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411LET Reviewer-ENGLISH
LECTURE NOTES
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

The communication process is indeed a paradox. We always communicate with each other, yet defining the
process itself seems to be a very difficult task. Language of different historical periods, in their dire attempts to
bridge the gap, were able to formulate their own theories to explain the process of communication, Since the linear
representation of Aristotle to the complex depiction of modern linguist, we can say that this endeavor has come a
long way.
Renowned linguist have different points of view about the communication process, and this diversity proves to be
the fuel that keeps linguist of today on taking forward steps en route to the better understanding of this process.
Two to be discussed in this chapter, each representing the traditional and the contemporary schools of thought as
regards communication. Berio’s representation, being the most widely cited and extensively use model, will be
discussed to explain in the basic components of the communication cycle, while the Dance Helix model will be
clarified to give a fresh and novel perspective on the practice of other long-standing theories.

Berios’Model

David Berios’s paradigm of the communication process is considered one of the most recognizable representations.
It has four major components: source, receiver, message, and the channel. That is why at times this model is also
called SMRC.

SOURCE MESSAGE
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
CONTENT
ATTITUDES
TREATMENT
KNOWLEDGE
CODE
SOCIAL SYSTEM
CULTURE

RECEIVER
CHANNEL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
SEEING ATTITUDES
HEARING KNOWLEDGE
TOUCHING SOCIAL SYSTEM
SMELLING CULTURE
TASTING

SMRC’s linearity is oftentimes n9criticized, but Berio’s elucidations regarding the significance of each component
redeem it all. According to him, the interlocutors’ ( source and receiver) , and attitude are
communication skills, knowledge, socio-cultural system, and attitude are important for successful communication
to take place ( Berio, 1960). For example, if the source has a higher level of language proficiency compared to the
receiver, or vice versa, then problems are expected. Refer to the sample conversation below and then try, to figure
out what caused the lapse in communication.
Conversation Sample
Setting: Jakarta International Airport Immigration Counter
Situation: The immigration officer is interviewing a tourist about the latter’s whereabouts.
Specifications: The immigration officer is a native speaker, while tourist is a beginner learning of English language.
Immigration Officer: Good morning, Miss! May I know your travel itinerary?
Tourist: Uhh….sory. What is that again?
Immigration Officer: oh, I mean… where do you plan to go?
Tourist: Oh, I see. Actually I plan to go to the Metropolitan Museum and to the Museum of Modern Art, and
maybe stay for another two days in New York City before flying to Florida.
Immigration officer: Okay. Welcome to America. Enjoy your vacation!
In the sample conversation above, the difference between the proficiencies of the interlocutors led to lapses in
communication. It is also noticeable that success of the process relies largely on the one who has higher
proficiency. Since the tourist has limited vocabulary (being a beginner), the immigration officer paraphrased the
statement to fit the level of the tourist.
Discrepancy between knowledge of the interlocutors also poses great treat. Read the sample conversation below
and try to cite some reasons for the communication breakdown.
Conversation Sample
Setting: Computer repair shop
Situation: One client wants to have her laptop fixed.
Specifications: Both the client and the technician have the same language of proficiency.
Client: Good morning! May I ask why my laptop shouts down automatically just right after turning it on?
Technician: Okay, let me see it.
Client: So what do you think?
Technician: I think your laptop has been infected by Trojans and worms…
Client: Huh? Trojans? Worms?
Technician: Yes. By the way, do you do defragmentation every once in a while? Doing so greatly helps the
performance of your computer.
Client: Huh? What is that again? Defragment…what?
Technician : Defragmentation. Anyway, to fix your laptop, I will just rebot and reformat everything, is that ok with
you?
Client: I am not really familiar with you are saying. So fix it and send me the Bill Ok?
In conversation above, the technician uses jargon exclusive to those who are adept in the computers and
information technology. For someone who is not really into the technicians of computer software and hardware
nomenclature, understanding what the technician is saying poses great difficulty that can later on lead to
communication breakdown.
English Language Learning
Learning the English language circles around the Three Sets of Four, and below is a table that summarizes these
sets.

MACRO SKILLS CUEING SYSTEMS COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCIES

Learning Phonology Grammatical
Speaking Morphology Discourse
Reading Semantics Sociolinguistic
Writing Syntax Strategic
 THE FOUR CUEING SYSTEMS

CUEING SYSTEM Definition

Phonology Pertains to the sounds of language
Morphology Pertains to formation of words
Types of morphemes
 Bound morpheme ( dependent)
 Free morpheme (independent)

Semantics Pertains to meaning derivation

Syntax Grammar, structure, and form of the language

LISTENING

 Experts say that listening is the first language skill that students learn. If we are to think about it, this claim
may be true. Upon hearing things, the one can speak-just like how we learned our first utterances. Parents
keep on repeating words until the babies initiate and repeat the utterances successfully ( behaviorist). But
is listening as easy as it may sound?

