Understanding and Using

Compiled by

REFLECTIVE INSULATION MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

April 1999
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. ABOUT RIMA...........................................................................................................................................................
2. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................................
3. OBJECTIVES ...........................................................................................................................................................
4. COMMENTS ON HEAT TRANSFER .......................................................................................................................
4.1 Conduction
4.2 Convection
4.3 Radiation
5. THE NEED FOR INSULATION ................................................................................................................................
6. REFLECTIVE INSULATION.....................................................................................................................................
6.1 Concept of Reflective Insulation ....................................................................................................................
6.2 Understanding a Reflective Insulation System ..............................................................................................
6.3 Types of Reflective Insulation Materials ........................................................................................................
6.4 Applications for Reflective Insulation Materials..............................................................................................
6.5 Installing Reflective Insulation Systems.........................................................................................................
7. RADIANT BARRIERS ..............................................................................................................................................
7.1 Physics of Radiant Barriers............................................................................................................................
7.2 Radiant Barrier Systems (RBS) .....................................................................................................................
7.3 Types of Radiant Barrier Material ..................................................................................................................
7.4 Installing Radiant Barriers..............................................................................................................................
7.4.1 Attics ................................................................................................................................................
7.4.2 Walls ................................................................................................................................................
7.4.3 Floors...............................................................................................................................................
8. INTERIOR RADIATION CONTROL COATINGS (IRCC) .........................................................................................
8.1 Definition of an IRCC .....................................................................................................................................
8.2 Physics on an IRCC.......................................................................................................................................
8.3 Definition on an Interior Radiation Control System (IRCC) ............................................................................
8.4 Advantages of an IRCC .................................................................................................................................
8.5 Installation Methods for an IRCC ...................................................................................................................
8.6 Typical Installations of Andiation Control System (IRCC)..............................................................................
8.6.1 Under Roof ......................................................................................................................................
8.6.2 Interior Side Walls............................................................................................................................
8.6.3 Exterior Side Walls ..........................................................................................................................
8.6.4 Other Possible Uses – Construction................................................................................................
8.7 Other Possible Uses of an IRCC....................................................................................................................
9. GLOSSARY OF TERMS ..........................................................................................................................................
10. REFERENCES .........................................................................................................................................................
10.1 Reviews
10.2 Technical Papers ...........................................................................................................................................
10.3 Documents.....................................................................................................................................................
10.3.1 ASHRAE Handbook.........................................................................................................................
10.3.2 Federal Trade Commission .............................................................................................................
10.3.3 International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO)......................................................................
10.3.4 U.S. Department of Energy..............................................................................................................
10.4 ASTM Standards............................................................................................................................................
11. APPENDIX – INTRODUCTORY COMMENTS ON ESTIMATING THERMAL RESISTANCES FOR
REFLECTIVE INSULATION SYSTEMS...................................................................................................................
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ABOUT RIMA

The Reflective Insulation Manufacturers Association (RIMA) is the only trade association
representing the reflective insulation, radiant barrier and radiant control coatings industries.
RIMA activities are guided by an active board of industry members that participate on national
and local levels of building code organizations and governmental agencies.

RIMA’s objective is to further the understanding and acceptance of reflective insulation, radiant
control coatings, and radiant barriers. Toward this, RIMA members have contributed many
articles that have appeared in magazines and newsletters such as:

Builders Magazine, Journal of Light Construction, Popular Mechanics, Popular Science,

Architecture Magazine, RSI, Energy Design Update, Contractor’s Guide, Practical Homeowner,
Rural Builder, Frame Builder Professional, Metal Construction News, Metal Architecture.

RIMA has also contributed technical papers to various conferences and workshops sponsored
by the Department of Energy, ASHRAE, TVA, ASTM, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
RIMA members meet twice a year at the ASTM C-16 Committee meetings to discuss current
technical issues and establish standards that promote the best use of reflective insulation,
radiant control coatings, and radiant barrier products. RIMA’s members come from a variety of
backgrounds including engineers, scientists, manufacturers, marketers, and academicians.

The RIMA Handbook aims to provide a simple yet comprehensive guide elaborating on the
fundamentals of heat transfer and the concept of reflective insulation and radiant barriers.

INTRODUCTION

The key to maintaining a comfortable temperature in a building is to reduce the heat transfer
out of the building in the winter and reduce heat transfer into the building in the summer.

Heat is transmitted across confined air spaces by radiation, convection, and conduction. The
goal of all insulation and barriers is to reduce heating and cooling loads. Reflective insulation,
radiant control coatings, and radiant barriers are products that perform this function by reducing
radiant heat transfer thereby reducing the heating and cooling requirements.

OBJECTIVES

• Discuss heat transfer, with an emphasis on radiant heat transfer.

• Explain the underlying principles of reflective insulation and radiant barriers.

• Clarify the differences between these two reflective technologies and illustrate applications
best suited to each product.

• Provide a working knowledge of the effective use of reflective insulation and radiant
barriers.

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The handbook does not intend to be a definitive source, but will cover some basic information.
There are a large number of excellent authoritative publications about reflective technologies
and products. They are listed in section 10, References, and are recommended for additional
information and guidance. Our purpose in this section is to inform in an easily understandable
way, the virtues of the reflective products represented by RIMA members.

FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat flows from a hot or warm medium to a cold medium in three ways:

• By radiation from a warm surface to a cooler surface through an air space

• By conduction through solid or fluid materials
• By convection, which involves the physical movement of air

Conduction

Conduction is the direct flow of heat through a material resulting from physical contact. The
transfer of heat by conduction is caused by molecular motion in which molecules transfer their
energy to adjoining molecules and increase their temperature.

A typical example of conduction would be the heat transferred from hot coffee, through the cup,
to the hand holding the cup. Another example, as shown above, the contents of the kettle boils
from heat transferred from the burner to the kettle. Also, the poker becomes hot from contact
with the hot coals.

Heat transfer by conduction is governed by the fundamental equation described by Fouier’s

law:

(Rate of heat flow) = k x (Area) x (Temperature Gradient)

The factor k is called the thermal conductivity and is a characteristic of the material through
which heat is flowing, and it varies with temperature and the degree of compaction or its
density.

