Prepared by: Engr. Marianne Kriscel Jean T.
Dejarlo, CE, SE
Asphalt used in pavements is produced in three forms:
§ Asphalt cement or Asphalt Binder is a blend of hydrocarbons of
different molecular weights. The characteristics of the asphalt depend
on the chemical composition and the distribution of the molecular
weight hydrocarbons.
§ Asphalt cutback is produced by dissolving asphalt cement in a lighter
molecular weight hydrocarbon solvent.
Three Disadvantages of Asphalt Cutback:
§ First, as petroleum costs have escalated, the use of these expensive solvents as a
carrying agent for the asphalt cement is no longer cost effective.
§ Second, cutbacks are hazardous materials due to the volatility of the solvents.
§ Finally, application of the cutback releases environmentally unacceptable
hydrocarbons into the atmosphere.
Asphalt used in pavements is produced in three forms:
§ Asphalt emulsion - In this process the asphalt cement is physically broken down into
micron-sized globules that are mixed into water containing an emulsifying agent.
Emulsified asphalts typically consist of about 60% to 70% asphalt cement, 30% to 40%
water, and a fraction of a percent of emulsifying agent.
§ Positive- cationic emulsion
§ Negative – Anionic Emulsion
MAIN USE: Pavement construction and maintenance
OTHER USE: Sealing and waterproofing various structural components such as roofs
and underground foundations
§ Asphalt Cements - also called asphalt binders, are used typically to make hot-mix
asphalt concrete for the surface layer of asphalt pavements
§ Asphalt Concrete - is also used in patching and repairing both asphalt and Portland
cement concrete pavements.
§ Liquid Asphalts (emulsion and cutbacks) - re used for pavement maintenance
applications, such as fog seals, chip seals, slurry seals, and micro surfacing
§ The consistency of asphalt is greatly affected by temperature. Asphalt gets hard and
brittle at low temperatures and soft at high temperatures
§ The viscosity of the asphalt decreases when the temperature increases.
§ The steeper the slope the higher the temperature susceptibility of the asphalt.
However, additives can be used to reduce this susceptibility.
§ The consistency of asphalt is greatly affected by temperature. Asphalt gets hard and
brittle at low temperatures and soft at high temperatures
§ The viscosity of the asphalt decreases when the temperature increases.
§ The steeper the slope the higher the temperature susceptibility of the asphalt.
However, additives can be used to reduce this susceptibility.
§ If the viscosity of asphalt is higher than the optimum range, the mixture will be too
brittle and susceptible to low-temperature cracking
§ if the viscosity is below the optimum range, the mixture will flow readily, resulting
in permanent deformation (rutting)
§ The viscosity of the asphalt should be mostly within the optimum range for the
area’s annual temperature range; softgrade asphalts are used for cold climates and
hard-grade asphalts for hot climates
§ Asphalt is a mixture of a wide variety of hydrocarbons primarily
consisting of hydrogen and carbon atoms, with minor components
such as sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen (heteroatoms), and trace
metals.
§ Asphalt molecules have three arrangements:
§ (1) aliphaticor paraffinic, which form straight or branched chains,
§ (2)saturated rings, which have the highest hydrogen to carbon ratio, and
§ (3) unsaturated rings or aromatic.
§ Asphalt cement consists of asphaltenes and maltenes (petrolenes)
§ The maltenes consist of resins and oils.
§ The asphaltenes are dark brown, friable solids that are chemically complex, with
the highest polarity among the components. The asphaltenes are responsible for
the viscosity and the adhesive property of the asphalt.
§ The the Strategic Highway Research Program SHRP research
program produced the Superpave (SuperiorPerforming
Asphalt Pavements) mix design method for asphalt concrete
and the Performance Grading method for asphalt binder
specification
§ The objectives of SHRP’s asphalt research were to extend
the life or reduce the life-cycle costs of asphalt pavements,
to reduce maintenance costs, and to minimize premature
failures.
Performance Grade Characterization Approach
§ The Performance Grade tests used to characterize the asphalt binder
are performed at pavement temperatures to represent the upper,
middle, and lower range of service temperatures.
§ Three pavement design temperatures are required for the binder
specifications:
§ The maximum pavement design temperature is selected as the highest
successive seven-day average maximum pavement temperature.
§ The minimum pavement design temperature is the minimum pavement
temperature expected over the life of the pavement.
§ The intermediate pavement design temperature is the average of the maximum
and minimum pavement design temperatures plus 4°C.