The Listening Process

Receiving Decoding Selecting

Retaining Comprehending Interpreting

Reacting Responding

The receiving of the message from the source signals is the start of listening process. The listener, then, will decode
the message and select important parts of the message that will help the listener in interpreting it. Based on the
interpretation, the receiver now comprehends the message and retains information needed for him to react and
respond.
Kinds of Listening
Interactional/ Emphatic Listening
 This type of listening is very common at times done in an informal setting. This happens when persons
listen to each other for the purpose of communicating and empathizing. At times, the aim of this type of
listening is to accomplish tasks or to come up with something.
 In classroom setting, this is when students listen to each other for them to able to accomplish given
tasks and activities.
Transactional/Critical Listening
 In this type of listening, the listener is concerned with acquiring new knowledge for the purpose of
improving his skill in generalizing and decision making.
 In a classroom setting, this is when the students listen to their teacher to gain more knowledge

THREE MODELS OF LISTENING

Joan Morely in her essay “Aural Comprehension, instruction: principles and Practices” made mention of the three
modes of listening, namely: Undirectional, Birectional, and Autodirectional.
Undirectional If the listener cannot respond to the things he/she heard
Bidirectional If the listening process is reciprocal-meaning, two way ( indicated by prefix “bi”)
Autodirectional If the listening process is reflexive-meaning, the speaker this is
intrapersonal listening

SPEAKING

Language and language learning developed as fast as civilization. In the olden times, man used language merely
for survival-now, language functions as one important medium of change and innovation.

But the question still remains… what is language? Language was defined by Webster as the expression and
communication of emotions or ides between human beings by means of speech and hearing that is systematized
and confirmed by usage among a given people over a period of time. If we are to look a Webster’s definition can
infer that there are only two functions of language.

The first one is to express how one feels ( emotions); and the second one is to express how one thinks (ideas).
He also mentioned two important factors of language speaking (speech) and listening (hearing). The two word
systematized in Webster’s definition can also be related to grammar-meaning it follows certain rules and systems,
and lastly, he also mentioned”period of time”, which can be interpreted as the changes language goes through with
me.

Webster’s definition is in line with the structurist’s. For them language follows a system-meaning, one cannot just
mix letters to form words. X,Y, K, and D cannot be combined to form a meaningful word-well, at least in English. In
the sentence” she is pretty,”it will be erroneous if one will change “is” to “are”. These instances are the bases of the
structurist in saying that language is a system. They also believes that language is primary vocal, is another claim
of the structurists. For them, and other Webster, speaking and listening are important language skills. They also
adhere to the concept that language is arbitrary. For them, language constantly goes through series of innovations
developments, and changes. The word “thee”, “thou”, “growist”, and hath” are no longer used today. This is one
proof that language, just as other things, constantly changes.

The cognitivist, however, believe that language is a mental phenomena. For them, language learning is innate in
the individual. According to them, there is one part in our brain called LAD (language acquisition device) that is
responsible for language acquisition. If we are to analyze their definition, we can infer that language (for them) is
not learned but acquired. The difference of learning from acquiring is that learning is voluntary while acquiring is
involuntary. We choose to learn, but we no choice what to acquire. We acquire traits from our parents, but we learn
how to solve math problems.

The functionalist have rather functional definition about language. For them language performs specific functions,
such as to express, to persuade, to give or ask information, and to make someone to do something. Most people
will agree with this definition, because practically these functions are what language is really for.

The behaviorists also have their own definition of language. For them, language is learned through imitation,
repetition, and reinforcement. If a teacher teaching grade one pupils will ask her students to say word the she
does, then pupils learned( imitation). If the teacher will ask the same pupils to repeat saying the world over and
over again, then the pupil will be punished. On the other hand, if the pupil were able to say it correctly, then he/she
will receive a prize. Given the two instances above, then the pupils learned ( reinforcement)

THE SEGMENTALS

According to the structurist, language is primarily vocal, but the question is-how to speak properly? Is it merely
opening and closing the mouth? Or is there a complex process that guides speech production? In this action, you
will know how the speech mechanism works.

The Family of Consonant Sounds

Consonant sounds can be classified according to the three dimensions: the place of articulation (where the sounds
is made), the manner of articulation (how the sounds is made), and voicing (voiceless or voiced).

Manner of Articulation

Stops/Plosives

These are sounds produced when the air stream is compressed and passes through a small creating friction. The
sounds F,V,S,Z,H,TH ( voiced) and voiceless), Sh Zh, are the members of this group.

Affricates

These are sounds produced when a plosive is followed by a fricative. Ts ( Ch), and Dz (J) are the members of this
group.

Nasals

Nasal sounds are produced when the oral cavity is blocked, and so the air passes through the nose. N, M, and Ng
are nasal sounds.

Liquid/Lateral

Sounds are produced when air stream moves around the tongue in an unobstructed manner. Sounds like L and R
are examples.

Glides

Glides are sounds that are close to vowel sounds, like W and Y.

Point of Articulation

Bilabial Two lips touching each other

Labio Dental Lower lips touches upper teeth
Dental Tip of the tongue and the inner edge of the upper teeth
Alveolar Tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge
Palatal The tongue and hard palate
Velar Dorsal tongue and soft palate
Glottal Throat passage

Voiced or Voiceless

A sound is voiced if the vocal cords vibrate, whereas a sound is voiceless if the vocal cords are not vibrating upon
the production of sounds.