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The thermal conductivity of typical building and insulation materials is listed below :

2 2
Material k (Btu/(h.ft ) (°F/ft) Btu *in/ft *h*°F
Sawdust 0.034 0.408
Wood Shavings 0.034 0.408
Mineral Wool 0.0217 0.260
INSULATION
Std. Fiberglass Batt 0.313 3.2
High Performance 0.263 3.8
Fiberglass Batt
Loose-Fill Fiberglass 0.400 2.5
Loose-Fill Rock Wool 0.357 2.8
Loose-Fill Cellulose 0.270 3.7
Expanded Polystyrene 0.263 3.8
Extruded Polystyrene 0.208 4.8
GASES
Air 0.181 5.52
Carbon Dioxide 0.113 8.85
Helium 1.031 0.97
Methane 0.234 4.27
LIQUIDS
Ethylene Glycol 1.80 0.56
Gasoline 0.94 1.06
Water 4.19 0.24
METALS
Aluminum 1404 0.0007
Copper 2636 0.0004
Iron 468 0.0021
Lead 241 0.0041
MISCELLANEOUS BUILDING MATERIALS
Acoustical Tile 0.40 2.5
Asphalt 0.43 2.3
Concrete (D=140 pcf) 9.7 0.1
Cotton (D=6 pcf) 0.42 2.4
Glass 9.7 0.1
Soil (D=130 pcf) 3.6 0.3
Fir Lumber 0.76 1.3
Oak Lumber 1.18 0.8
Yellow Pine Lumber 1.04 1.0
Plywood 0.83 1.2

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Convection

Convection is the transfer of heat in fluid, such as air, caused by the movement of the heated
air or fluid. In a building space, warm air rises and cold air settles to create a convection loop
and is termed free convection. Convection can also be caused mechanically, (termed forced
convection), by a fan or by wind.

Typical examples of heat

transfer through convection:

1. Warm air rising from

register. (forced convection)

2. Warm air rising from all

surfaces of radiator,
(after air in contact with
radiator has been heated
by conduction).

3. Warm air rising from

chimney. (free convection)

In the flow of heat through a solid body to air, it was observed that the passage of heat into the
air was not accomplished solely through conduction. Instead, it occurred partly by radiation and
partly by free convection. A temperature difference existed between the hot solid and the
average temperature of the air. In this case, the resistance to heat transfer cannot be
computed using the thermal conductivity of air alone. Instead, the resistance has to be
determined experimentally by measuring the surface temperature of the solid, the temperature
of air, and the heat transferred from the solid to air. The resistance computed is the combined
resistance of conduction, free convection, and radiation. This resistance, denoted by the letter
2
“R”, has the units of (hr ft °F/Btu) and is commonly used to indicate the thermal characteristics
of insulation materials.

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Radiation

Radiation is the transfer of heat or energy from a hot

surface to a cold surface through air or vacuum. All
surfaces including a radiator, stove, a ceiling or roof and
ordinary insulation radiate to different degrees. The
radiant heat is invisible and has no temperature, just
energy. When this energy strikes another surface, it is
absorbed and increases the temperature of that surface.
This concept can be understood with the following
example: On a bright sunny day, radiant heat from the sun
travels through a car’s window, strikes the steering wheel
and is absorbed, causing it to rise in temperature.
In summer, radiation from the sun strikes the outer
surfaces of walls and ceilings and is absorbed causing the
surface to heat up. This heat flows from the outer wall to
the inner wall through conduction which is then radiated
again, through the air spaces in the building, to other
surfaces within the building. Radiation between surfaces
is through invisible, infra-red heat rays

There are two terms commonly encountered while discussing radiant heat transfer:

1. Emittance (or emissivity), refers to the ability of a material’s surface to emit radiant energy.
All materials have emissivities ranging from zero to one. The lower the emittance of a
material, the lower the heat radiated from its surface. Aluminum foil has a very low
emittance which explains its use in reflective insulation.

2. Reflectance (or reflectivity) refers to the fraction of incoming radiant energy that is reflected
from the surface. Reflectivity and emissivity are related and a low emittance is indicative of
a highly reflective surface. For example, aluminum with an emissivity of 0.03 has a
reflectance of 0.97.

2
The emittance of various surfaces is listed in the following table .

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Material Surface Emittance

Asphalt 0.90-0.98
*Aluminum foil 0.03-0.05
Brick 0.93
Concrete 0.85-0.95
Glass 0.95
Fiberglass / Cellulose 0.8-1.0
Iron (polished) 0.06
Iron (rusty) 0.85
Limestone 0.36-0.90
Marble 0.93
Paint: white lacquer 0.80
Paint: white enamel 0.91
Paint: black lacquer 0.80
Paint: black enamel 0.91
Paper 0.92
Plaster 0.91
Silver 0.02
Steel (mild) 0.12
Wood 0.90

THE NEED FOR INSULATION

When installed correctly, insulation reduces the heat transfer through the envelope of a
building. Whenever there is a temperature difference, heat flows naturally from a warmer
space to a cooler space. To maintain comfort in winter, the heat lost must be replaced by the
heating system; and in summer, the heat gained must be removed by the cooling system.
Statistics show that 50% to 70% of the energy used in the average home in the United States
and Canada is for heating and cooling. It makes sense to use thermal insulation to reduce this
energy consumption, while increasing comfort and saving money. Naturally, less consumption
of fossil fuels and the energy produced from them relieves the burden our ecosystem must
bear.

To summarize, insulating the envelope of a building’s conditioned space yields these key
benefits:

1. Provides a much more comfortable, productive and livable structure. In addition, the
effects of moisture condensation and air movement are minimized in well-insulated
buildings. This results in lower maintenance costs and increased longevity of the building
structure.

2. Reduces energy requirements, which lowers utility bills.

3. Supports economic, environmental and energy conservation goals. This is evidenced by

the numerous studies sponsored by the Department of Energy.

