

agent to flour protein because of its case in content and manifests itself in increase
loaf volume.
2.) Improved mixing tolerance-milk dough a more tolerant to over mixing since they
recover more rapidly and show little evidence of over mixing by the time in
increased loaf volume.
3.) Longer fermentation- because of the buffering action of milk, fermentation takes
longer and the dough acidity is reduced; hence there is a better aroma because the
sour smell is reduced.
4.) Golden color- the contents of milk (lactose, casein, and whey proteins) contribute to
the golden brown crust color of baked products
5.) Improved grain and texture- A soft velvety texture and a grain of small uniform cells
characterize the crumb of milk bread which also improves slicing quality.
6.) Improve nutrition, flavor and eating quality- The greatest advantage of milk is its
contribution to improved nutrition, flavor, and eating quality.
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 TYPES OF WATER AND THEIR EFFECTS ON BAKING QUALITIES

Gas Production Gas Retention and Treatments

effect on gluten

Soft Water (like distilled water or Practically none Softens gluten leading Use of dough improvers or
rain water) which are relatively to sticky dough which mineral yeasts foods; use of
free of mineral tend to flatten out more yeast; increase salt by
2.5%
Hard Water

A) Medium hard water Normal gas Good gas retention No treatment because this type
which contains average production Toughens or tightens of water is usually ideal for
amounts of mineral gluten breadmaking.
salts. Retards
B) Very hard water which fermentation Boil and filter using any mild
contains excess edible acid; increase yeast and
carbonates of calcium decrease yeast foods and salt.
and magnesium

Alkaline Water – contains Retards Dissolves or weakens Acidify the dough by using
sodium bicarbonate fermentation the gluten vinegar or lemon juice

SUGAR

DEFINITION AND FORMS OF BAKER’S SUGAR:

Sugar is defined as a sweet, soluble, crystalline organic compound belonging to the carbohydrate
group of foods.

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 The commercially sold sugar in the market is derived mainly from sugar cane. In several
countries, it is also produced from sugar beets. This is 99.9% pure sucrose. Sucrose is available in several
forms and the three most commonly used are as follows:

1. Granulated sugar – most retail bakers use granulated sugar because the crystal of this
sugar are such that they lend themselves to practically all uses. The powdered sugar is
generally sufficiently fine to meet the baker’s needs in preparing variety icings,
fillings, etc.
2. Confectionery sugar – Confectionery powdered sugar contains approximately 3
percent corn starch to retard lumping or crystallization. It is used primarily in icings
and also often a component of cake mixes in which parts of the sugar is first blended
with the flour and then added in the final stages of mixing. The fineness of this sugar
lends itself to easier blending and is often this way in Angel Cake.
3. Brown sugar- Brown sugar contains some caramel, mineral matter, and moisture. It
still contains molasses and has not been notably purified. This is used in products
where the flavor and color of the brown sugar are desired.

EFFECT OF SUGAR ON BAKED PRODUCTS

Sugar has several effect on dough properties and other baked products:
1. Increases dough development – Attributed to competition between the sugar and the gluten
protein foe water.
2. Gives a richer crust color- Crust color reflects the type and amount of sugars used in the
formula where intensity of crust color varies with the kind of sugar present.
3. Improve flavor, aroma and nutrition – of all the ingredients except salt, sugar has the most
pronounced effect on flavor where it sweetens the product. Because sweet dough are
fermented longer, the end products in the fermentation process is retained thereby imparting a
sweet aroma. Sugar also increases the nutritive value of baked products.
4. Increases tenderness- Sugar is not a softening agent but by developing crust color quickly, it
shortens baking time and retains more moisture in the bread, a property termed as longer
shelf life for baked products.
5. Increase loaf volume- since sugar a serves as a food for yeast in dough products and therefore
enhances yeast activity (in certain percentage) it has an increasing effect on loaf volume.