Consonant Chart
 Place of Articulation
Manner
Bilabial Labio Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Dental
Stop TD KG
Fricative FV Th SZ SH ZH H
(voiced
and
voiceless
Affricate TS DZ
Nasal M N NG
Loud L R
Glide W Y

VOWELS

Vowels sounds are produced with one’s mouth open. It is also a fact that all vowel sounds are voiced sounds can
be classified according to the height of the tongue and jaw, and the way the mouth opens.

Vowel sounds can be classified as SPREAD, ROUND, OR NEUTRAL.

SPREAD

/i/ Long/i/sound as in “phoenix” and “beat”

/l/ Short /l/ sound as in “bit”, “captain”, “pin”, and “maariage”
/e/ Soft /e/ sound as in “hate”, “mate”, “grape”, and “gate”
/E/ Hard /E/ sound as in “let”, “set”, “any”, and “ jeopardy”
/ae) Combination of /a/ and /e/ as in “family”, “man”, “anger”,
and “hamburger”

NEUTRAL

/Y/ Unaccented schwa sound as in “towel”,

and “America”
/^/ Accented schwa as in “judge”, and “cup”

ROUND

/u/ Long /u/ sound as in “balloon”, “soon”,

and “pool”
/U/ Short /U/ sound as in ”pull”, “would”, “push”,
and”cook”
/o/ Complete/o/ sound as in “boat”, “phone”,
and”own”
/a/ The /a/ sound as in” dark”, sergeant”, and
“psalm”

THE SUPRA SEGEMENTALS

Juncture
Juncture is defined as the pauses and rests in a given speaking discourse. It is commonly represented by a single
slash(/) for short pauses, double slashes (//) for long pauses, and three slashes(///) for rests at the end of the
paragraph

Pitch
This is the highness or lowness of sound

Volume
This is the loudness or softness of sound

Intonation
This is the rising and falling sound

Stress
This is the placement of emphasis or force on certain words or syllables

READING

Jean Chall, Proposes skills that are essential for real reading to take place. She said that there are five skills that a
student must have like.

1. Phonemic Awareness- being familiar with the sounds of the language

2. Phonics – drawing out the relationship between the symbol and the sound ( graphonemic relationship)
3. Fluency – the ability to blend and mix the sounds to form a meaningful utterance
4. Vocabulary- the ability to attach meaning to words
5. Comprehension- the ability to create and decode meaning from a group of words.

Chall also constructed a matrix of stages of reading development. She states that there are six stages namely:

Stage 0 Pre-Reading Stage

In this stage, the students are being exposed to the different sounds of the language. This is the reason why songs,
nursery rhymes, and poetry are being read to the students of reading. Automatically in recognizing a particular
language is the key in the next stages. The teacher can determine if the students have phonemic awareness if they
can name from language the words they hear are from.

Stage 1 Initial Reading Stage

In this stage, the students will start to realize the correspondence between the symbol and the sound. For example,
upon seeing the symbol M, the students will know that the sound is /m/ as in “mother”

Stage 2 Confirmation Stage

This stage is deemed to be very crucial in reading development and according to Chall, most will mistake fluency
for comprehension. She reiterates that mere verbalization of written text cannot be considered complete reading.

Stage 3 Reading to Learn (Academic Reading)

The first three stages are considered”learning to read stages” while stage 3 up until stage 5 are “reading to learn
stages”. In this particular stage, students must be beyond fluency. They must be able to comprehend what they
read because if not, they will have difficulty in learning

Stage 4 Multiple Viewpoint Stage and Stage 5 Construction and Judgment Stage
After reading a text, if students were able to give their opinions they belong to the fourth stage. On the other hand,
if students were able to criticize a particular text, and in turn were able to write their own, they belong to fifth stage

Purpose of Reading

Skimming- reading to get the main idea

Scanning – reading to get specific information
Other Purposes of Reading
1. Information searching
2. General comprehending
3. New information learning
4. Information evaluating and synthesizing

WRITING

The Paragraph

The paragraph is defined as a group of unified, coherent, well-developed sentences that are properly and logically
organized to support one specific idea or topic.

Based on the given definition, we can infer that it is important for a paragraph to have Unity, Coherence, logical
Organization, support or Development, proper Emphasis, and one governing and limiting topic sentence- “UCODE
TS”

The paragraph Paradigm

Based on the diagram below, we can say that a paragraph is unified if all the sentences are about the topic
sentence. It has coherence if all the sentences are connected with each other properly and logical and coherent
order.

S2

S1 Topic Sentence
S3

S4

GRAMMAR

Part of Speech

NOUNS

A noun names something- person, place, things, events, phenomena, emotions, etc.

Kinds of Nouns
1. Proper nouns- names of specific persons, things, or places
 2. Common nouns- refer to any one of a class of persons, places, or things
3. Count nouns- nouns that can be counted and quantified using numbers
4. Non count nouns Mass nouns- nouns that cannot be counted and quantified using measurements
- Mass nouns, abstract nouns, events, occasions and phenomena are under noon count nouns.
5. Collective nouns- nouns that name a group of persons or things
6. Compound nouns- nouns that are made up of two words acting as a single unit.
- Compound nouns may be written as separate words hyphenated words, or combined words.

PRONOUNS

Pronouns are words that stand for nouns

Kinds of Pronouns

1. Personal pronouns- these are pronouns that refer to the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the
person or thing spoken about.

SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I ( Subjective) WE ( Subjective)
ME ( Objective) US ( Objective)
SECOND PERSON YOU YOU

THIRD PERSON SHE, HE, HER,HIM, IT THEY ( Subjective)

THEM ( Objective)

2. Possessive pronouns- these are pronouns that show possession

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

MY MINE
OUR OURS
YOUR YOURS
THEIR THEIRS
HIS HIS
HER HERS
ITS

Examples:
Possessive Adjective: This is my book ( “my” qualifies the book)
Possessive Pronoun: This book is mine. (‘mine” represents the owner of the book)

3. Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON MYSELF OURSELVES
SECOND PERSON YOURSELF YOURSELVES
THIRD PERSON HIMSELF THEMSELVES
ITSELF
ONSLELF

Example:

REFLEXIVE INTENSIVE
The pronoun refers to the subject The pronoun shows emphasis
a. I see myself in his actions a. I, myself is the culprit
b. Did you teach yourself? b. You, yourself teach
 c. He cut the paper himself c. He, himself cut the paper
d. They were shocked about themselves d. They themselves were shocked

4. Indefinite Pronouns- do not refer to a specific noun.

SINGULAR PLURAL BOTH SINGULAR AND PLURAL

ANY ,EVERYONE BOTH, SEVERAL NONE
ANYBODY, NO ONE FEW ALL
EVERYBODY MANY SOME
ANYONE

5. Interrogative pronouns- used in asking questions

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
WHO HOW TO WHOM
WHAT WHOM TO WHAT
WHICH WHOSE TO WHICHWHERE
WHY WHEN

6. Demonstrative pronouns- used in pointing nouns

SINGULAR THIS THAT

PLURAL THESE THOSE

ADJECTIVES

An adjective qualifies and tells something about a NOUN or PRONOUN through descriptions.

It answers the questions:

What kind?
Which one?
How many?
How much?

Comparison of Adjectives

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

BIG BIGGER BIGGEST
USEFUL MORE USEFUL MOST USEFUL
ACTIVE LESS ACTIVE LEAST ACTIVE
BAD WORSE WORST

Order of Adjectives

Descriptive Adjectives
determiner observation origin material qualifier noun
size shape age color sports Car
An Expensive Red European Necklace
An Extrai- Daisies
ordinary
Six Long White american Hair
stemmed
Her shiny Short Black Dog
My Big Old German Boxes
Those Long Ceramic jewelry Locket
That Smooth Big Insects
Few Tiny African gold Films
Some Erotic Indian
 VERBS

Oftentimes. Verbs are defined as action words. But reality, verbs are far more than that. Verbs also link ideas in a
sentence, help other verbs, and state conditions. We can classify verbs into (1) verbs actions, (2) linking/be verbs,
(3) helping verbs, (4) emphatic verbs, and of course, (5) modals.

Action Verbs
These are verbs that express action. A majority of verbs are of this nature, and that is why most of the time, learners
tend to define verbs as action words. Words like run, walk, talk, sing, dance, etc. are common examples of action
verbs. We can further classify actions verbs into two more sub classifications-Regular and Irregular verbs.

Regular verbs
Action verb is considered regular if its past form is derived by adding d or ed. Let us take the word walk for an
example; the past form of walk is walked.

BASE FORM PAST FORM

Watch Watched
Bake Baked
Pick Picked
Save Saved

Irregular verbs
Action verb is considered irregular if its past form is derived not by adding d or ed, but through a change or through
retention in spelling.

BASE FORM PAST FORM

Pay Paid
Put Put
Say Said
Write Wrote

Linking verbs

Linking Verbs as Copula

The copula is defined by Celce-Muricia as the link between the subject and non verbal predicates ( nouns,
adjectives, and some adverbials). The copula also carries the tense and would determines subject-verb agreement.

Examples:
She is beautiful---She is a pronoun, and beautiful is an adjective.
She is beautiful---She is singular, that is why we used “is”

Linking Verbs as Perception Corpulas

These are verbs that expresses no action, but at the same time, are not conventional ( is, are, was, were) linking
verbs. They are called Perception copulas because they are perceived through the senses ( mental or sensory)

Examples:
Appear Seem Feel Look
Smell Sound Taste

Linking Verb as State Copulas

State copulas are verbs that are not locomotive. They are more of a condition than an action.
Examples:
Lie Remain
Rest Stand

Linking Verbs as Change of State Copulas

These linking verbs do not express instant locomotion or movement. Mostly, these verbs express changes from
one state to another.

Examples:
Become Come Fall
Get Go Grow
Turn

These are also called helping verbs because they always appear with another verb in a sentence ( main verb).
Linking verbs such as is, was, were, are considered auxiliary verbs if they appear together with a for a s verb in
progressive form. Other helping verbs are has, have, and had.

The verb has is used for singular subjects in the present tense. The verb “have” is used for plural subjects in the
present tense, and had is used doe both singular and plural subjects in the past tense. Has, have and had, are also
considered Auxiliary verbs if they appear in a sentence with another verb( main verb) in the past participal form.

Example:
She has taken a bath already the verb”has” functions as an auxiliary

Emphatic Verbs

Emphatic verb are used to give certain emphasis. These verbs are do, does, and did. Do is used for plural subjects
in the present tense. DOES is used for singular subjects in the present tense, and DID for both plural and singular
in the past tense.