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Heat moves through wall cavities or between roofs and attic floors by radiation, conduction, and
convection with radiation the dominant method of heat transfer. A reflective insulation is an
effective barrier against radiant heat transfer because it reflects almost all of the infrared
radiation striking its surface and emits very little of the heat conducted through it. By virtue of
its impermeable surface, reflective insulation also reduces convective heat transfer. Mass
insulation like fiberglass or foam board primarily slows conductive heat transfer, and to a
smaller extent, convective heat transfer. However, mass insulation is not as effective against
infrared radiation, actually absorbing it rather than reflecting or blocking it.

REFLECTIVE INSULATION

Concept of Reflective Insulation

Different types of insulation products reduce the heat transferred by conduction, convection and
radiation to varying degrees. As a result, each provides different thermal performance and
corresponding “R” values. The primary function of reflective insulation is to reduce radiant heat
transfer across open spaces, which is a significant contributor to heat gain in summer and heat
loss in winter. The low emittance metal foil (usually aluminum) surface of the product blocks up
to 97% of the radiation and therefore a significant part of the heat transfer.

There are many types of materials that reduce heat gain and heat loss. Some materials
provide greater resistance than others, depending on the mode of heat transfer: convection,
conduction, or radiation. Most insulation materials work on the principle of trapped air gas
being a good insulator. Mass insulation like fiberglass, foam, and cellulose use layers of glass
fibers, plastic, and wood fiber respectively to reduce convection thereby decreasing the transfer
of heat. These materials also reduce heat transfer by conduction due to the presence of
trapped air. (However, these products, like most building materials, have very high radiant
transfer rates.) Heat flow by radiation has been brought to the public’s attention with high
efficiency windows which commonly use the term “Low E” to advertise the higher performance
ratings. This value is measured in emittance or “E” values ranging from 0 to 1 (lower “E” value
indicates better performance). Most building materials, including fiberglass, foam and cellulose
have “E” values in excess of 0.70. Reflective insulation typically have “E” values of 0.03 (again,
the lower the better). Therefore, reflective insulation is superior to other types of insulating
materials in reducing heat flow by radiation. The term reflective, in reflective insulation, is in
some ways a misnomer because aluminum either works by reflecting heat (reflectance of 0.97)
or by not radiating heat (emittance of 0.03). Whether stated as reflectivity or emissivity, the
performance (heat transfer) is the same. When reflective insulation is installed in building
cavities, it traps air (like other insulation materials) and therefore reduces heat flow by
convection thus addressing all three modes of heat transfer. In all cases, the reflective material
must be adjacent to an air space. Aluminum, when sandwiched between two pieces of plywood
for example, will conduct heat at a high rate.

Understanding a Reflective Insulation System (RIS)

A reflective insulation system is typically formed by layers of aluminum or a low emittance

material and enclosed air spaces which in turn provide highly reflective or low emittance cavities
adjacent to a heated region. Some reflective insulation systems also use other layers of
materials such as paper or plastic to form additional enclosed air spaces. The performance of
the system is determined by the emittance of the material(s), the lower the better, and the size
of the enclosed air spaces. The smaller the air space, the less heat will transfer by convection.

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Therefore, to lessen heat flow by convection, a reflective insulation, with its multiple layers of
aluminum and enclosed air space, is positioned in a building cavity (stud wall, furred-out
masonry wall, floor joist, ceiling joist, etc.) to divide the larger cavity (3/4” furring, 2” x 4”, 2” x 6”,
etc.) into smaller air spaces. These smaller trapped air spaces reduce convective heat flow.
Like other insulation, reflective insulation is labeled with R-values which provide a measure of
thermal performance.

Reflective insulation differs from conventional mass insulation in the following:

1. Reflective insulation has very low emittance values “E-values” (typically 0.03 compared to
0.90 for most insulation) thus significantly reduces heat transfer by radiation;
2. A reflective insulation does not have significant mass to absorb and retain heat;
3. Reflective insulation has lower moisture transfer and absorption rates, in most cases;
4. Reflective insulation traps air with layers of aluminum, paper and/or plastic as opposed to
mass insulation which uses fibers of glass, particles of foam, or ground up paper;
5. Reflective insulation does not irritate the skin, eyes, or throat and contain no substances
which will out-gas;
6. The change in thermal performance due to compaction or moisture absorption, a common
concern with mass insulation, is not an issue with reflective insulation.

Types of Reflective Insulation Materials

Reflective insulation has been used effectively for decades and is available throughout the
world. The following are the major types of reflective insulation currently available:

1. Layer or layers of aluminum foil separated by a layer or layers of plastic bubbles or a foam
material;
2. Multiple layers of aluminum, kraft paper, and/or plastic with internal expanders an flanges at
the edge for easy installation;
3. Single layer of aluminum foil laminated to a kraft paper or plastic material.

Applications for Reflective Insulation Materials

Reflective insulation materials are designed for installation between or over framing members
and as a result, are applicable to unfinished walls, floors, and ceilings. Applications for
reflective insulation extend to many commercial, agricultural and industrial uses, such as
panelized wood roofs, pre-engineered buildings, pole barns and other wood framed structures.
A few representative applications are listed below:

• Residential Construction, New and Retrofit

Walls, basements, floors, ceilings, roofs, and crawl spaces.

• Commercial Construction, New and Retrofit

Walls, floors, basements, ceilings, roofs, and crawl spaces.

• Manufactured Housing Construction, New and Retrofit

Walls, floors, roofs, and crawl spaces.

• Other Uses, New and Retrofit

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Water heater covers, cold storage units, poultry, and livestock buildings, equipment
sheds, pipe insulation and recreational vehicles.

Typical applications (new and retrofit) for reflective insulation

Reflective insulation in typical basement installation

Installing Reflective Insulation Systems

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Reflective insulation products incorporate trapped air spaces as part of the system. These air
spaces, which may be layered or closed-cell, can be included in the system either when the
product is manufactured or while it is being installed. In either case, the advertised
performance of the insulation requires that these air spaces be present after the product is
installed. The labeled R-values will not be achieved if the product is not installed according to
the instructions of the manufacturer.

The thermal performance of the reflective system varies with the size and number of enclosed
reflective spaces within the building cavity. Most reflective systems range from one to five
enclosed air spaces, as shown in the figure and schematic below.

Schematic of reflective insulation installed between framing members

Air spaces in typical Reflective Insulation System

There are other beneficial considerations for using reflective insulation. Generally, these
products have a very low water vapor and air permeance. When installed properly, with joints
taped securely, reflective insulation materials are efficient vapor retarders and an effective
barrier to air and radon gas.