Performance Grade Binder Characterization
§ Rolling Thin-Film Oven is used to simulate the short-term aging that occurs in the
asphalt during production of asphalt concrete. In the RTFO method (ASTM D2872),
the asphalt binder is poured into special bottles which are placed in a rack in a
forced-draft oven at a temperature of 163°C (325°F) for 75 min.
§ Pressure-Aging Vessel - The pressure-aging vessel (PAV) consists of a temperature
controlled chamber, and pressure- and temperature-controlling and measuring
devices. he asphalt binder is first aged, using the RTFO (ASTM D2872). A specified
thickness of residue from the RTFO is placed in the PAV pans. The asphalt is then
aged at the specified aging temperature for 20 hours in a vessel under 2.10 MPa (305
psi) of air pressure (ranges 90°C and 110°C) .
§ Flash Point - The flash point test is a safety test that measures the temperature at
which the asphalt flashes; asphalt cement may be heated to a temperature below
this without becoming a fire hazard.
§ The Cleveland open cup method (ASTM D92) requires partially filling a standard
brass cup with asphalt cement. The asphalt is then heated at a specified rate and a
small flame is periodically passed over the surface of the cup
§ Rotational Viscometer Test consists of a rotational coaxial cylinder viscometer and
a temperature control unit, as shown in Figure 9.19. The test is performed on
unaged binders. The asphalt binder sample is placed in the sample chamber at
135°C (275°F)
§ Dynamic Shear Rheometer Test - The dynamic shear rheometer test system, Figure
9.20, consists of two parallel metal plates, an environmental chamber, a loading
device, and a control and data acquisition system (AASHTO T315).
§ Bending Beam Rheometer Test - The bending beam rheometer measures the
midpoint deflection of a simply supported prismatic beam of asphalt binder
subjected to a constant load applied to its midpoint (ASTM D6648).
§ Direct Tension Test - The direct tension test system consists of a displacement-
controlled tensile loading machine with gripping system, a temperature controlled
chamber, measuring devices, and a data acquisition system, as shown in Figure 9.22
(ASTM D6723).
Traditional Asphalt Characterization Tests
§ Penetration - The penetration test (ASTM D5) measures asphalt cement consistency.
An asphalt sample is prepared and brought to 25°C (77°F).
§ Absolute and Kinematic Viscosity Tests
- Similar to the penetration test, the
viscosity test is used to measure asphalt
consistency. Two types of viscosity are
commonly measured:
§ The absolute viscosity procedure (ASTM
D2171) requires heating the asphalt cement
and pouring it into a viscometer placed in a
water or oil bath at a temperature of 60°C
(140°F)
§ The kinematic viscosity test procedure (ASTM
D2170) is similar to that of the absolute
viscosity test, except that the test
temperature is 135°C (275°F).
Asphalt binder is produced in several grades or classes. There are four
methods for classifying asphalt binders:
§ Performance Grade Specifications and Selection - Names of grades
start with PG (Performance Graded) followed by two numbers
representing the maximum and minimum pavement design
temperatures in Celsius. PG 52–28 would meet the specification for a
design high pavement temperature up to 52°C(126°F) and a design
low temperature warmer than -28°C.
§ Performance Grade Specifications and Selection - The high
temperature is calculated 20 mm (0.75 in.) below the pavement
surface, whereas the low temperature is calculated at the pavement
surface.
Asphalt binder is produced in several grades or classes. There are four methods for
classifying asphalt binders:
§ Other Asphalt Binder Grading Methods - The grades correspond to the allowable
penetration range; that is, the penetration of a 40–50 grade must be in the range of
40 to 50.
Asphalt Cutbacks
Three types of cutbacks are produced, depending on the hardness of the residue
and the type of solvent used
§ Rapid-curing cutbacks are produced by dissolving hard residue in a highly
volatile solvent, such as gasoline. It is cure in about 5 – 10 minutes
§ Medium-curing cutbacks use medium hardness residue and a less volatile
solvent, such as kerosene. It is cure in a few days
§ Slow-curing cutbacks are produced by either diluting soft residue in nonvolatile
or low-volatility fuel oil or by simply stopping the refining process before all of
the fuel oil is removed from the stock. It is cure in a few months
* Cutbacks have several grades defined by the kinematic viscosity at 60°C (140°F).
Grades of 30, 70, 250, 800, and 3000 are manufactured, with higher grades
indicating higher viscosities.
Asphalt Emulsions
§ Asphalt emulsions are produced in a variety of combinations of the electric charge of the
emulsifying agent, the rate the emulsion sets (breaks), the viscosity of the emulsion, and
the hardness of the asphalt cement. Both anionic and cationic emulsions are produced
which have negative and positive charges, respectively.