The verbs, DO,DOES, and DID can also be used as main verbs. They are only considered em phatic verbs if they
appear in a sentence with another verb in its base form.

Example:
She did not drink her milk ----- DID is used as an emphatic verb

Modals
According to Celece-Muria, modals are helping verbs that are used to give a proposition. A degree of probability,
to express one’s attitude, and to perform various social functions such as expressing politeness or indirectness
when making request, giving advice, or grabting permission. It is always couples with a verb on its base form.

a. Stating Ability
I can do anything

b. Expressing Regret
I should have loved you
c. Giving warning
You may be in danger

d. Expressing Admission with Reservation

I might be wrong, but I know what I did

e. Expressing observation
You must do this

ADVERBS

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or another adverb.

Adverb of Manner

This answers the question how a thing is done

Example:
He did the job poorly
Question: How did he do the job?
Answer: Poorly

Adverb of Time

This answers the question when the action happened

Example:
He will go there tomorrow
Question: When will he go there?
Answer: Tomorrow

Adverb of Frequency

This answers the question how often

Example:
She is there every week
Question: how frequent is she there?
Answer: every week

PREPOSITION

A preposition links words with a sentence. It also states how two separate things are related. A preposition may
indicate a location, direction, possession, or cause.

Common Prepositions

In front of About In Beneath

In regard to Above Near During
Inside Across Down By
In spite of Against Despite By means
Into Among From Amid

CONJUNCTION

If prepositions link words within a sentence, conjunctions relate or join words into single unit.

Coordinating Conjunctions- connect words or group of words

Examples: but, and, for, nor, or, so, yet
TIP: Coordinating conjunctions connect words of the same grammatical structures.

Correlative Conjunctions- connect words under the same grammatical structure, but they always appear in pairs.
Examples: either….or, neither… nor

Subordinating Conjunctions- connects two complete ideas to make one dependent to other.
Examples: inasmuch as, whenever, unless

INTERJECTION

These are words that express strong feelings or emotions. They may function as an independent sentence with
the speaker as the subject.
Examples: ouch, aha, alas, oh, hurray
Subject and Verb Agreement

Collective Nouns
These nouns can either take a singular or plural verb depending on how they are used in a sentence. On the other
hand, if a collective noun is perceived as one entity, then it would take a singular verb. On the other hand, if a
collective noun is perceived as individuals the group, it will take a plural verb.
Examples: Our debate team has won the competition
Our debate team have won all their battles

Noun ending in –s-and –ics

Nouns ending in s and ics are always paired with verbs in the singular form
Examples: Mathematics is my favorite subject
Measles is a dangerous disease

Nouns in sets of twos.

Nouns of this nature take a singular verb if the word” pair” is present. If not. They take a plural verb.
Examples: A pair of scissors in on the table
The scissors are on the table

“A number” and “The number”

Sentence beginning with the phrase “ a number” always take a plural verb, while sentences that begin with “ the
number” take a singular verb”
Examples: A number of students have been expelled
The number of students being expelled is rising.

Fraction and Percent

Nouns in percent and in fraction take a singular verb if paired with a non-count noun, and vice versa.
Examples: 50% of the Earth’s water is still safe for drinking
One-third of the students were expelled

Compound Nouns
Compound subjects joined by a conjunction take plural verbs.
Examples: Paul and Robin are brothers

Neither…nor and Either…or

The verb must agree with closet noun.
Example: Neither John nor his brothers are going to America

As well and Together with

The verb must agree with the first noun (subject).
Example: the president, together with his advisers, is leaving tomorrow

Tenses

Simple Present Tense

Verbs in the present tense express habitual or factual actions.
Examples: She sings
The sun shines
Simple Past Tense
Verbs in the past tense express actions that happened in the past.
Example: She sang yesterday

Simple Future Tense

Verbs in the future tense express actions that will happen in the future.
Example: She will sing.

Present Progressive Tense

Verbs in the present progressive tense, express actions that are happening at the moment.
Example: She is singing.

Past Progressive Tense

This expresses a continuing action that started and ended in the past.
Example: She was singing all afternoon yesterday.

Future Progressive Tense

This expresses a continuing action that will happen in the future.
Example: She will be singing in the competition.

Present Perfect Tense

This expresses an action that started in the past, but is still happening at present
Example: I have sung a song.

Past Perfect Tense

This expresses two past actions, in which one happened before the other.
Example: she had sung before she danced.

Future Perfect Tense

This expresses two future actions, in which one will happen before the other.
Example: She will have sung before she dances.

Present Perfect Progressive Tense

This expresses an action that started in the past and still happening at present and will most likely continue to
happen in the future.
Example: She has been singing since this morning.

Past Perfect Progressive Tense

This expresses two past actions, where the first one was still happening when the second one transpired.
Example: She had been singing before the bomb exploded.

Future Perfect Progressive Tense

This expresses two future actions, where the first action is still happening when the second one is transpires.
Example: She will have been singing before the bomb explodes.