Since reflective insulation materials are effective vapor retarders, care should be taken to
ensure that they are installed correctly within the structure. Correct installation depends on the
climatic conditions and moisture sources involved. An appropriate installation ensures that all
joints and seams are butted against each other and taped, or overlapped and taped. This will
reduce the possibility of moisture condensation within the cavity and improve performance.

RADIANT BARRIERS

Physics of Radiant Barriers

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A “radiant barrier” is a reflective/low-emittance surface, on or near a building component, that

intercepts the flow of radiant energy to and from the building component. It is, as the name
suggests, a barrier to radiant heat movement, the same as a vapor barrier blocks water vapor
migration and an air barrier stops air flow.

A radiant barrier can be aluminum foil laminate, aluminized plastic film or a low emittance
coating. The only requirement is that its surface must have low emittance and high reflectivity
in the infrared band of the spectrum.

The aluminum foil shields that are commonly inserted behind radiators in older houses are
radiant barriers, blocking radiant heat transfer from the radiator to the exterior wall. The
invisible glass coating in low-E windows is also a radiant barrier.

It should be clearly understood that although a radiant barrier reduces heat loss and gain
through the building envelope, it is not an insulation material per se and has no inherent R-
value.

Radiant Barrier Systems (RBS)

A “radiant barrier system” (RBS) is a building section that includes a radiant barrier facing an air
space. An attic with a radiant barrier on top of the mass insulation on the floor, or under the
roof is an RBS. A vent skin wall with a radiant barrier facing the vented air space is also an
RBS.

The distinction between a radiant barrier “material” and radiant barrier “system” is not merely
academic. In an attic, the effectiveness of a radiant barrier is significantly affected by the
amount of attic ventilation. A vented attic with a radiant barrier is a very different system from
an unvented attic with the same radiant barrier.

TECHNICAL NOTE: The generally accepted definition of a radiant barrier system specifies that
the reflective material face an open air space. The idea is that a radiant barrier facing an
enclosed air space is a “reflective insulation” with a measurable R- value.

Types of Radiant Barrier Material

Several types of radiant barrier materials are available. Although they all have similar surface
properties (and consequently similar performance), variations in materials and construction
result in significant differences with respect to strength, durability, flammability and water vapor
permeability.

Most products available commercially fall into three major categories:

1. Aluminum Foil Laminates - foil laminated to kraft paper, plastic films, or to OSB/plywood
roof sheathing
2. Aluminized Plastic Films - a thin layer of aluminum particles deposited on film through a
vacuum process
3. Reflective Paints/Coatings - liquids that reduce the emissivity of the surface to which they
are applied

Installing Radiant Barriers

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Attics

The most common location for a radiant barrier system is in attics. Three basic configurations
are used:

1. Rafter/truss installation

2. Under, or pre-laminated to, roof sheathing

3. Horizontal installation (directly above ceiling and/or ceiling insulation)

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As noted before, a vented attic with a radiant barrier is a very different system from an
unvented attic with the same radiant barrier. Common types of attic ventilation are:

• Soffit to ridge
• Soffit to gable
• Soffit to soffit
• Gable to gable

Most codes require at least a 1 to 150 ventilation rate. What this means is that for every 150
square feet of floor space, there should be one square foot of free vent area.

Walls

Several types of radiant barriers are used in walls, as shown in the figure below. An example is
foil faced fiberglass batts stapled to the sides of the wall studs, leaving an air space between
the foil facing and interior sheathing. Another less common technique is to use foil faced
drywall over furring strips on the interior stud faces. The furring strips create an air space
between the foil facing and cavity insulation. The technique used commonly in Florida is to
apply a radiant barrier to the exterior of the wall, followed by furring strips and sheathing. In this
construction, commonly referred to as “vent skin” construction, the air space created by the
furring strips is typically vented top and bottom so that outdoor air can circulate into and through
the space.

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TECHNICAL NOTE: When an interior barrier is used, all seams should be taped to avoid
possible moisture migration. When an exterior barrier is used, it should be perforated unless a
vapor retarder is used on the interior side, otherwise it may trap moisture. Application
techniques will vary depending on the climate in which radiant barriers are used.

Floors

Radiant barriers can also be used in floor systems above unheated basements and crawl
spaces. The radiant barrier is either stapled to the underside of floor joists, creating a single
reflective air space, or between the joists, followed by some type of sheathing, creating two
separate reflective air spaces as shown below.

Laboratory experiments and computer modeling suggest that floor radiant barrier systems may
exhibit R-values as high as R-7.5 to R-8.0 for reducing heat loss to basements and crawl
spaces. Radiant barriers make an ideal choice for this application because, in addition to their
excellent thermal properties, they are also vapor barriers that prevent ground moisture from
migrating into the living space above.

INTERIOR RADIATION CONTROL COATINGS (IRCC)

Definition of an IRCC

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An Interior Radiation Control Coating is a non-thickness dependent, low emittance coating.

When applied to non-porous building materials such as plywood, OSB, metal siding or
plasterboard, it lowers the normal surface emittance of these materials to 0.24 or lower and
may be effectively used as an interior radiant barrier.

Physics of an IRCC

An IRCC works by changing the emittance of the surface where it is applied. Building products,
such as wood, brick, painted surfaces and plasterboard exhibit high emissivities (0.7 - 0.95).
When heated above the temperature of adjacent surfaces, they radiate most of their heat
energy to cooler surfaces. An IRCC works by lowering their surface emittance to 0.24 or lower,
lessening their ability to radiate heat.

Definition of an Interior Radiation Control System (IRCCS)

A building construction consisting of a low emittance (normally 0.25 or less) surface bounded by
an open air space. An IRCCS is used for the sole purpose of limiting heat transfer by radiation
and is not specifically intended to reduce heat transfer by convection or conduction. (ASTM C
1321, section 3.2.3)

Thus, an IRCCS is similar to a Radiant Barrier System (RBS) but is somewhat less efficient due
to its higher emissivity and is comprised of a coating on a building surface, not a foil or film
product.