§ Asphalt concrete, also known as hot-mix asphalt (HMA) - consists of asphalt
binder and aggregates mixed together at a high temperature and placed and
compacted on the road while still hot.
§ The objective of the asphalt concrete mix design process is to provide the
following properties
§ stability or resistance to permanent deformation under the action of traffic loads, especially
at high temperatures
§ fatigue resistance to prevent fatigue cracking under repeated loadings
§ resistance to thermal cracking that might occur due to contraction at low temperatures
§ resistance to hardening or aging during production in the mixing plant and in service
§ resistance to moisture-induced damage that might result in stripping of asphalt from
aggregate particles
§ skid resistance, by providing enough texture at the pavement surface
§ workability, to reduce the effort needed during mixing, placing and compaction
§ Specimen Preparation in the Laboratory - Asphalt concrete
specimens are prepared in the laboratory for mix-design and
quality-control tests.
§ Compacted Samples
§ Superpave gyratory compactor
§ Marshall hammer
§ Specimen Preparation in the Laboratory
§ UnCompacted Samples - This test was developed by Jim Rice of The
Asphalt Institute, so it is frequently called the Rice test and the results
are called the Rice gravity.
§ Specimen Preparation in the Laboratory
§ UnCompacted Samples
§ Density and Voids Analysis
A compacted asphalt concrete specimen
contains 5% asphalt binder (Sp. Gr. 1.023) by
weight of total mix, and aggregate with a
specific gravity of 2.755. The bulk density of
the specimen is Ignoring absorption, compute
VTM, VMA, and VFA.
§ Density and Voids Analysis - the equations actually used for mix
design have been derived to allow direct use of the measured
parameters.
An asphalt concrete specimen has the following
properties:
asphalt content = 5.9% by total weight of mix
bulk specific gravity of the mix=2.457
Theoretical maximum specific gravity = 2.598
Bulk specific gravity of aggregate = 2.692
Calculate the percents VTM, VMA, and VFA.
§ Superpave Mix Design
§ Aggregate Selection
§ Binder Selection - The binder is selected based on the maximum and minimum
pavement temperatures. The specific gravity and the viscosity versus temperature
relationship for the selected asphalt binder must be measured.
§ Design Aggregate Structure
§ Design Aggregate Structure
§ initial stage of determining the design aggregate structure
§ The dust-to-effective binder ratio is the percent of aggregate passing the 0.075 mm
(#200) sieve divided by the effective asphalt content, computed as
§ The Superpave method requires determining the volumetric properties at 4% VTM.
For a 12.5 million ESAL, select a 19-mm Superpave design aggregate structure based
on the following data
§ Design Binder Content - The design binder content is
obtained by preparing eight specimens—two replicates
at each of four binder contents: estimated optimum
binder content, 0.5% less than the optimum, 0.5% more
than the optimum, and 1% more than the optimum.
Based on the previous problem, determine the recommended asphalt
content according to Superpave mix design for an equivalent single axle
load (ESAL) of 20 millions.
§ Moisture Sensitivity Evaluation - The moisture sensitivity
of the design mixture is determined using the AASHTO T283
procedure on six specimens prepared at the design binder
content and 7% air voids.
Superpave Refinement
§ One commonly expressed concern is that the design binder content is
too low which makes the mixes susceptible to fatigue cracking and
high permeability.
Marshall Method of Mix Design
§ Aggregate Evaluation
§ Asphalt Cement Evaluation
§ Specimen Preparation
§ Marshall Stability and Flow Measurement
§ Density and Voids Analysis
§ Design Asphalt Content Determination
§ Marshall Method of Mix Design
§ Marshall Method of Mix Design
§ Marshall Method of Mix Design
The Marshall method was used to design an asphalt concrete mixture. A
PG 64-22 asphalt cement with a specific gravity of 1.031 was used. The
mixture contains a 9.5 mm nominal maximum particle size aggregate
with a bulk specific gravity of 2.696. The theoretical maximum specific
gravity of the mix at asphalt content of 5.0% is 2.470. Trial mixes were
made with average results as shown in the following table:
Indirect Tensile Strength
§ When traffic loads are applied on the pavement surface, tension is developed at the
bottom of the asphalt concrete layer. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the
tensile strength of asphalt concrete for the design of the layer thickness.
Diametral Tensile Resilient Modulus
§ To evaluate the structural response of the asphalt pavement system, the modulus of
asphalt concrete material is needed.
