LANGUAGE ATTITUDES OF KADAZANDUSUN PEOPLE TOWARD THEIR

MOTHER TONGUE

LYDIA TUMIN

This project is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a

Bachelor of Education with Honours
(Teaching English as a Second Language)

Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
2008
 BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS TESIS Gred:
JUDUL : Language Attitudes of Kadazandusun People Toward Their Mother Tongue

SESI PENGAJIAN : 2004-2008

Saya LYDIA TUMIN

mengaku membenarkan tesis * ini disimpan di Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik,

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak dengan syarat-syarat kegunaan seperti berikut:

1. Tesis adalah hakmilik Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

2. Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak dibenarkan membuat salinan
untuk tujuan pengajian sahaja
3. Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak dibenarkan membuat
pendigitan untuk membangunkan Pangkalan Data Kandungan Tempatan
4. Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak dibenarkan membuat salinan
tesis ini sebagai bahan pertukaran antara institusi pengajian tinggi
5. ** sila tandakan ( √ )
(mengandungi maklumat yang berdarjah keselamatan atau
SULIT
kepentingan seperti termaktub di dalam AKTA RAHSIA RASMI
1972)
(Mengandungi maklumat Terhad yang telah ditentukan oleh
TERHAD
organisasi/badan di mana penyelidikan dijalankan)

TIDAK TERHAD

___________________________ _________________________________

(TANDATANGAN PENULIS) (TANDATANGAN PENYELIA)

Alamat Tetap:
P. Box 1780, Kg. Tohan Baru
89008 Keningau Sabah.

Tarikh : _______________________ Tarikh: _____________________________

Catatan: * Tesis dimaksudkan sebagai tesis bagi Ijazah Doktor Falsafah, Sarjana dan Sarjana Muda
*Jika tesis ini SULIT atau TERHAD, sila lampirkan surat daripada pihak berkuasa/organisasi
berkenaan dengan menyatakan sekali sebab dan tempoh tesis ini perlu dikelaskan sebagai TERHAD.
 ABSTRACT

LANGUAGE ATTITUDES OF KADAZANDUSUN PEOPLE TOWARD THEIR

MOTHER TONGUE

Lydia Tumin

The study seeks to investigate language attitudes of Kadazandusun people toward

their own language, which is the Kadazandusun language. It also sought to examine
respondents’ language proficiency in Kadazandusun, language used in interaction
across generations in the 50 selected families and the language used in different
domains. The study was undertaken in one Kadazandusun dominant community in
Keningau, Sabah. Data were gathered through questionnaire. Participants were made
up of 90 Kadazandusun, aged 14 years to 65 from the 50 selected families in this
community. All data were calculated based on age variable wherever necessary. The
study found that, majority of the respondents, possessed positive attitudes toward the
Kadazandusun language regardless of age. The language proficiency has decreased
among younger generation. Data on language use in the families demonstrated the
differences in language used between older and younger generation, with
Kadazandusun was preferable among older generation and Malay language was
favored by the younger generation. Findings in domains analysis show that
Kadazandusun language was used more in three domains namely workplace,
neighborhood and friendship domains. Malay language on the other hand was used
more in four domains, which were in religion, education, transaction, and family
domains.