Advantages of an IRCC

An IRCC is normally applied using airless spray equipment, resulting in very low labor costs and
greatly reduced installation times. Also, a water based IRCC can be safely installed in existing
structures where the costs of installing foil or film products may be prohibitive or impractical. An
IRCC may also be used in many manufactured products (such as infrared heat reflectors of
automotive parts) where it is impractical to adhere foil or film radiant barriers.

Installation methods for an IRCC

Since an IRCC is a paint product, spray painting, either air atomization or airless is the most
effective method of installation. Where spray painting is not practical. An IRCC may be applied
using a low nap roller. Brush painting is usually impractical since these coatings are very low
viscosity and not formulated for brush application.

The IRCC may be applied to a building surface already in place (such as the underside of an
installed roof deck or the inside of a wall) or it may be applied to a building component before it
is installed (such as roof decking painted while laying on the ground before it is lifted into place.
Regardless when a building component is painted with and IRCC, it is imperative that after
installation the surface painted with the IRCC face a minimum of a 2” air space.

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Typical installations of an IRCC

Under Roof

Interior Side Walls

Exterior Side Walls

Other Possible Uses - Construction

An IRCC is a paint product therefore it can be used on almost any solid surface where paint can
be applied and where radiant heat transfer is a problem. An example would be painting the
inside of a boiler room to retain heat that might make adjacent areas uncomfortable. Even
painting the boiler, itself, might make it operate more efficiently. Freestanding heat shield in
welding bays or at foundries can be painted with an IRCC. Exterior roof surfaces may also be
painted with an IRCC to repel summer heat and lower radiation losses in the winter.

Other Possible Uses of an IRCC

IRCC technology has many applications in manufacturing and industry. It is used in the
automotive industry to keep temperature sensitive parts and automotive interiors cool. It is
used in the lighting industry to make plastic reflectors for heat lamps and radiant heating
devices. It is used as a heat reflecting surface in industrial ovens. It is used on high
temperature process piping and storage tanks in chemical plants to lessen heat loss. Any
process or device that is temperature sensitive to infrared heat problems or uses reflected heat
in its operation may be a candidate for IRCC technology.

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Conduction: Conduction is the direct flow of heat through a material resulting from physical
contact. The transfer of heat by conduction is caused by molecular motion in which molecules
transfer their energy to adjoining molecules and increase their temperature.

Convection: Convection is the transfer of heat in fluid or air, caused by the movement of the
heated air or fluid itself. In a building space, warm air rises and cold air settles to create a
convection loop and is termed free convection. Convection can also be caused mechanically
by a fan and is termed forced convection.

Emittance: Emittance refers to the ability of the surface to emit radiant energy. Emissivity
ranges from 0 to 1 and a lower value indicates a reflective surface with a low level of radiation.

“R” value: Property of an insulation material used to characterize the effectiveness of the
insulation in reducing heat transfer by conduction. The higher the “R” value, the better the
insulation’s ability to reduce this heat transfer.

Radiation: Radiation is the transfer of heat or energy from a hot surface to a cold surface
through air or through a vacuum.

Radiant Barrier: A radiant barrier is a reflective surface, on or near a building component, that
intercepts the flow of radiant energy to and from the building component.

Radiant Barrier System: A Radiant Barrier System (RBS) is a building section that includes a
radiant barrier facing an air space.

Reflectance: Reflectance refers to the fraction of incoming radiant energy that is reflected from
the surface.

Reflective Insulation System: Reflective Insulation System is formed by a combination of low

emittance surfaces and air spaces that provide reflective cavities which have low levels of
radiant energy transmission.

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REFERENCES

The following list of references is selective rather than exhaustive. Technical papers, reports,
sections of books, and important compliance documents have been included. Many of the
papers and reports contain references that broaden the list and provide additional insight into
the performance of reflective insulation and radiant barriers.

Reviews

1. Gross and R.G. Miller, “Literature Review of Measurement and Predictions of Reflective
Building Insulation System Performance: 1900-1989”, ASHRAE Transactions 95 (2) 651-
664 (1989).

2. Ned Nisson: Radiant Barriers, Principles, Practice, and Product Directory”, Energy Design
Update, Cutter Information Corporation, Arlington, MA (1990).

Technical Papers

1. Ludwig, Adams, “Thermal Conductance of Air Spaces”, ASHRAE Journal (March, 1976) pp.
37-38

2. Cook, D.W. Yarbrough, and K.E. Wilkes, “Contamination of Reflective Foils in Horizontal
Applications and the Effect on Thermal Performance”, ASHRAE Transactions 95 (1) (1989).

3. Andre O. Desjarlais and David W. Yarbrough, ‘“Prediction of the Thermal Performance of

Single and Multi-Airspace Reflective Insulation Materials”, Insulation Materials: Testing and
Applications, 2nd Volume, ASTM STP 1116, R.S. Graves and D.C. Wysocki, Editors,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia (1991).

4. Fairey, “Effect of Infrared Radiation Barriers on the Effective Thermal Resistance of Building
Envelopes”, Proceedings of the ASHRAE/DOE Conference on Thermal Performance of the
Exterior Envelopes of Buildings II, ASHRAE Special Publication 38 (1983).

5. Philip Fairey, “The Measured, Side-by-Side Performance of Attic Radiant Barrier Systems in
Hot-Humid Climates”, Thermal Conductivity 19, David W. Yarbrough, Editor, Plenum Press
(1988) pp. 481-496.

6. Robert Hageman and Mark P. Medera, “Energy Savings and HVAC Capacity Implications of
a Low-Emissivity Interior Surface for Roof Sheathing”.

7. Joy, “Improving Attic Space Insulating Values”, ASHRAE Transactions 64 251 (1959).

8. Levins and M.A. Karnitz, “Cooling Energy Measurements of Unoccupied Single-Family

Houses with Attics Containing Radiant Barriers”, ORNL/CON-200 (1986), Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN.

9. Levins and M.A. Karnitz, “Cooling Energy Measurements of Unoccupied Single-Family

Houses with Attics Containing Radiant Barriers, ORNL/CON-213 (1987), Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN.

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10. Levins and M.A. Karnitz, “Cooling Energy Measurements of Unoccupied Single-Family
Houses with Attics Containing Radiant Barriers, ORNL/CON-226 (1987), Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN.

