Chapter 13

The Human Endocrine System

Dr Mapula Matimolane
OLS2003
 Lecture 1: Learning Outcomes
We will discuss …
• Chemical messengers: How endocrine and nervous systems interact
with each other as communication/control systems
• General functions of the endocrine system in the human body.
• Characteristics of endocrine system: what is a hormone?
• How hormones are classified according to their chemical makeup &
solubility
• How hormones bring about their effects in the body
 Exocrine vs. Endocrine gland

Which gland is part of a ductless system?

Think of examples of these glands
 Endocrine vs.
Exocrine glands
Fig. 13.2

Cellular Communication by the Nervous and Endocrine Systems

 Comparison of the Nervous and
Endocrine Systems
Nervous system Endocrine system

Speed & persistence of

response
Type of communication
system:
Chemical/electrical

Transmission of the signal

Area of effect
 What are Hormones?
 Chemical Messengers

 Transported in the blood

 Target cells or organs)

 Target cells must have specific protein

receptors
 Hormone binding influences the
working of the cells
 Hypothalamus

Pituitary gland
• Anterior lobe
• Posterior lobe

Hypothalamus Pineal gland

• Releasing hormones • Melatonin
• Inhibiting hormones

Pituitary gland Thyroid gland

Anterior lobe • Thyroxine
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) • Triiodothyronine
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) • Calcitonin
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) Parathyroid glands
• Prolactin • Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
• Growth hormone Thymus gland
Posterior lobe • Thymosin
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) • Thymopoietin
• Oxytocin Heart
Adrenal glands • Atrial natriuretic hormone
Cortex
Stomach
• Cortisol
• Gastrin
• Aldosterone
Pancreas
Medulla
• Glucagon
• Epinephrine
• Insulin
• Norepinephrine • Somatostatin
Kidneys Intestines
• Erythropoietin • Secretin
• Renin • Cholecystokinin

Ovaries (Female) Testes (Male)

• Estrogen • Testosterone
• Progesterone

Figure 13.1
Major processes controlled by the endocrine
system
• Regulation of metabolism…..how? Which hormones?
• Regulation of growth and development …..how?
• Regulation of reproduction ….how?
• Regulation of stress response …..how?
• Regulation of cell permeability …..how?
Major processes controlled by the endocrine system
Synthesis,
secretion &
storage of
hormones
Review your Cell Biology lectures
 Figure 45.5
Water-soluble (hydrophilic) Lipid-soluble (hydrophobic)
Polypeptides Steroids

Chemical nature
of hormones

• Amino acid based 0.8 nm

Insulin Cortisol
• Amines,
• Peptides Amines
• Protens
• Steroids

Epinephrine Thyroxine
 Hormones: Mechanisms of Hormone Action
Signaling by hormones involves
three key events:
– Reception: receptors

– Signal transduction

– Response: stimulation, changes in

permeability,
activation/deactivation, synthesis
 Mechanisms of Hormone Action

• Location of receptors – relation to the chemical

nature of hormone
• Lipid solubility – cell membrane structure
Membrane
proteins functions
Revise Cell biology
 Mechanisms by which hormones trigger
changes in cells
• Steroid vs. nonsteroid hormone actions
 Mechanism of steroid
Capillary
hormone action on a target
Steroid hormone
cell
Interstitial fluid 1
Hormone diffuses

Target cell
Hormone membrane
receptor Hormone-
receptor
complex
Nucleus

2
Gene activated
DNA

RNA

3
Examples of steroid hormones Protein synthesis

Estrogen
New protein
Progesterone
Testosterone 4
New protein alters
Cortisol cell activity
Cell cytoplasm
Aldosterone
Figure 13.2
 Mechanism of
Capillary nonsteroid hormone
action on a target cell
Nonsteroid 1
Interstitial fluid hormone Hormone binds
(first messenger) to receptor
Receptor

Enzyme
Target cell Cyclic AMP
membrane (second messenger)

2
Activates the two-messenger Enzyme 1 activated
Cell cytoplasm

system of hormone action 3

Enzyme 2 activated
• Where are the two
4
Enzyme 3 activated
messengers located?
• What are their basic Nucleus
5
Final product alters
cell activity
functions?
Figure 13.3
 Figure 45.6-2
SECRETORY
CELL
Compare steroid and
nonsteroid hormone Water- Lipid-
soluble soluble
actions hormone hormone