i
 ABSTRAK

SIKAP BAHASA OLEH MASYARAKAT KADAZANDUSUN TERHADAP

BAHASA IBUNDA MEREKA

Lydia Tumin

Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk menyelidik sikap bahasa orang-orang Kadazandusun
terhadap bahasa ibunda mereka sendiri Kajian ini juga merangkumi penyelidikan
kefasihan berbahasa dalam bahasa kadazandusun, pengunaan bahasa
Kadazandusun dalam pertuturan antara generasi dalam keluarga responden dan
mengkaji kekerapan pengunaan bahasa Kadazandusun dalam tujuh situasi. Kajian
ini dilakukan dalam satu komuniti Kadazandusun di Kampung Tohan Baru
Keningau, Sabah. Sampel terdiri daripada 90 orang responden berumur 14 tahun
keatas daripada 50 keluarga yang terpilih. Analisis dijalankan menggunakan
kaedah kualitatif. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa kebanyakan responden
memiliki sikap positif terhadap bahasa Kadazandusun. Selain itu juga, dapatan
kajian menunjukkan bahawa tahap kefasihan berbahasa dalam Kadazandusun
semakin menurun di kalangan responden muda. Analisis juga menunjukkan
penggunaan bahasa dalam keluarga responden di bezakan oleh kekerapan
pengunaan bahasa kadazandusun di kalangan generasi dewasa dan bahasa Melayu
pula lebih kerap digunakan oleh generasi muda. Analysis pengunaan bahasa dalam
beberapa situasi yang berbeza mendapati pengunaan bahasa kadazandusun adalah
lebih kerap pada situasi perbualan di tempat kerja, antara rakan dan juga antara
jiran. Manakala, bahasa Melayu lebih dikerap digunakan dalam perbualan antara
keluarga, di sekolah, dalam upacara keagamaan dan ketika berada di kedai.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, I would like to acknowledge my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.

Without Your incredible strength and abundant provision, this study would never
have been possible. To You be all the praise and glory.

I would like to offer my thanks and appreciation to my supervisor, Mdm

Mahanita bt Mahadhir. Your patience, expertise and ideas have been
indispensable. Thank you for guiding me along the process and for always being
willing to read yet another draft. Thank you for allowing me to work on my own
pace. I really appreciate that!

I offer my sincere thanks to my family, especially to my Apa Mr. Tumin, my

Ama Mdm. Lucia, my sisters Ng, Penie, Ila, Ecy and my brother Welter and his
family. I owe my gratitude for all the prayer, support and encouragement I have
received in all kinds of forms. Your continual support, love and unshakable belief in
my ability has always inspired and motivated me to keep going.

Special thanks to Mr. Rizoh B. for the prayers, support for me over the years
and for always encouraging and loving me.

I am indebted to my ever-faithful friends Eva, Suzie, Sharen, Erlinda,

Aning, Esther, Suvinnie, and Jasmine and to the Big UCF Family.

Thank you and Pounsikou to all the participants in Kampung Tohan Baru,
that so willingly participated in this research.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT i
ABSTRAK ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF TABLES x

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background of Study 1
1.2 Kadazan or Dusun or Kadazandusun? 2
1.3 Statement of Problem 3
1.4 Objectives of the Study 6
1.5 Significance of the Research 6
1.6 Scope of Study 7
1.7 Definition of Terms
1.7.1 Language Attitudes 7
1.7.2 Bilingual 7
1.7.3 Mother Tongue 7
1.7.4 Intergenerational language transmission 8
1.7.5 Domain 8
1.8 Summary 8

iv
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction 9
2.1 Attitudes to Language 9
2.2 Domain analysis 12
2.3 Variables influencing Attitudes 13
2.4 Related Studies 14
2.5 Summary 23

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction 24
3.1 Research Design 24
3.1.1Methods of Language Attitudes research 26
3.2 Population
3.2.1 Background of Kampung Tohan Baru 27
3.2.2 Participants 28
3.3 Instruments for Data Collection 29
3.3.1 Questionnaire 29
3.4 Data Collection 32
3.5 Data Analysis 33
3.6 Limitations of the Study 36
13.7 Summary 37

v
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction 38
4.1 Attitudes to Kadazandusun Language 39
4.2 Attitude to Kadazandusun and Malay Languages 41
4.3 Language Proficiency 43
4.4 Language Use in Interaction Across Generation 46
4.5 Language Use in Different Domains 50
4.5.1 Workplace Domain 50
4.5.2 Friendship Domain 52
4.5.3 Transaction Domain 55
4.5.4 Neighborhood Domain 58
4.5.5 Education Domain 60
4.5.6 Family Domain 61
4.5.7 Religion Domain 64
4.6 Discussion 67
4.7 Summary 70

CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND

CONCLUSION

5.1 Introduction 72
5.2 Summary 72
5.3 Implications of the Findings 76
5.4 Recommendations for Future Research 77
5.5 Conclusion 78

vi
REFERENCES 80
APPENDICES 89
Appendix A: Questionnaire in English Version 89
Appendix B: Questionnaire in Malay Version 96
Appendix C: Data on Demographic Information and Language Proficiency 101
Appendix D: Analysis of Language Use in Participants’ Family 103
Appendix E: Analysis of Language Pattern in 50 selected Families 128
Appendix F: Language Use by Participants in Seven Domain 130

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Attitudes toward Kadazandusun Language 39

Figure 2: Attitudes toward Kadazandusun Language

based on Age Groups 40

Figure 3: Overall Attitudes toward Kadazandusun

and Malay Languages 41

Figure 4: Attitudes toward Kadazandusun and

Malay Languages based on Age Groups 42

Figure 5: Overall Analysis of Participants’ Proficiency

in Kadazandusun Language 43

Figure 6: Participants’ Proficiency in Kadazandusun

and Malay Languages based on Age 44

Figure 7: Pattern of Languages Use across Generations

in Respondents' Families 47

Figure 8: Overall Analysis of Language Use

in the Workplace Domain 51

Figure 9: Overall Analysis of Language Use

in Friendship Domain 52

Figure 10: Language Use in Friendship Domain

based on Age Groups 53

Figure 11: Analysis of Language Use

in Transaction Domain 55

viii
Figure 12: Language Use in Transaction Domain

based on Age Groups 56

Figure 13: Overall Analysis of Language Use

in Neighborhood Domain 58

Figure 14: Language Use in Neighborhood Domain

based on Age Groups 59

Figure 15: Overall Analysis of Language Use

in Education Domain 60

Figure 16: Overall Analysis of Language Use

in Family Domain 62

Figure 17: Language Use in Family Domain

based on Age Groups 63

Figure 18: Overall Analysis of Language Use

in Religion Domain 64

Figure 19: Language Use in Religion Domain

based on Age Groups 65

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Demographic Information 28

Table 2: Numeric Symbols for Question on

Demographic Information 33

Table 3: Numeric Symbols for Language Proficiency 34

Table 4: Numeric Symbols for Question on Language Use 34

Table 5: Criteria to Determine Respondents’ Attitudes

toward Kadazandusun Language 35

Table 6: Criteria to Determine Respondents’ Attitudes

toward Kadazandusun Language and Malay Language 36

Table 7: Comparison of Language Use in Different Domains 66

x
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the introduction to the study. The first section
touches on background of the study, the second sections deals with the
information on Kadazandusun ethnic group. These are followed by sections on the
statement of problem, and objectives of study. It also includes significance of
study and scope of the study as well definition of operational terms.

1.1 Background of Study

According to Sabah statistics 2003, from the 2.6 million population of

Sabah, the Kadazandusun people are approximately 479 944 people, making them
the largest indigenous group in the state (Lasimbang, 2004). Kadazandusun is an
umbrella term that encompasses 40 ethnic groups, and is categorized under the
Dusunic group (KDCA, 1995)

1
 Language survey on Kadazandusun language has been the major
contributor to the development of this language. Earlier surveys conducted on the
Kadazan community revealed their desire for the language to be taught in school.
In 1988, the Kadazan Cultural Association (KCA) proposed to government that
the Kadazan language be taught in schools (Lasimbang et al., 1992; as cited in
Lasimbang & Kinajil, 2000). In the same year, the Minister of Education made a
statement on the possibility of incorporating the study of indigenous languages
such as Kadazan into the school syllabus. In 1994, a formal proposal was made to
the federal government and was given considerable attention (Kadazandusun
Language Foundation, 2005).

In 2000, the Kadazandusun language was offered for the first time as one
of the optional subjects in school, and taught to 19 731 pioneer group of children
by 881 trained teachers. It was offered in 440 primary schools in 21 districts
throughout the State of Sabah. (Lasimbang, 2004). Beginning 2007, the
Kadazandusun language was introduced in secondary education, and SMK
Tenghilan in Tuaran was the first school to offer the language as an optional
subject (Kadazandusun information portal, 2006).

1. 2 Kadazan or Dusun or Kadazandusun?