SUMMARY SUMMARY

Present I dance

Past I danced

Future I will dance

Present Progressive I am dancing

Past Progressive I was dancing all afternoon yesterday

Future Progressive I will be dancing

Present Perfect I have danced

Past Perfect I had danced before I sang

Future Perfect I will have danced before I sing

 Present Perfect Progressive I have been dancing since then

Past perfect Progressive I had been dancing when the bomb exploded

Future Perfect Progressive I will have been when the party ends

Faulty Modifiers

Dangling Modifier- absence of the word being modified

Example: Inside the store, shoes must be worn
Who must wear the shoes?
Customers must wear shoes inside the store.

Misplaced Modifier- the modifier modifies the wrong word.

Example: Turning green, I watched the lights turning green.

Fragment- group of words masquerading as a sentence

Example: The justice system in the olden times

Sentence

Four Kinds of Sentences according to Function

Declarative- states an idea and express facts and opinion

Example:
She is a pretty girl
We must learn how to swim
The earth is round

Interrogative- used in asking questions

- Ends with a question mark

Example:
Who are you?
What is the capital city of Hungary?

Imperative- used in asking someone to do something

- “you” is the implies subject

Example:
Go away
Turn around
Write your name

Exclamatory- used to express strong feeling or emotion

-end with a exclamation point
Example:
Fire!
Bomb!
You won!

Four Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

Sentence Patterns with Transitive Verbs

S-AV-DO ( Subject-Action Verb-Direct Object)
Beth read the book quickly
I gave him a book
S-AV-IO-DO (Subject- Action Verb- Indirect Object-Direct Object)
I gave the place a new coat of paint
Mr. Padilla gave me the test results

S-AV-DO-OC (Subject- Action Verb-Direct Object- Object Complement)

The judges considered him a champion
The movie’s ending made her happy
Sentence Patterns with Linking Verbs

S-LV-PN (Subject-Linking Verbs-Predicate Nominative

That boy is the culprit
One of the contestants is she.

S-LV-PA (Subject- Linking Verb- Predicate Adjective

The show is cool
The singer sounds bad

Four Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

Simple Sentence- composed of one independent clause

Compound Sentence- composed of two or more independent clauses
Complex Sentence- composed of one independent clause and two or more dependent clauses
Compound- Complex- composed of two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses

Examples:

Simple Sentence I tried to stop her

Compound Sentence I tried to stop her, but she still went away

Complex Sentence I tried to stop her when she left

Compound- Complex I tried to stop her when she left, but she still went away

LITERATURE

Introduction to Fiction

FICTION
Fiction is a prose imaginative composition which may or may not be based on history or fact.

The different types of fiction are the following:

Short story- a relatively brief prose fictional composition based in a single main incident which is designed to
produce a single dominant impression.

Novel- a prose fictional work of considerable length that deals with a series of complications involving characters
in a particular setting.

Drama- a composition in prose or verse designed for stage performance through mine and dialogue.

Allegory- a symbolic fictional account conveying meaning/s beyond the literal

Element of Fiction

Plot
The plot is a series of events knit together following the principle of cause and effect. It is also deemed to be an
arrangement of incidents, the narrative structure, the organization of a narrative, and the logical sequence of
actions. A plot can be arranged and organized in two ways, the first one is through Chronology-which means that
the events are arranged according to time and space, and the second one is through Climax-which means that the
events are organized according to order of suspense.

There are also two types of plot, the first one is called organic, which means the story sprouted from just one
conflict; and the second one is episodic, which means there are two or more sources of conflicts.

Conflict
Conflict is considered as the soul of the plot, and it is the tension between opposing forces in the story. It can be
external, which means that conflict is from outside forces; or internal which means the conflict resides the main
character.

Here are the types of conflicts:

 Physical-man vs. nature
 Social- man vs. man
 Psychological- man vs. self
 Cosmic- man vs. God

Character
Characters in the story are the moral agents of actions. They are the invented personages in fiction.

There are two types of characters namely major and minor. Under major characters, we have the protagonist, who
is the central character where the story revolves; and the antagonist, who prevents the protagonist in solving the
conflict. Under minor characters we have foil, who has the opposite traits of the main protagonist; the confidant,
who serves as the friend of the protagonist; and the background characters, who are not closely related with the
protagonist.

We also have two kinds of character. The first one is round, which means the character was able to undergo
change, while the second one is called flat, which means there was no change in the outlook and action of character.

Setting
The setting serves as the background of the story, may it be physical, mental, or spiritual. It serves as the backdrop
and sets the mood of the characters. There are three elements of setting. The first one is time, which sets the
duration of the events; next is place, which talks about the locally; and the third one is atmosphere, which is the
emotion or the mood.

Theme
Theme is considered as the central message of the story. It is the universal truth expressed in the text.