VIA
BLOOD
Transport
Signal receptor protein

TARGET OR
CELL Signal
receptor

Cytoplasmic
response Gene
regulation
Cytoplasmic
response Gene
regulation

NUCLEUS
(a) (b)
 Review
• Compare and contrast non-steroid and steroid hormones by:
• Lipid solubility
• How they exert their effect on target cells
• How they are transported in the blood
• Why can’t lipid insoluble hormones enter cells?
• Clinical relevance: Lipid- and water soluble hormones in medicine
Why can some hormones be taken orally, but other hormones must be
injected to be effective?

http://www.johnwiley.net.au/highered/interactions/media/Regulation/conte
nt/Regulation/endo2a/screen0.swf
 Review
• Functional differences between endocrine system and
nervous system
• Chemical messengers
• Functions of the endocrine system
• Hormone, receptor, target cell relationship
• Chemical categories of hormones
• Amines, peptides and steroids
• Water-soluble vs lipid soluble
 Reception – location of receptors
 Signal transduction & responses
 Transport in blood
 Learning Outcomes
• Regulation of hormone secretion
Role of hormonal feedback loops
Role of endocrine gland stimuli
• How the hypothalamus regulates hormone secretion
from pituitary gland
Hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary gland
Hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland
 Hormones Participate in Negative Feedback Loops

• Many hormones participate in internal homeostatic control

mechanisms

• What is the difference between positive and negative feedback?

http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/9834092339/student_view0
/chapter46/positive_and_negative_feedback.html

Revise
 Positive vs Negative feedback
True or False

1. A positive feedback loop causes a self-amplifying cycle where a

physiological change leads to even greater change in the same
direction.
2. A negative feedback loop is a process in which the body senses a
change, and activates mechanisms to reverse that change.

Revise
Revise
Fig. 13.10

Application: Homeostasis
Fig. 13.8
The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland “master gland”

Brain

Hypothalamus:
Master control center of
the endocrine system

Anterior pituitary: makes

and releases hormones
Posterior pituitary: under regulation of the
Stores and secretes hypothalamus
hormones made by
hypothalamus

Visual Summary 25.2

 Neuroendocrine cells
Hypothalamus and Hypothalamus
Posterior pituitary

Anterior Posterior
pituitary pituitary
Oxytocin
ADH

Figure 13.5
 Posterior Pituitary : oxytocin

• Posterior pituitary hormones: nonsteroidal

• Oxytocin
• Causes uterine contractions during labor and milk
ejection through neuroendocrine reflex
• Positive feedback system
 Neuroendocrine
3 cell
Neuroendocrine cells
release oxytocin Hypothalamus
when stimulated.

Anterior
pituitary
Spinal cord
4
Oxytocin is transported by
2 blood to mammary glands.
Sensory and spinal nerves
carry impulses to the
neuroendocrine cells Posterior
of hypothalamus. pituitary
Milk ejected

Oxytocin

1
Nursing stimulates
nerve receptors
in nipple.

Figure 13.6
 Fig. 44-19b
COLLECTING INTERSTITIAL
DUCT FLUID

Posterior Pituitary : LUMEN

COLLECTING
ADH (antidiuretic DUCT CELL
ADH
Note the location of the receptor
hormone cAMP
ADH
receptor

• Conserves water
Second messenger
in kidneys signaling molecule

• Regulates water Storage

balance in body vesicle

Exocytosis
Aquaporin
water
H2O channels

H2O

(b)
 Posterior Pituitary disorders
• Hypersecretion of ADH – syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion
(SIADH)
• Effects/symptoms:

• Hyposecretion of ADH or lack of receptors for ADH in kidney cells

may lead to
• Diabetes insipidus
• Effects/Symptoms:
Jerome, age 17, is complaining of frequent urination, fatigue, dry mouth,
dizziness, polydipsia (extreme thirst), and a craving for cold water. He is
hospitalized to record his intake and output to obtain lab values. In a 24-
hour period, he voided 7 liters of dilute urine and drank 8.5 liters of fluid. His
blood pressure was an average of 72/36. Treatment involves discovering
the cause, possibly a tumor in the pituitary gland.