The issue of labeling between the ‘Kadazan’ and ‘Dusun’ has been long
debated in the Sabah political arena. It became the major challenge in the planning
of the Kadazandusun language in school since it was difficult to achieve
consensus over this matter (Lasimbang & Kinajil, 2000).

In a study by Banker & Banker (1997), they have classified Kadazan as a

Dusunic language. Nevertheless, the most salient distinction between this two are
the differences of their phonemic charts. The Kadazan consists of fricatives [v]

and [z] and the implosive but these are absent in the Dusun. On the
other hand, /w/, / y/ and /r/ are present in Dusun but not in Kadazan. The label

2
‘Kadazan’ is believed to be an autonym to the exonym ‘Dusun’ (Tunggolou,
1999; as cited in Lasimbang & Kinajil, 2004).

In January 24, 1995 the Kadazan Dusun Cultural Association (KDCA) and
the United Sabah Dusun Assocation (USDA) came to an agreement to use the
term ‘Kadazandusun’ as an official name for the Dusunic group. Central Dusun
dialects of Bunduliwan (Bundu and Liwan) which are the two largest groups were
chosen as the basis of developing standard language. Central Dusun is a term
created by the Summer Institute of Linguistic (SIL) in their language survey in the
1980s to indicate a major Dusun speech area in the Tambunan, Keningau and
Ranau districts located in the west and inland of Sabah. Speakers of this variety
also represent the majority of the overall Dusun population. (Tunggolou, 1999; as
cited in Lasimbang & Kinajil, 2004).

Throughout this study, the term Kadazandusun will be used, as it is the

term, which is officially agreed to and documented by the government.

1.3 Statement of Problem

When the Malaya Federation gained its independence in 1957 from the
British colony, there was a need for nation building, therefore Malay Language
was chosen as the national language for the country (David, 2003). The Malaysian
government took initiative to uphold the Malay Language through the
implementation of National Language and National Educational Policies for the
primary and secondary level of education. The language policy was also expanded
to cover the education system in Sabah and Sarawak. By 1985, the entire
education system in Sabah and Sarawak completely switched to using Malay
language as the medium of instruction in schools (David, 2003).

3
 However, the language policy has affected the use of Kadazandusun
language. According to Lasimbang (1996), the emphasis on the acquisition of
national language (Bahasa Malaysia) during the nationalism era in 1963, resulted
in the decline of Kadazandusun use (Lasimbang, 1996; as cited in Lasimbang &
Kinajil, 2000). Due to the socio-economic interest as well as the intention of
assimilating their children into the fast-growing Malaysian culture, Kadazandusun
parents had begun to allow the use of the Malay language in the home, which led
to code mixing between Malay and Kadazandusun language. Slowly this removed
the need to converse in the mother tongue, as Malay language became the
dominant language in Kadazandusun family. (Lasimbang, 1996; as cited in
Lasimbang & Kinajil, 2000). The effect of the language policy on the people of
Kadazandusun and their language is further illustrated by Stephen (2000) who
stated that, “With the national educational syllabus requiring national language
fluency for the primary school and secondary school years of a student, it is not
surprising that if one goes to a Kadazandusun household in a kampung, the young
children speak and are spoken to in the Malay language ”. The introduction of the
language policy in education system has influenced the decision of parents to opt
to use Malay language, which therefore gradually replaced the position of the
Kadazandusun as the vehicle of communication within the family.

As seen in studies mentioned above, fewer and fewer speakers of the

language speak Kadazandusun language to their children at home. Malay
language has taken over and became the predominant language of communication
within the Kadazandusun community. Åsgård (2002) in his study has found that
the case of Malay language become the dominant language was not only evident
in urban areas but as well in remote Kadazandusun villages which a mixture of
Malay and Kadazandusun, or just Malay is more preferable.