11. Levins and M.A. Karnitz, “Cooling Energy Measurements of Unoccupied Single-Family
Houses with Attics Containing Radiant Barriers”, ORNL/CON-239 (1988), Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN.

12. Levins, M.A. Karnitz, and J.A. Hall, “Moisture Measurements in Single-Family Houses
Containing Radiant Barriers”, ORNL/CON-255 (1989), Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak
Ridge, TN.

13. McQuiston, S.L. Der, and S.B. Sandoval, “Thermal Simulation of Attic and Ceiling Spaces”,
ASHRAE Transactions 90 739-163 (1984).

14. Pratt, “Heat Transmission in Buildings, John Wiley and Sons, Chapter 3, “The Thermal
Resistance of Airspaces in Cavity Building Structures”, (181) pgs. 66-98.

15. Robinson and F.J. Powell, “The Thermal Insulating Value of Airspaces”, Housing Research
Paper No. 32, National Bureau of Standards Project NE-12, National Bureau of Standards,
Washington, DC (1954).

16. Robinson, L.A. Cosgrove and F.J. Powell, “Thermal Resistance of Airspaces and Fibrous
Insulation Bounded by Reflective Surfaces”, Building Materials and Structures Report 151,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC (1957).

17. St. Regis, “Reflective Insulation and the Control of Thermal Environments”, St. Regis-ACI,
Diethelm & Co., LTD, Bangkok, Thailand (1969).

18. Wilkes, “Thermal Modeling of Residential Attics with Radiant Barriers: Comparison with
Laboratory and Field Data”, Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of Buildings IV,
ASHRAE (1989) pp. 294-311.

19. Wilkes, “Thermal Model of Attic Systems with Radiant Barriers”, ORNL/CON-262 91991)
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN/

20. Kenneth E. Wilkes, “Analysis of Annual Thermal and Moisture Performance of Radiant
Barrier Systems”, ORNL/CON-319 (1991), Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN.

21. Wu, “The Effect of Various Attic Venting Devices on the Performance of Radiant Barrier
Systems in Hot Arid Climates”, Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of Buildings
IV”, ASHRAE (1989) pp. 261-270.

22. Yarbrough, “Assessments of Reflective Insulation for Residential and Commercial

Applications”, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report ORNL/TM 8819, Oak Ridge, TN
(1983).

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23. Yarbrough, “Estimation of the Thermal Resistance of a Series of Reflective Air Spaces
Bounded by Parallel Low Emittance Surfaces”, Proceedings of the Conference on Fire
Safety and Thermal Insulation, S.A. Siddiqui, Editor, (1990) pp. 214-231.

24. Yarbrough, “Thermal Resistance of Air Ducts with Bubblepack Reflective Insulation”,
Journal of Thermal Insulation 15 137-152 (1991).

25. Queer, “Importance of Radiation and Heat Transfer Through Air Spaces”, American Society
of Heating and Air Conditioning Engineers.

Documents

1993 ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals - IP Edition, American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 1791 Tullie Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA.

• “Surface Conductances and Resistances for Air” Table 1 - page 22.1

• “Thermal Resistances of Plane Air Spaces” Table 2 - page 22.2

• “Emittance Values of Various Surfaces and Effective Table 3 - page 22.3

• Emittances of Air Spaces”

• “Effective Thermal Resistance of Ventilated Attics” Table 5 - page 22.11

Federal Trade Commission, Part 460, “Labeling and Advertising of Home Insulation”
Para. 460.5 R-value Tests 2(b) Aluminum Foil systems
2(c) Single sheet systems
2(d) Foil facings

International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), “Acceptance Criteria for Reflective

Insulation,” (1987, revised 1997).

U.S. Department of Energy, “Attic Radiant Barrier Fact Sheet,” (1991).

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ASTM Standards

C 236-89 “Standard Test Method for Steady-State Thermal Performance of Building

Assemblies by Means of a Guarded Hot Box.” 1995 Annual Book of ASTM
Standards Vol. 04.06 (1995) pp. 52-62.

C 727-90 “Standard Practice for Use and Installation of Reflective Insulation in Building
Constructions.” 1995 Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 04.06 (1995) pp.
339-341.

C 976-90 “Standard Test Method for Thermal Performance of Building Assemblies by

Means of a Calibrated Hot Box.” 1995 Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol.
04.06 (1995) pp. 463-481.

C 1158-90 “Standard Practice for Use and Installation of Radiant Barrier Systems (RBS) in
Building Construction.” 1995 Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 04.06 (1995)
pp. 655-657.

C 1224-93 “Standard Specification for Reflective Insulation for Building Applications.” 1995
Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 04.06 (1995) pp. 670-673.

C 1313-95 “Standard Specification for Sheet Radiant Barriers for Building Construction
Applications.” 1996 Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 04.06 (1996) pp.

C 1340-96 “Standard Practice for Estimation of Heat Gain or Loss Through Ceilings Under
Attics Containing Radiant Barriers by Use of a Computer Program.” 1997
Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 04.06 (1997) to be published.

C 1371-96 “Standard Test Method for Determination of Emittance of Materials Near Room
Temperature Using Portable Emissometers.” 1997 Annual Book of ASTM
Standards Vol. 04.06 (1997) to be published.

E 84-95b “Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building

Materials.” 1995 Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 04.07 (1995).

E 96-95 “Standard Test Method for Water Vapor Transmission of Materials.” 1995
Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 04.06 (1995) pp. 697-704.

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APPENDIX A

INTRODUCTORY COMMENTS ON THERMAL

RESISTANCES FOR REFLECTIVE INSULATION SYSTEMS
________________________________________________________________

Reflective insulation materials (RIMs) are available in a variety of forms that includes one or
more low emittance (emissivity) surfaces. The low emittance surfaces are generally provided
by aluminum foils or deposited aluminum surfaces which exhibit very low emittances and high
reflectances for long wavelength radiation. The foils are attached to other materials for
mechanical strength or support. In some cases, supporting materials add to the thermal
resistance of the reflective insulation system that is created upon installation of a reflective
insulation in a building or vehicle cavity. The following discussion of thermal resistances will be
limited to one-dimensional heat flow across reflective air spaces.