The disorder is:

 The Anterior Pituitary Produces Six Key Hormones

• Anterior pituitary
• Controlled by hypothalamus
• Releasing and inhibiting hormones from hypothalamus
travel to pituitary through pituitary portal system
• The release of each anterior pituitary hormone is
controlled, at least partially, by the hypothalamus
 Neuroendocrine
Hypothalamus cells
1
Neuroendocrine cells
in hypothalamus produce
and secrete releasing and
inhibiting hormones

Blood flow
2
The pituitary portal blood
system carries releasing and
inhibiting hormones directly
to the anterior pituitary

Anterior pituitary
endocrine cells
3
Posterior
The anterior pituitary
pituitary
produces six hormones
that enter the general
circulation

Anterior pituitary hormones

Adreno- Thyroid- Follicle-

corticotropic stimulating stimulating Luteinizing Growth
hormone hormone hormone hormone Prolactin hormone
(ACTH) (TSH) (FSH) (LH) (PRL) (GH)

Adrenal Thyroid Ovaries or Ovaries or Mammary Skeletal

cortex gland testes testes glands muscle, bone

Figure 13.7
Fig. 13.13
Fig. 13.15
Prolactin (PRL)
Source:

Regulation:

Targets & Function:

Stimulates development of mammary glands and
milk production

Compare to oxytocin in terms of source, regulation,

target and function??
 Review
• What do the anterior and posterior pituitary glands have in common.
What is different about them?

• Why is negative feedback, rather than positive feedback used to control

the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary?

• Explain the hormonal basis for: diabetes insipidus, SIADH

Anterior Pituitary Hormones - HGH
Human Growth hormone (HGH)

• How is it released?

• What is the role/effect of GH on the

body?

• What are the consequences of

inappropriate amounts of GH on the
body?
 Consequences of endocrine malfunction
• Growth hormone can have a broad effect on the body
(inappropriate amounts)

Figure 25.8
 GH: Most of its growth-promoting effects occur during childhood and
adolescence
Growth in the length of
bone is due to GH's effect
on the chondrocytes at
the epiphyseal growth
plate at either end of the In late adolescence, the
bone. This cartilage is epiphyseal growth plate stops
replaced by bone. growing and is completely
replaced by bone making a
further increase in the length of
bone impossible. This is called
epiphyseal plate closure.
Bone development

Refer to APES 1000 Histology slides

Luke, age 47, is complaining of his shoes and rings not fitting anymore. He
says he has developed large gaps between his teeth. He mentions that he
has difficulty chewing and has gained 20 pounds in the last 6 months. He is a
diaphoretic (sweating), and he has oily skin. A CT scan reveals a tumor in the
pituitary gland, which will be surgically removed.

The disorder is:

Brittany, age 8, complains of arm and leg pains. She is 12
inches taller than most children her age. Treatment involves
the discovery of the underlying cause, such as a tumor in the
pituitary gland.

The disorder is:

 Other Hormones that Affect Growth

Sex Hormones - actively promote growth by stimulating secretion of GH

and IGF-1.
Androgens - directly stimulate protein synthesis in many tissues.
Insulin - needed for secretion of IGF-1 and for normal protein synthesis.

Glucocorticoids - inhibit growth at high concentrations by bone resorption

and protein catabolism.
Thyroid hormones - needed for synthesis of GH and permissive for its
action.
Fig. 13.34

Pancreas: has both

exocrine and
endocrine functions
• How the pancreas plays a role in blood glucose
homeostasis.
– Affects growth

Pancreas secretes Glucagon, Insulin & Somatostatin

Fig. 13.36

Antagonistic hormones
Insulin and Glucagon

How are the two hormones involved

in the maintenance of glucose
homeostasis?
Diabetes Mellitus - Most common endocrine disorder

- Type 1 diabetes

– Type 2 diabetes

– Gestational diabetes
 Disorder - Hypoglycemia
People with diabetes have high levels of glucose
in their blood. People with hypoglycemia have
the opposite problem – low blood glucose levels.
Besides fasting, what else might cause
hypoglycemia and why can it be a serious
problem?

Increased _____________(hormone) by
pancreas
Decreased ______________ (hormone) by
pancreas
Overactive _______________________ cells
or underactive ___________________ cells
 How the body responds to stress – adrenal gland

Can stress affect your hormone activity? Can stress

affect the body’s growth and development?
Adrenal Glands: Cortex and
Medulla
Fig. 13.37
Perceived or Brain
real threat

Activation of
sympathetic
nerves

Adrenal
medulla

Adrenal
cortex

Norepinephrine
and epinephrine

Target cells

Figure 13.11
Figure 45.21a
(a) Short-term stress response and the adrenal medulla
Stress

Spinal cord Nerve

signals Hypo-
(cross section) thalamus

Nerve
cell

Nerve cell
Adrenal medulla
secretes epinephrine
and norepinephrine.

Effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine: Adrenal

gland
• Glycogen broken down to glucose;
increased blood glucose Kidney
• Increased blood pressure
• Increased breathing rate
• Increased metabolic rate
• Change in blood flow patterns, leading to
increased alertness and decreased digestive,
excretory, and reproductive system activity
Role of the hypothalamus - long term stress
response
Fig. 13.15d
Secretion of (glucocorticoids) cortisol

ACTH – Adreno-corticotropic CRH – Corticotropin releasing

hormone hormone

Figure 13.10
Figure 45.21b

(b) Long-term stress response and the adrenal cortex

Stress
Hypothalamus
Releasing
hormone

Anterior pituitary
Blood vessel
ACTH Effects of Effects of
mineralocorticoids: glucocorticoids:

• Retention of sodium • Proteins and fats broken

Adrenal ions and water by down and converted to
gland kidneys glucose, leading to
Adrenal cortex increased blood glucose
secretes mineralo- • Increased blood
corticoids and volume and blood • Partial suppression of
glucocorticoids. pressure immune system
Kidney
 Disorders of the Adrenal Cortex

• Hyposecretion

• Hypersecretion
 Adrenal Cortex
•Adrenal Sex Hormones - androgens (male) and
estrogens (female)
 Thyroid gland hormones control the body’s
metabolism

Parathyroid gland hormone play a role in calcium

homeostasis
Figure 14-4 Thyroid gland and parathyroid glands
Thyroid Gland: Regulate Metabolism

Secretion: mediated through

hypothalamus-pituitary secretions
Steroidal hormones
Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)
• Both regulate production of ATP from
glucose, affect metabolic rate
• Regulates energy, growth and
development, and nervous system
activity
Fig. 13.16
 Plasma thyroxine
concentration
Increase
Set point
Decrease

Thyroxine

Thyroid
Hypothalamus Cold temperatures
gland

TSH Releasing hormone

Anterior
pituitary

Figure 13.13
 Disorders of the Thyroid gland
Conditions Mechanism/symptoms
 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

• Both thyroid and parathyroid involved in calcium balance

• Antagonistic hormones: calcitonin and parathyroid

hormone
Figure 14-4 Thyroid gland and parathyroid glands
 Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Controls Blood Calcium
Levels
• Secretion
– Response to ______________ blood calcium levels
• Actions of target cells (systems)
– Bone

– Digestive tract

– Kidneys
 Blood Ca2+
concentration
Increase
Set point
Return of blood Ca2+
toward normal Decrease

Vitamin D

Bones Digestive tract Kidneys Parathyroid Thyroid

release Ca2+ absorbs Ca2+ save Ca2+ gland gland

a) Responses to a fall in blood calcium.

Figure 13.15a
Fig. 13.26
 Thyroid Gland: Calcitonin

• Secretion: response to __________ blood

calcium levels

• Actions on target cells (systems)

– Bone
–Digestive system
–Kidney
 Blood Ca2+
concentration
Increase
Return of blood Ca2+ Set point
toward normal
Decrease

Vitamin D

Bones Digestive tract Kidneys excrete Parathyroid Thyroid

take up Ca2+ absorbs less Ca2+ more Ca2+ gland gland

b) Responses to a rise in blood calcium. The importance of calcitonin is greatest in children,

declining once adulthood is reached.
Figure 13.15b
Homeostatic imbalances of PTH
• Hyperparathyroidism due to tumors

• Hypoparathyroidism following gland trauma or removal

or dietary magnesium deficiency
Other Glands and Organs Also Secrete Hormones

• Reproductive Glands – testes and ovaries – testosterone,

progesterone, estrogen
• Thymus
– Thymosin and thymopoietin
• Assist maturation of T lymphocytes
• Most active during early development and childhood gradually shrink with age

• Pineal gland
– Melatonin
• May be important in synchronizing the body’s circadian cycle
Endocrine Functions of Digestive System, Heart, Kidney

• Digestive system
– Gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin
• Effects on stomach, pancreas, gall bladder
• Heart
– Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH)
• Helps regulate blood pressure by increasing rate of sodium and water excretion in
the urine
• Kidney
– Erythropoietin
• Stimulates production of erythrocytes
– Renin
• Stimulates aldosterone secretion and constricts blood vessels
Other Chemical Messengers

• Histamine
– Secreted by mast cells in response to injury or allergy
– Initiates and enhances inflammation
• Prostaglandins
– Local control of blood flow
• Nitric oxide
– Multiple functions
• Growth factors
– Local acting, modulate development of specific tissues