In contrast, the inclusion of Kadazandusun subject in school thus allows

those who do not know to speak this language to learn the language. This is
especially relevant to the younger generation of Kadazandusun as they have the
opportunity to learn this language. However, despite of the introduction of the

4
Kadazandusun language in school since year 2000, UNESCO (2005) has recently
classified Kadazandusun as one of the endangered language spoken by a mere 300
000 people. It seemed that the implementation of Kadazandusun language in
school appears to receive inadequate support from the Kadazandusun people,
which contradict with earlier finding on their desire to see the language introduced
into the school. The accessibility of the Kadazandusun language in the media,
such as in the local newspapers and radio also help to promote the language not
only to the Kadazandusun people but also to non-Kadazandusun especially
throughout Sabah. Nevertheless, Åsgård ( 2002) stated that, Kadazandusun
parents are in fact do not speak this language at home, but use Malay language to
communicate with their children. Home and parents especially, often the last
important agent in preservation of any language (Antonini, 2002). Parent is model
for children language learning and influence the likelihood of what language will
the children adopt and learn (Bartram, 2006; Galindo & Worthy, 2006).

Therefore, this study is carried out to examine what are the current
attitudes toward the Kadazandusun language posses by the Kadazandusun people
since the introduction of the language in school. Do they favor the language
positively? Or they adopt negative attitudes toward the language. As Lewis (1981)
stated “It is unlikely that anyone will deny the importance of attitudes in
determining the extent of current usages of a language, the prospect of their
extension, and the kinds of prestigious contexts in which it will be used or denied
use”. Apart from the efforts taken so far in maintaining the language (in school),
the information on the current attitudes by Kadazandusun people need to be
investigated in order to know to what extent will the language survive? And how
language policies and language maintenance program should be directed.

5
1.4 Objectives of the Study

The aims of this study are to find out:

1) The attitudes the speakers posses towards Kadazandusun and Malay
language
2) Respondents’ language proficiency in oral communication in Kadazandusun
Language
3) The language(s) used in interaction across generations
4) Respondents’ frequency use of Kadazandusun Language in family,
friendship, religion, employment and education domains

1.5 Significance of the Research

This study was carried out due to the seemingly rapid decline of
Kadazandusun language use. Therefore, findings from this study is hoped to
create awareness at the community level towards the decline in usage of the
Kadazandusun Language, as an initial representation of community’s’ view
towards Kadazandusun language. It could also be the information for language
planning efforts by the government and especially related bodies to Kadazandusun
people and their culture to promote the Kadazandusun language.

6
1.6 Scope of Study

This study examines the use of Kadazandusun and Malay Language and
the attitudes to the languages within communities of Kadazandusun in Sabah.
Since the sample consists of 50 families of Kadazandusun, generalizing on the
state of Kadazandusun language maintenance in Sabah is not possible within the
scope of this study. The study presents the situation of a small community of
Kadazandusun in the Kampung Tohan Baru in Keningau area. This study does not
aim to analyze the situation of Kadazandusun language in detail. The focus of this
study is on the attitudes of Kadazandusun people possessed towards the
Kadazandusun language. Apart from that, in the analysis of language proficiency
of respondents, the focus is on their speaking ability and it does not seek to
investigate their ability in other language skills such as in writing or reading.

1.7 Definition of Operational Terms

1.7.1 Language Attitudes

Language attitude is defined by Richards et al. (1985) as the “feeling that speakers
of different languages or varieties of a language have towards each others’
languages or their own. Negative or positive attitude towards a language may
reflect linguistic difficulty or simplicity of learning, degree of importance and
social status” (as cited in Mugaddam, 2005)

1.7.2 Bilingual
Bilingual is defined as “ability to speak or understand (and sometimes read/write)
two languages” (UNESCO, 2007)

7
1.7.3 Mother Tongue
Mother tongue (MT) is defined as “language that a person: (a) has learnt first; (b)
identifies with or is identified as a native speaker of by others; (c) knows best; or
(d) uses most” (UNESCO, 2007)

1.7.4 Intergenerational language transmission

Intergenerational language transmission is the on-going process whereby a
language is transferred from generation to generation through the normal familial
interactions of parents and children (and grandparents, grandchildren, etc). It is
widely recognized as the cornerstone of successful language maintenance and
revitalization (Fishman, 2000; as cited in Lammervo, 2007)

1.7.5 Domain
The domains refer to contextualized spheres of communication such as home,
friendship, work, education and religion. And these domains are helpful in that
they give insight into language choice in bilingual situations (Fishmane, 1965; as
cited in Mohamed Fathi Ahmed Othman, 2006)

1.8 Summary

In this chapter, it has discussed the background of the study, statement of

problem, objectives of the study as well as the definition of operational terms. The
following chapter will be discussing the literature review of the study.