Point of View
This pertains to the vantage point where the story is narrated. Below are the different types;

FIRST person- a principal character in the story is the one narrating it.
SECOND person (unlimited)- an indirect disclosure of the narrating self for characterization and analysis
THIRD person-(limited) also known as the central intelligence point of view; the author choose a character from
whose consciousness the entire story is told
CAMERA EYE- presents the dialogues, and the incidents of a narrative like a mechanical recording device.
REVOLVING-characterized by a narrative shift from one point of view to another
COMPOSITE point of view-gives a comprehensive view of the events and incidents in the story through the
different angles adapted by several narrating characters

Figurative Language
1. Synecdoche-an association of some important part with the whole it represents.
Example: the face who launched a thousands ships
2. Simile- an indirect association
Example: she like a flower
3. Personification-given human attributes to an inanimate object (animal, idea, etc.)
Example: the sun is looking down on me.
4. Oxymoron- a self-contrasting statement
 Example: Loud silence
5. Metonymy- an association wherein the name of something is substituted by something that represents it.
Example: Toothpaste is sometimes called Colgate
6. Metaphor- a direct comparison
Example: you are the sunshine of my life
7. Irony- the contrast between what was expected and what actually happened
Example: No smoking sign during a cigarette break
8. Hyperbole- an exaggeration
Example: Cry me a river
9. Euphenism- Creating a positive connotation out of something negative.
Example: Loved child (illegitimate child)
10. Ellipsis- omission of words in a sentence
Example: She walked away and so the world turns…
11. Asyndeton- Not putting any connectors (conjunctions or prepositions)
Example: No retreat, no surrender

12. Apostrophe- A direct address to an abstract things or a person who passed away
Example: Love, please come and take me.

WORD LITERATURES

WORKS AUTHORS
The Epic of Gilamesh LEQI-UNNINNI, SCRIBE (700BCE)
Lliad HOMER, (800 BCE)
Odyssey
The Analects CONFUCIUS (551-479 BCE)
The Oresteia AESCHYLUS (496-406 BCE)
Agamemnom
Theban Plays: SOPHOCLES (496-406 BCE)
Oedipus Rex
Oedipus at Colonus
Antigone
Alcestis EURIPIDES 9484-406 (BCE)
Medea
Hippolytus
The Trojan Women
Electra
The Histories HERODOTUS (484-425 BCE)
The History of the Pelipennesian War THUCYDIDES (470-400 BCE)
The Art of War SUN-TZU (450-380 BCE)
Lysistrata ARUSTOPHANES (448-388 BCE)
The Clouds
The Birds
The Republic PLATO (428-348 BCE)
Ethics ARISTOTLE ( 384-322 BCE)
Politics
Poetics

The Book of Mencius MENCIUS (400-320 BCE)