EGGS
Eggs add color, flavor, and texture to baked foods. Eggs also act as a leavening agent helping food to rise
during baking. Egg yolks add fat to a recipe. Egg whites are the main ingredient in meringues.

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 Fresh Eggs – Use fresh eggs with unbroken shells in baking. Most baking recipes are assumed to
use large eggs.

Egg Substitute – Egg substitutes are made with egg whites and little or no fat. One-fourth cup of
egg substitute is equal to one large egg. Egg substitutes may not produce the same quality baked
foods as fresh eggs.

DEFINITION AND COMPONENTS

For the baker’s concern, the term “egg” unqualified refers to the ovum of a chicken. Eggs are
very important and costly ingredients of bakery product, especially of cake and rich, sweet doughs. In
fact, they represent 50% or more of the cost of the ingredients used in cake production. Each of the
chemical characteristics which affect their performance in the food industries.
In eggwhite, the protein mucin is responsible for the gel characteristics of the white. Another
protein, ovalbumin, coagulates readily and is the material involved both in heat coagulation and
whipping.
In eggyolk, lecithin, a phospholipid, gives the yolk its emulsifying properties, and is the fraction
which causes spoilage when whole egg is stored at warm temperature.

USES IN BAKING
Egg has a varied role in bakery products:
1. Leavening – When eggwhite is beaten, the foam consists of many small air bubbles each
surrounded by a film of egg protein. The mechanical action of beating and contact of the thin
protein films with air partly coagulate the protein and make the foam stable. On baking, the
air bubbles expand with heat and the protein film is sufficiently elastic to stretch. As the
batter or meringue reaches high temperature, the protein coagulates entirely, loses its
elasticity and sets to a firm structure.
2. Color – The yolk of the egg provides the desirable yellow color which gives the cake a rich
appearance.
3. Richness – because of the fat and other solids of the eggs, the product has additional fat and
tastes sweeter. Eggs also provide shortness in the mix, enabling the mix to be handled easily.
4. Flavor – Eggs have an odor which some people consider desirable in the baked product.
5. Freshness and nutritive value – because eggs contain moisture (75% for whole egg) and
natural ability to bind and retain moisture, they retard starling. Eggs are high in nutritional
value and contribute a lot to the value of baked products as a Egg are rich in calcium,
phosphorus, and iron. Egg protein is a complete protein, capable of supplying all of the
essential amino acids required to maintain growth and good health. Both the protein and the
fat, which is in the yolk, are of a nature to be readily assimilated by the body. In addition, the
use of eggs supplies important amounts of vitamins A, D, thiamine, and riboflavin.

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 SHORTENING
Shortening-defined as any fat that increases the tenderness of a product by preventing the
cohesion of gluten strands during mixing and add flavor, and add moisture to baked food.

TYPES OF SHORTENING:
A shortening may be a single fat or oil or a combination of several fats. Further, it may be
processed by various methods to change the characteristics the original fats and may have
emulsifiers, anti-oxidants, and other ingredients added to improve and adapt it for specific
purposes.
The best shortenings in order of preference are:
1. Hog fat (commonly known as lard)-the best for breads, biscuits, pie crusts, and a few types of
cakes and cookies.
2. Butter-used mainly for cakes and cookies. At times, locally churned butter which has not been
washed properly may contain as much as 10% moisture. Butter is best used for flavor but
has inferior shortening value. It does not cream too well and lacks uniformity.
3. Hydrogenated vegetable oils ( known as vegetable shortening)- made from purified deodorized
oils such as coconut, corn germ, beans, cotton seed, etc. these are manufactured by passing
hydrogen in a tank under pressure in a nickel catalyst.
4. Butter oil- used in doughs more than anything else because of better taste and flavor. These oils
are far more expensive than vegetable.
5. Vegetable Oils – Are used in breads but are not as popular as plastic shortenings because of the
difficulty of handling and less efficiency in doughs.
6. Compound Lards- Combinations of vegetable and animal fats are used in breads where the
consumer has no religious rulings against consuming animal fats.
7. Edible Tallow – is derived mainly from cattle fats when not refined and approved for human
consumption, it is used mainly for soap manufacturing.