A reflective insulation system (RIS) is formed by a RIM positioned to form one or more enclosed
air spaces. A good RIS design will have at least one low-emittance major surface bounding
each air space. The purpose of the low-emittance high-reflectance surfaces is to significantly
reduce the radiative heat transfer across the enclosed air space. The enclosed air spaces that
make up a RIS are not ventilated. There should be no air movement in or out of the enclosed
space. The reflective air spaces (enclosed spaces) are positioned so that the major surfaces
are perpendicular to the anticipated heat flow direction. When this is done, the thermal
resistances of the air spaces in series are additive. If the reflective insulation material has
thermal resistance, then this resistance is added to that provided by the reflective air spaces.

The thermal resistance for one-dimensional heat-flow through a series of n reflective air spaces
is:

RTOTAL = RAIRSPACE ONE + RAIRSPACE TWO + ... RAIRSPACE “n” + RREFLECTIVE MATERIAL

Heat is transferred across air spaces by conduction and convection as well as radiation.
Convective heat transfer within the air space is related to the movement of air caused by
temperature differences. The density of air at constant pressure decreases as the temperature
increases. A temperature difference between two regions will result in air density differences
which will result in buoyant forces and air movement or natural convection. The magnitude of
the buoyant forces increases as the temperature increases and the induced movement of air
depends on the buoyant force magnitude and its direction relative to gravity. Since heat flow is
in the direction of decreasing temperature, the direction of the buoyant force will depend on the
orientation and temperatures of the bounding surfaces. As a result, the convective contribution
to the overall heat transfer depends on heat flow direction. Convective heat flow upward is the
greatest, and convective heat flow down is the least and can be zero in an idealized system
with stagnant air.

Estimates of the thermal resistance of a single reflective air space that has parallel bounding
surfaces perpendicular to the direction of heat flow can be made using the following equations.

R = ( E • h r + hc )-1 = ∆T (1)
Q

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-1
 1 1 
E =  + - 1  (2)
 ε1 ε2 

3
 ( T m + 459.7) 
hr = 0.00686   (3)
 100 

hc = f ( λ, T m , ∆T, heat flow direction ) (4)

∈i IR emittance for surface “i”, i = 1 or 2

Ε Effective emittance for an air space
2
hc Convective heat transfer coefficient, Btu/ft · hr· °F
2
hr Radiative heat transfer coefficient, Btu/ft · hr· °F
l Thickness of air space, inches
Q Heat flux, Btu/hr· ft2
2
R Thermal resistance, ft · hr· °F/Btu
Τµ Average of hot and cold surface temperatures, °F
∆Τ Difference between hot and cold surface temperatures, °F

Equation (1) expresses mathematically the fact that R-value depends on heat transfer by
radiation, Ε· hr, and heat transfer by conduction-convection, hc. The multiplying factor, Ε, is
often called an effective emittance and takes on values between 0 and 1. Its value depends on
the emittances of the two major bounding surfaces, ∈i and ∈2, as shown by Equation (2). The
“Ε” value for an air space with one low-emittance aluminum boundary is very low, usually in the
range 0.03 to 0.05.

Equation (3) is the heat transfer coefficient for radiation, h r, between two parallel surfaces. The
hr is multiplied by “Ε” to introduce the effect of surface emittances. Equation (2) has been
derived for infinite parallel planes and discussed in most texts dealing with radiative heat
transfer.

The equation for hc is the complication in the R-value calculation. Equation (4) indicates that hc
depends (is a function of) four variables for one-dimensional heat flow between parallel
surfaces. Values for hc are developed from experimental data for total heat flow such as that
obtained with a hot-box facility such as that described in ASTM C 236. The terms R, Ε, and h r
are obtained from emittance and hot-box measurements. Values for hc are derived from sets of
hot box measurements done for a specific heat-flow direction. Robinson and Powell (see
references) have provided hc in graphical form and Yarbrough (see references) has provided hc
in analytical form.

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One-dimensional heat flow and R-values between large parallel surfaces held at different
temperatures and separated by distance “l” are established by the above equations and
discussion. The procedure has been used to generate the following three tables for single air
space R-values for Τµ = 50°F and ∆Τ = 30°F. These temperatures match the requirements of
the FTC labeling rule for “single-sheet” products.

Tables 1, 2, or 3 can be used to estimate the R-value for a RIS provided that the overall
temperature difference across each element in the RIS is known. The steady-state
temperature difference (∆Τ) across each element is related to the R-values of the RIS
elements, Ri, by Equation (5).

∆T
∆ T i = Ri * (5)
R

∆T = ∑ ∆ T i (6)
i

R = ∑ Ri
i

(7)Unfortunately, Ri values are related to ∆Τi. The only known quantity in Equation (5) is the
overall temperature difference ∆Τ. An approach to solving for R is to first estimate the ∆Τi
values. This should be done in such a way that Equation (6) is satisfied. Given a trial set of
∆Τi, the average temperature T in each element can be calculated and R i can then be
estimated from Tables 1, 2, and 3. This, of course, limits the accuracy since the tables are for
50°F. The total R is calculated by adding the Ri as indicated by Equation (7). The calculated
Ri are used to recalculate ∆Τi by means of Equation (5). This iterative procedure is continued
until constant values for ∆Τi and Ri are obtained.

The calculational procedure can be improved by using the iterative procedure and Equation (1)
to calculate Ri values. Table 4 has been prepared to expedite the calculation for a mean air
space temperature of 75°F.