The resilient modulus test was performed on an asphalt concrete specimen and the
following data were obtained:
Freeze and Thaw Test
§ The freeze and thaw test is performed to evaluate the effect of freeze and thaw cycles on the
stiffness properties of asphalt concrete. Cylindrical specimens 102 mm (4 in.) in diameter and 64 mm
(2.5 in.) high are used.
Superpave Asphalt Mixture Performance Tests
§ a requirement for Superpave mix design, but implementation studies are underway. In addition, the
test method was designed to capture the material properties needed for the Mechanistic Empirical
Pavement Design System, MEPDS
§ Dynamic Modulus Test - The test consists of applying an axial sinusoidal compressive stress to an unconfined
or confined HMA cylindrical test specimen
§ Triaxial Static Creep Test - The static creep test, using either one load–unload cycle or incremental load–
unload cycles, provides sufficient information to determine the instantaneous elastic (recoverable) and
plastic (irrecoverable) components (time independent), and the viscoelastic and viscoplastic components
(time dependent) of the material's response.
§ Triaxial Repeated Load Permanent Deformation Test Another approach to measuring the permanent
deformation characteristics of HMA is to use a repeated load test for several thousand repetitions and to
record the cumulative permanent deformation as a function of the number of load repetitions.
The production and construction of asphalt concrete highways can be described as a
three-step process:
§ Production of Raw Materials - Asphalt cement is produced at petroleum refineries
and transported to the asphalt plant and placed in tanks. To maintain flow-ability
the asphalt cement is kept hot, approximately 150°C (300°F), while being
transported to the asphalt and while in the tanks at the asphalt plant.
§ Manufacturing Asphalt Concrete - The manufacturing of asphalt concrete requires
drying the aggregates, blending them in proportions determined by the mix design,
adding the required amount of asphalt cement and mixing the aggregates and
asphalt cement. There are three types of plants used to produce hot mix asphalt
concrete;
§ Batch plants are the oldest style of plant and still are widely used. Aggregates are
transported from the stockpiles to the cold feed bins.
§ In the drum plant , a single drum is used for both drying the aggregates and mixing in the
asphalt cement.
§ Continuous plants are only used by a small proportion of the industry
The production and construction of asphalt concrete highways
can be described as a three-step process:
Field Operations
§ Asphalt pavers are designed to produce a smooth surface when
operated properly. The keys to proper operation are a constant
flow of material through the paver and maintaining constant
paver speed.
§ Three types of rollers are used for asphalt paving: static steel
wheel, vibratory steel wheel, and pneumatic. Vibratory rollers
are becoming the dominant type machine as they can be used
for all stages.
The spike in petroleum prices in 2008 also heightened
interest in recycling. Environmental concern and the
emphasis on sustainable design are further promoting
interest in asphalt recycling. Recycling asphalt has the
following advantages:
§ economic saving of about 25% of the price of materials
§ energy saving in manufacturing and transporting raw materials
§ environmental saving by reducing the amount of required new
materials and by eliminating the problem of discarding old materials
§ eliminating the problem of reconstruction of utility structures,
curbs, and gutters associated with overlays
§ reducing the dead load on bridges due to overlays
§ maintaining the tunnel clearance, compared with overlays
Recycling can be divided into three types:
§ surface recycling,
§ central plant recycling - the predominant type of recycling and offers the highest quality
product. Central plant recycling is performed by milling the old pavement and sending the
reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) to a central asphalt concrete plant, where it is mixed
with virgin aggregates and asphalt binder in the asphalt plant.
§ in-place recycling.
§ RAP Evaluation - The evaluation of the virgin aggregates and binder is the same as
needed for design without RAP. In order to design a RAP mix it is necessary to know
the properties of both the asphalt cement and aggregates in the RAP
§ RAP Mix Design - The recommended practice is to preheat
the virgin aggregate to the mix temperature then add the
RAP material and allow the mix to come back to the mix
temperature. This procedure minimizes the time the RAP is
exposed to high temperature to reduce the hardening of the
binder in the RAP.
§ RAP Production and Construction - The primary difference
is the RAP materials cannot be exposed to the high
temperatures used to dry the aggregates.
§ Warm-mix asphalt is the generic term for a variety of technologies
that allow the producers of hot-mix asphalt pavement material to
lower the temperatures at which the material is mixed and placed on
the road. Reductions of of 25 to 50 degrees C (50 to 100 degrees F)
are common, which offers the following benefits:
§ Less energy and fuel consumption to heat the mix
§ Lower greenhouse gases
§ Less oxidation of the asphalt binder
§ Pave at lower temperatures
§ Longer haul distances are possible
§ Extending the paving season since the asphalt can be compacted at
lowertemperatures