USES OF FATS IN BAKERY FOODS

1. Bread, rolls, and other Yeast-raised baked
Goods:
a. Imparts tenderness and improves flavor.
b. Assists in gas retention by making gluten more air-tight thus giving better volume and trust.
c. Lubricates the gluten strands therefore producing better volume.

2. Cakes
a. The creaming value of fats is important for the so-called “sugar-butter” method of mixing.
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 b. Emulsifying ability or the ability of butter to disperse throughout the mix and form a water-
in-fat or air-in-fat emulsion. The batter consistency type of cakes demands emulsified type of
shortening, especially for a single stage and high ratio formula cake.
c. Butter used because of flavor is an inferior shortening, it does not cream too well and lacks
uniformity.
d. Tastes differ so greatly that it is difficulty to say what constitutes the best shortening material
for cake baking.

3. In cookies and pastries, the shortening value and the plastically ability of fat to resist being squeezed
out of place are important.

LEAVENING AGENTS
A leavening agents is a gas added or produced during the mixing and or heating of batter dough making
mixture rise, thus the product becomes more light and porous. Three groups of leaving are: air, water
vapor (steam) and carbon dioxide.

Yeast – is a single – celled plant that reproduces by budding and is capable of converting sugar to alcohol
and carbon dioxide in a process known as fermentation. The production of carbon dioxide causes the flour
mixture to rise. Commercial yeast is marketed in two forms: Dry or granular, and cake, compressed or
fresh. Dehydration makes the yeats dormant in dry or granular form but does not destroy it. The yeasts are
alive but in inactive form. The addition of water activates it, so it should always be kept in cool, dry place
container tightly closed if not intended for use. In the cake, compressed, or fresh yeast are in an active
state in a moist mixture with starch. The presence of moisture makes the product perishable and should
therefore be refrigerated.

There are four types of chemical leavening agents:

1. Baking Soda – Baking soda is known chemically as sodium bicarbonate and is sold in grocery stores
under the name “bicarbonate of soda”. Baking soda liberates carbon dioxide, but in the process, a residue
of washing soda remains in the cake which imparts a dark color and unpleasant taste to the cake.

2. Baking Powder- baking powder is the leavening agent produced by mixing baking soda and an acid
salt. Flour starch is added to stabilize the mixture and to standardize it such that at least 12% carbon
dioxide is released upon heating. The types of baking powder according to speed of action are:
a. Fast acting or tartrate type-has tartaric acid and cream of tartar or potassium
acid tartrate. It releases much of the gas while mixing the dough or batter.

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 b. Intermediate acting or phosphate type-has calcium acid phosphate and/or
sodium acid pyrophosphate. Gas is released during mixing and the rest during
baking.
c. Double acting or SAS-phosphate- its phosphate reacts during mixing while the
sulfate releases carbon dioxide only upon heating.

3. Baking cream- a slow acting powder which retains the greatest part of its gas until the batter has been
heated in the oven. This makes it an excellent type to use when there is a great deal of time lost between
the mixing and the baking of the batter. However it leaves an unpleasant tasting residue if used in excess.
This is the so-called foreign taste that housewives object to in commercial cakes.

4. Ammonium carbonate and Ammonium bicarbonate-used to small extent as a leavening agent. It

decomposes in to three gases and does not leave a solid residue.

USES OF LEAVENING AGENTS IN BAKED PRODUCTS:

For many years, man has preferred baked products which are leavened. Some reasons for this preference
are:

1. Baked products so made are light, and therefore, easily chewed.

2. Baked products made with leavening agents have open or more porous grain- the digestive juice
comes in contact with the food more readily and digestion is gratefully facilitated.
3. Baked products made with leavening agents are more palatable and appetizing.