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Table 1. Calculated R-Values for an Enclosed Air Space at 50°F

and ∆Τ = 30°F -- Heat Flow Down
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
l Ε/ 0.030 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.250 0.500 0.750 0.820
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

0.50 2.63 2.51 2.25 2.04 1.72 1.24 0.97 0.91

0.75 3.72 3.48 3.01 2.64 2.13 1.44 1.08 1.01
1.00 4.69 4.32 3.61 3.10 2.42 1.56 1.15 1.07
1.25 5.57 5.06 4.11 3.46 2.63 1.65 1.20 1.11
1.50 6.36 5.70 4.53 3.75 2.80 1.71 1.23 1.14
1.75 7.03 6.23 4.86 3.98 2.92 1.76 1.25 1.16
2.00 7.60 6.68 5.12 4.15 3.01 1.79 1.27 1.18
2.25 8.08 7.04 5.34 4.29 3.09 1.81 1.28 1.19
2.50 8.49 7.36 5.51 4.41 3.15 1.83 1.29 1.20
3.00 9.15 7.84 5.78 4.58 3.23 1.86 1.31 1.21
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Table 2. Calculated R-Values for an Enclosed Air Space at 50°F

and ∆Τ = 30°F -- Heat Flow Horizontal
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
l Ε/ 0.030 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.250 0.500 0.750 0.820
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

0.50 2.41 2.31 2.09 1.91 1.63 1.19 0.93 0.88

0.75 2.88 2.74 2.43 2.19 1.83 1.29 1.00 0.94
1.00 2.76 2.63 2.35 2.12 1.78 1.27 0.98 0.93
1.25 2.67 2.55 2.28 2.07 1.74 1.25 0.97 0.92
1.50 2.62 2.50 2.25 2.04 1.72 1.24 0.97 0.91
1.75 2.60 2.48 2.23 2.02 1.71 1.23 0.96 0.91
2.00 2.59 2.47 2.22 2.02 1.70 1.23 0.96 0.90
2.25 2.58 2.47 2.22 2.02 1.70 1.23 0.96 0.90
2.50 2.59 2.47 2.22 2.02 1.71 1.23 0.96 0.91
3.00 2.61 2.49 2.24 2.03 1.72 1.23 0.96 0.91
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Table 3. Calculated R-Values for an Enclosed Air Space at 50°F

and ∆Τ = 30°F -- Heat Flow Up
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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l Ε/ 0.030 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.250 0.500 0.750 0.820

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

0.50 1.61 1.56 1.46 1.37 1.22 0.95 0.78 0.75

0.75 1.69 1.64 1.53 1.43 1.27 0.98 0.80 0.76
1.00 1.76 1.70 1.58 1.47 1.30 1.00 0.82 0.78
1.25 1.81 1.75 1.62 1.51 1.33 1.02 0.83 0.79
1.50 1.85 1.79 1.66 1.54 1.35 1.03 0.84 0.79
1.75 1.89 1.83 1.69 1.57 1.37 1.05 0.84 0.80
2.00 1.92 1.86 1.71 1.59 1.39 1.06 0.85 0.81
2.25 1.95 1.88 1.74 1.61 1.40 1.06 0.86 0.81
2.50 1.98 1.91 1.76 1.63 1.42 1.07 0.86 0.82
3.00 2.02 1.95 1.79 1.66 1.44 1.09 0.87 0.82
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Table 4. Conduction-Convection Coefficients, hc, for use in Equation (1)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Heat Flow Down Width of Air Space (l, in.)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
DT 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5 0.359 0.184 0.126 0.097 0.080 0.068
10 0.361 0.187 0.129 0.100 0.082 0.072
15 0.363 0.189 0.131 0.101 0.085 0.075
20 0.364 0.190 0.132 0.103 0.087 0.078
25 0.365 0.191 0.133 0.105 0.090 0.081
30 0.366 0.192 0.134 0.106 0.092 0.082
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Heat Flow Horizontal Width of Air Space (l, in.)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
DT 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5 0.360 0.204 0.169 0.179 0.185 0.189
10 0.366 0.267 0.223 0.233 0.238 0.241
15 0.373 0.247 0.261 0.271 0.275 0.276
20 0.380 0.270 0.292 0.301 0.303 0.303
25 0.387 0.296 0.317 0.325 0.327 0.326
30 0.394 0.319 0.339 0.347 0.347 0.345
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Heat Flow Up Width of Air Space (l, in.)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
DT 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5 0.381 0.312 0.295 0.284 0.275 0.268
10 0.429 0.381 0.360 0.346 0.336 0.328

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15 0.472 0.428 0.405 0.389 0.377 0.368

20 0.511 0.465 0.440 0.423 0.410 0.400
25 0.545 0.496 0.469 0.451 0.437 0.426
30 0.574 0.523 0.494 0.475 0.460 0.449
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example 1. Calculation of Thermal Resistance for a Single Air Space.

Specifications Surface One: T = 70°F, ε1 = 0.03

Surface Two: T = 80°F, ε2 = 0.80
Space between surfaces, l, 2.0 inches
Heat flow down

Equation 2 for Ε Ε = (1/0.03 + 1/0.8 - 1) = 0.0298

-1

Τµ = (70 + 80)/2 = 75
DT = 80 - 70 = 10

hc from Table 4 hc = 0.100

hr from Equation 3 hr = 1.049
-1 2
R from Equation 1 R = (0.0298 x 1.049 + 0.100) = 7.6 (ft · h· °F/Btu)

Example 2. Estimation of Thermal Resistance for Two One-inch Reflective Air Spaces in
Series.

Specifications: Air space 1: 1.0 inch wide

Side one ε1 = 0.80
Side two ε2 = 0.03

Air space 2: 1.0 inch wide

Side one ε1 = 0.03
Side two ε2 = 0.80

Cold side temperature 70°F

Warm side temperature 80°F

First Approximation for DT

DT across air space 1: DT1 = 5°F

DT across air space 2: DT2 = 5°F

Use hc at mean temperature 75°F as an approximation.

Τµ for air space 1: 72.5°F

Τµ for air space 2: 77.5°F
Ε1 = Ε2 = 0.0298

From Table 4 hc1 = 0.184

hc2 = 0.184

From Equation 3 hr1 = 1.034

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hr2 = 1.064

From Equation 1 R1 = 4.66

R2 = 4.64
R = R1 + R2 = 9.3

Check approximation for DT

DT1 = 10 x 4.66/9.3 = 5.01
DT2 = 10 x 4.64/9.3 = 4.99

These DT values agree with the assumed values. If the agreement is not satisfactory then the
calculation should be repeated using the calculated DT values.

Examples 1 and 2 show the approach used to calculate thermal resistances for an idealized
system. A more precise calculation can be carried out with a mathematical expression for hc
rather than a table. In most cases measured R values are less than those calculated for an
idealized system.

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