8
9
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter reviews the literature on attitudes to language, domain

analysis, variables affecting language attitudes, related studies on language
attitudes and summary of chapter two.

2.1 Attitudes to Language

The study of language attitudes has been long become the subject of
interest among psychologists. Appel & Musyken (1987) stated that “language are
not only objective, socially neutral instruments for conveying meaning, but are
linked up with the identities of social or ethnic groups has consequences for the
social evaluation of, and the attitudes towards languages” (as cited in Ihemere,
2006).

Attitudes to languages are crucial in language growth or decay, restoration

or destruction. The status and importance of a language in society and within an
individual obtains largely from adopted or learnt attitudes. An attitude is

10
individual, but it has origins in collective behavior and it is something an
individual has which defines or promotes certain behaviors (Hohental, 1998).

Usually, for monolingual speakers, they have only one attitude towards
their language because they there are no other languages which can be made
comparison. They usually valued the language positively as they see their
language as a central means for communication, socialization and ethnic identity.
However, in bilingual or multilingual there is tendency to develop different
attitudes to each of the languages used. These attitudes, whether positive or
negative, will normally depend on the degree of symbolic or socio-economic
value manifested by each language. Usually, L1, as the mother tongue, will have
symbolic value as the language of cultural and ethnic identity, but will generally
have little or no socio-economic prestige. On the other hand, L2, as the inter-
ethnic language, will have considerable socio-economic prestige. Attitudes to
language usually, although may not always, are resulted on the economic value
attached to it. The language with important roles in the economic will enjoy
higher status. In turn, the more prestigious a language, the more positive the
speaker’ attitude towards the language, and the less prestigious a language, the
more negative the attitudes are (Batibo, 2005).

Attitude is what and on how people view their language, and what they
feel about the language when using it. When speakers take pride in their language,
enjoy listening to others using the language and use it themselves indicated a
favorable for maintenance language maintenance (Crystal, 2000). The language
maintenance is thus not merely depending on the type of attitudes, but also on the
regular use of the language.

Besides, attitudes in language is crucial in determining the extent of

current usages of a language, the prospect of their extension, and the kinds of
prestigious contexts in which it will be used or denied used (Lewis, 1981). It
implies that, the attitudes will influence people to use or not to use the language.
Attitudes too have a decisive influence on process of linguistic variation and

11
change, language planning, and the maintenance or loss of a language in a
community (Fishman, 1964; as cited in Choi, 2003; Cheshire 1991; as cited in
Hohental, 1998)

The kinds of attitudes possess by particular individual or community

towards certain language will influence whether or not they will use the language.
And this is especially relevant in the contexts of maintaining particular language.

2.2 Domain analysis

Joshua Fishman has introduced domain analysis, which describes the use
of languages in various institutional contexts in a multilingual society. Fishman
suggests that one language is more likely to be appropriate in some specific
contexts than another (Fasold 1942). It is “…defined in terms of institutional
contexts or socio-ecological co-occurrences …they attempt to designate the major
clusters of interaction situations that occur in particular settings “(Fishman 1972;
as cited in Hohental, 1998). The study of language use in domains allows an
understanding on how language is chosen based on topic of interaction related to
widespread socio-cultural norms and expectations.

Domains analysis are included in this study because, domains, language

attitudes and language attitudes are interrelated. According to Hohental (1998),
attitudes, which develop in a society during a course of time, can determine the
domains in which a particular language is used in a society, and therefore
determine the place a language holds in a society. When speakers use two
languages they will not use both languages in all circumstances, but will choose
one over the other according to participants, situation, content of discourse and
function of interaction (Grosjean, 1982; as cited in Hohental, 1998).
Bayer (1990) also stated that domain contributes in deciding the
development of different status and functions of languages in a community.
Languages are allocated specific roles and they are used in different contexts.

12