MINOR INGREDIENTS

Salt – The salt used by the baker is purified table or cooking salt. The salt used should be clean and
refined. Salt itself tends to absorb moisture and many of the impurities in salt tend to increase this
absorption. Salt used in bread varies from 1.5 to 2.5 percent, based on weight of flour in the batter.
Salt is small white tangy-tasting crystals consisting largely of sodium chloride. Salt is used to add
flavor to baked food. Table salt is normally used in baking.

Spices and Seeds – spices and seeds are aromatic vegetable products usually available in a finely ground
state. They may come from the bark of trees, the seeds of vegetable or fruits of the roots of various plants
spices contribute importantly to the taste and smell of the product and help to improve the quality.

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Flavors – Flavors extract are solution of the flavors in ethyl alcohol or some other solvent. The base of
these flavors is the extracted essential oils of the fruit or bean or imitation of the same.

Extracts – Extracts are the substance taken from plants or seeds, and used to flavor foods. For example
vanilla extract is produced from vanilla seedpods.

Cocoa and Chocolate - Cocoa and chocolate are used very widely in the production and finishing of
cakes pastries, pies, and cookies. Not only do they provide for variety of product but they also supply
body and bulk to the cake mix or icing.

Good kitchen and laboratory practices

One of the primary concerns of the laboratory teacher is to teach students goods habits of working with
foods. The succeeding text offers pointers healthful laboratory.

Sanitation means keeping things clean. This means it is important.

- Keep foods clean

- Keep oneself clean
- Keep equipment clean
- Keep the laboratory clean

Keep Sanitation High in the Laboratory

Keeping oneself clean
1. Always wash your hands with soap and water before starting work, after wiping spilled foods or
sweeping up or after each visit to the locker room, after sneezing, ect.
2. Always wear clean fresh aprons and change them whenever they get dirty.
3. Keep finger nails short and clean.
4. Make it a habit to start the day with a bath or shower and change into fresh clothes everyday.
5. Comb or brush your hairs neatly in place.
6. Do not wear costume jewelry, spangled hair net or wrist watch in the laboratory.
7. Wear a hair net, cap or hat which covers the hair and prevents it from falling.

Keep the Food Clean

1. Do not handle foods and ingredients when hands are cut or infected.
2. Do not work around products or ingredients when will.
3. Do not sneeze or cough on products or any ingredients and equipment.
4. Keep perishable foods and food supplies either very cold or very hot.
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 5. Refrigerate foods properly. Properly refrigerate foods are cleaner and safer.
6. Do not return materials that have dropped to the floor or which touched an unclean surface.
7. Keep hand contact of ingredients to the minimum.
8. Open cartons on three sides with a box knife, leaving one side to serve as a hinge over to protect
partial content.
9. Do not store foods supplies and equipment under possible points of contamination.
10. Check pans and ingredients for any foreign materials during processing.
11. Fresh produce should always be washed before use.
12. Keep all ingredients bins covered except when transferring ingredients
13. Keep partially used bags of ingredients folded shut.
14. Use only easily cleanable containers for ingredients.
15. Brush bags and wipe off dust from cans before opening.
16. Do not dump fresh vegetable on top of old ones. Use ingredients in proper rotation.
17. Keep all clean ingredients containers of the floor, covered and upside down.
18. Clean ingredients containers whenever hey get empty or at least once in every three weeks.

WORKING WITH THE INGREDIENTS

Flour Mixtures-combinations containing liquid classified as batters and doughs, based on these and flour
with various ingredients. They are proportion of flour to liquid.

CLASSES LIQUID FLOUR CONSISTENCY EXAMPLE OF PRODUCTS

Pour batters 1 part 1 part Pours in a steady Popovers, Griddle cakes,
stream. Waffles, and Cream Puffs
Drop batters 1 part 2 parts Breaks into drop when Muffins, Fritters, Drop
poured cookies, Drop Biscuits,
Cakes
Soft doughs 1 part 3 parts Sticky to touch Rolled biscuits, yeast rolls
and bread.
Stiff doughs 1 part 4 parts Firm to touch Pie crust, Noodles, and
Rolled Cookies.

It is important to know the kind of flour to use in each type of mixture. The method of mixing,
and the product desired are indices in the choice.

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MIXING TECHNIQUES:

1. Creaming- rubbing one or two ingredients against a bowl with the help of a wooden spoon or
electric mixer to make a soft fluffy mixture.
2. Cutting in- mixing fat and flour with the use of a pastry blender or two knives in a scissor-like
manner.
3. Folding- this is working with two ingredients very gently to retain air in the mix. Folding is most
essentially done by hand although many people use an electric mixer or the rubber scrapper.
 To fold a rubber scraper- cut through the ingredients and scoop up to bring at the ingredients
bottom up to the top. Slide back scraper to the bottom and scoop as before. Continue until
ingredients are blended.
 To fold with an electric mixer- place the ingredients in a bowl. Turn on the mixer at the lowest
speed and fold for not more than one minute at most. Push batter to the center through a
scraper to blend in ingredients on the sides. Just before the work is completed, finish folding
using a rubber scraper or hand to avoid over mixing.
 To fold by hand- keep the fingers of the right hand spread slightly apart. Cut through batter
gently making sure to go to the bottom of the bowl. Pull your hand across the bowl scraping
the bottom of the sides of the bowl. Bring up your hand with some batter from the bottom of
the bowl twist hand to empty from batter cut down through batter again in a different place.
Repeat the entire process folding the batter over and over until the ingredients are combined
but still light. Clean hands properly for this.

4. Cut and Fold- a combination of two motions: cutting vertically through the mixture and turning
over and over by gliding the spoon or rubber scraper across the bottom of the mixing bowl at
each turn.
5. Beating- to incorporate air I a mixture by mechanical agitation. It could be done with the aid of
special gadgets like wire, whips, egg beaters, electric food mixers or with a fork.
6. Kneading-the pressing, folding and stretching of doughs to develop gluten for good bread
structure. In Pilipino this is known as “masa” or “masahe”.
7. Stirring- often done with a spoon, rotating it through a mixture as long as necessary, usually until
the ingredients are combined.
8. Whipping- a kind of beating for eggs and cream to fill them with air and make them thick and
fluffy.
9. Sifting- to separate coarse particles in the ingredients by passing through a sieve. Air is
incorporated through this method.

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 Mixing specified ingredients affect the character of the final product. Such differences account in
part for the variations in cakes or other batter products from the same recipe but with results not
always identical in different baking’s. The method of mixing, mixing time, temperature of ingredients
and other factors all affect the finished product. Mixing time and the interval between mixing and
baking also influence the effort to produce a standard product. The hydration of protein and starch
and the development of gluten increase with time until an optimum is achieved. Optimum mixing
time will vary with each recipe according to the ingredients, their proportions, temperature, type of
mixing, and other factors.

TEMPERATURE

Temperature of ingredients when they are combined influences the interaction of various parts of the
mixture and affects the final structure of a product especially cakes. The protein particles of flour
absorb water more rapidly at higher temperatures. Sugar becomes more soluble as temperature rises.
Fats are less firm and more plastic at higher temperatures and thus spread more rapidly throughout the
mixture. The temperatures of other ingredients in a mixture influence the plasticity of the fat.

Establishing the degree of heat to which a batter or dough is subjected during baking varies with
altitude sea level. Normal temperature in the interior of a baking product is approximately that of
boiling water- until all moisture is vaporized at which time the product begins to superheat and dry.

Water normally boils at 100º centigrade or 212ºF. but since barometric pressure declines with
altitude, the boiling point of water drops almost 2ºF with every rise of 1000 ft in elevation.

The rate at which the boiling point of water is reached within a baking product depends on oven
temperature, the ingredients, the size and shape of baking pan.

Baked products with a soft, spongy crumb, like biscuits, breads, cakes and muffins, do not reach
internal temperatures above the boiling point. Cell structure is completed during baking. Cooking and
evaporation of liquid result in the firming of the crumb.

Crisp, brittle or rapidly baked products like waffles, cookies and crackers require internal
temperatures higher than that of boiling water to evaporate greater quantities of liquid.

When a product is introduced in a pre-heated oven, the crust rapidly reaches a temperature
approximately that of boiling water. Then, the moisture of the crust evaporates and it dries. The crust

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temperature rises. Some of the starch changes to dextrin. Some sugar is caramelized at 150ºC or
302ºF evidenced as the crust turns brown.

If oven temperature is too hot when a product is introduced the crust forms too fast, thus limiting
the expansion of the leavening gas; thereby limiting volume. Products baked in such heat often crack
on the surface. Continued excessive heat burns or chars the outer surface of the product before the
interior is completely baked.

If oven temperature is too low, the dough dries out. The temperature generated in the interior of
the loaf does not rise quickly enough to set the gluten and gelatinize the starch before water is
evaporated, thus limiting volume and permitting the leavening gas to escape slowly or prematurely.
The product probably falls.

In yeast breads, the first quick rising of the dough is called “oven spring”. This causes the gluten
strands to stretch, shred and break, usually above the edge of a bread pan, giving the loaf its
characteristic shape and bulge at the top. Oven heat also kills the yeast plant and evaporates the
alcohol and leavening gases.

Tips on Working with the Ingredients

1. Read the experiment procedures to the end. Check whether you have all the equipment
and ingredients at hand. Think of substitute ingredients if needed.
2. Look up the meaning of terms you doubt or cannot understand.
3. Assemble all ingredients and utensils needed and arrange them within easy reach.
4. Do as much pre-preparation activity as possible before mixing. Measure and sift
ingredients, grease pans, chop nuts, melt butter or thaw ingredients, put liquid
ingredients together when called for in the procedure, etc, this minimizes errors in the
measurements and mixing.
5. Make all measurements level using standard cups and measures.
6. Dry ingredients, such as flour, sugar, salt, etc. are heaped to over-flowing in cups or
measuring spoons then leveled off with a straight-edge knife or spatula.
7. SIFT FLOUR BEFORE YOU MEASURE WHEN RECIPES CALL FOR IT- do not tap
cup sifted flour. It will pack the ingredients back again. Sifting is done to incorporate air
to flour to make products lighter and fluffier.
8. Pack brown sugar firmly into measuring cup and level off with a steel spatula or a
straight edged knife.

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9. Crack down lumps of sugar by running rolling pin over them before measuring.
10. Do not dip cups or spoons into molasses, syrup or honey. Pour liquid ingredients into
the measuring equipment to prevent them from adhering to the sides and dripping on the
workspace.
11. Before measuring fats, bring to room temperature if stored in the refrigerator, then press
firmly into spoon to over flowing. Level off.
12. When measuring liquids, use standard graduated measuring equipment such as glass
cups and graduated measuring spoons. Put cup on a level surface and read at eye level
to obtain accurate liquid measure.
13. Make it a habit to trim, peel, scrape or measure and sift dry ingredients on waxed paper
to facilitate cleaning.
14. Keep a damp cloth close at hand. Cooking is a lot more fun and more successful when
your hands and kitchen are tidy.
15. Tidy up equipment as you work; wipe off grease from can openers, wash pots and pans
clear off work area of empty boxes, etc.
16. Wipe your range each time you use it.
17. Follow directions closely.
18. Test cakes made with cake flour by lightly touching middle of cake; when no imprint
remains, cake is done.
19. Test cakes made with all-purpose flour by sticking toothpick or cake tester in center; if
it comes out clean, cake is done.

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