The Ramayana VALMIKI (300 BCE)
The Mahabharata VYASA (200BCE)
The Bhagavad Gita ANONYMOUS (200BCE)
Records of the Grand Historian SSU-MA CHE’IEN (145-86BCE)
Of the Nature of Things LUCRETUS 1(100-50 BCE)
The Aeneid VIRGIL (70-19 BCE)
Mediations AURELIUS, MARCUS (121-180)
The Confessions SAINT AGUSTINE (354-430)
The Cloud Messenger KALIDASA (400)
Sakuntala/Shakuntala
The Koran MUHAMMAD (650)
The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriach HUI-NENG (638-713)
Shah Nameh FIRDAUS (940-1020)
The Pillow Book SEI SHONAGON (965-1035)
The Tale of Genji ( First Novel in the MURSAKI, LADY SHIKIBU (976-1015)
world)
The Rubaiyet KHAYAM, OMAR (1048)
The Divine Comedy ALIGHIERI, DANTE (12655-1321)
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms KUAN-CHUNG, LUO (1330-1400)
The Canterbury Tales CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (1342-1400)
1001 Nights/Arabian nights ANONYMOUS (1500)
The Prince MACHIAVELLI, NICOLO (1469-1527)
Gargantua and Pantagruel RABELAIS, FRNCOIS (1483-1553)
Journey to the West WU CHE’ENG-EN (1500-1582)
Essays-Apology for Raymond Sebond MONTAIGNE, MICHEI (1533-1592)
Don Quixote SAAVEDRA. MIGUEL DE CERVANTES (1547-1616)
Romeo and Juliet SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)
Much Ado About Nothing
Twelfth Knight
Merchant of Venice
Devotions DONNE, JOHN (1573-1631)
Sermons
First and Second Anniversaries
Dialogue Concerning The Two Chief GALILEI, GALILEO (1574-1642)
World Systems
Leviathan HOBBES, THOMAS (1588-1
Discourse on Method DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650)
Paradise Lost MILTON, JOHN (1608-1674)
Lycidas
Areopagitica
The School for Wives MOLIERE (1622-1673)
Rartuffe
The Would-Be Gentleman
Thoughts PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662)
Pilgrims BUNYAN, JOHN (1628-1688)
Second Treatise of Government LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
The Narrow Road to the Deep North BASHO, MATSU (1644-1694)
Robinson Crusoe DEFOE, DANIEL (1660-17310
Gulliver’s Travel SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667-1745)
Candid VOLTAIRE (1694-17178)
An Enquiry Concerning Human HUME,DAVID (1711-1776)
Understanding
Tom Jones FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754)
Confessions ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
The Social Contact
Tristram Shandy STERNE, LAURENCE (1713-1768)
The Life of Samuel Johnson BOSWELL, JAMES (1740-1795)
Basic Documents in American History JEFFERSON, THOMAS
Faust WOLFGANG VON GOETHE, JOHANN
A Poison Tree BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827)
The Prelude WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM (1770-1850)
The Ancient Mariner COLEERIDE, SAMUEL TAYLOR (1772-1834)
Christabel
Kublai Khan
Pride and Prejudice AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817)
Emma
The Read and the Black STENDHAL (1783-1842)
Pere Goriot DE BALZAC, HONORE (1799-1850)
Eugenie
Cousin Bette
Self Reliance EMERSON, RALPH WALDO (1803-1882)
The Scarlet Letter HAWTHORNE,NATHANIEL (1804-1864)
Democracy in America DE TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS (1805-1859)
On Liberty [Link] STUART (1806-1873)
The Subjection of Women
The Voyage of the Beagle DARWIN, CHARLES (1809-1859)
The Origin of the Species
Dead Souls GOGOL, NIKOLAI (1809-1882)
The Cask of Amontillado POE, EDGAR ALLAN (1809-1849)
Annabel Lee
Vanity Fair THACKERY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE (1811-1863)
Pickwick Papers DICKENS, CHARLES (1812-1870)
The Tale of Cities
A Christmas Carol
David Copperfield
Great Expectations
The Warden TROLLOPE, ANTHONY (1815-1882)
Jane Eyre BRONTE, CHARLOTTE (1816-1855)
Wuthering Heights BRONTE, EMILLY (1818-1848)
Walden THROREAU, HENRY DAVID (1817-1862)
Civil Disobedience
Fathers and Sons TURGENEY, IVAN (1818-1883)
The Communist Manifesto MARX, KARL (1818-1883)
Moby Dick MELVILLE, HERMAN (1819-1891)
The Mill on the Floss ELIOT, GEORGE (1819-1880)
Middlemarch
Silas Marner
Leaves of Grass WHITMAN, WALT (1819-1892)
Madame Bovary FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE (1821-1880)
Crime and Punishment DOSTOYEVSKY, FYDOR (1821-1880)
Brothers Karamazov
War and Peace TOLSTOY, ELO (1828-1910)
Annakarenina
The Soul Selects Her Society DICKENSON, EMILY (1830-1886)
A Dimple in the Tomb
Huckleberry Finn TWAIN, MARK (1835-1910)
Tom Sawyer
The Mayor of Casterbridge HARDY, THOMAS (1840-1928)
The Interpretation of Dreams FRUED, SIGMUND (1856-1939)
Uncle Vanya CHEKOV, ANTON (1860-1904)
Three Sisters
The Cheery Orchard
The Age of Innocence WHARTON, EDITH (1862-1937)
The House of Mirth
The Road Not Taken FROST, ROBERT (1874-1963)
Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy
Evening
A Passage of India FORSTER, E.M (1879-1970)
Ulysses JOYCE, JAMES (1882-1941)
Mrs. Dalloway WOOF, VIRGINIA ( 1882-1941)
To the Lighthouse
Orlando
Sons and Lovers LAWRENCE, DFAVID HERBERT (1885-1930)
Lady Chatterley’s Lover
The Fox
A long Day’s Journey into the Night O’NEIL, EUGENE (1888-1953)
Mourning Becomes Electra
Waste Land ELIOT,T.S (1888-1965)
Brave New World HUXLEY, ALDOUS ( 1894-1963)
The Sound and the Fury FAULKNER, WILLIAM (1897-1962)
A Rose for Emily
Old Man and the Sea HEMINGWAY, ERNEST (1899-1962)
1984 ORWELL, GEORGE (1903-1950)
Animal Farm
The English Teacher NARAYAN, R.K
Waiting for Godot BECKETT, SAMUEL (1906-1989)
One Hundred MARQUEZ, GABRIEL GARCIA (1928-PRESENT)
Love in the Time of Cholera
Things Fall Apart ACHEBE, CHINUA (1930-PRESENT)
No longer At Ease
Sula MORRISSON (1931-PRESENT
The Beloved
Jazz
Song of Solomom

FILIPINO AUTHORS and their WORKS

WORKS AUTHORS

Magnificence and other stories ALFON, ESTRELLA

The Knifed Horizon ANGELES, CARLOS

A Stun of Jewels

How My Brother Leon Brought Home a ARGUILLA, MANUEL

Wife and Other Stories
Sunflower Poems AYALA, TITA LACAMBRA

The Archipelago BAUTISTA, CIRILO

Telex Moon
Sunlight on Broken Stones
What is an Educated Filipino BENITEZ, FRNCISCO

Dead Stars BENITEZ, FRNACISO

Stepping Stories
Half a Life
The Living and the Dead BRILLANTES, GREGORIO
A Wind Over the Earth
Distance to Andromeda
America is in the Heart ( Autobiographical) BULOSAN, CARLOS
The Laughter of My Father
The Voice of Bataan
The Power of the People
People in the War CORDERO-FERNANDO, GILDA
The Visitation of the Gods
The Butcher, The Baker, and the
Candlestick Maker
The Wedding Dance DAGUIO, AMADOR

No Certain Weather DEMETILLO, RICARDO

Barter in Panay
Daedalus and OtherPoems
Masks and Signatures
The Devil Flower ENRIQUEZ, EGMIDIO ALVAREZ DEMETILLO,
House of Images RICARDO
Palabas: Essays on Philippine Threater FERNANDEZ, DOREEN

Poems in Spanish and Ilocano FLORENTINO, LEONA

Now and at the Hour FORD, AIDA RIVERA

Fire Poem/Rain Poem GAMALINDA, ERIC

Popular Delusions
Planet waves
Poems GLORIA, ANGELA MANALANG

The Winds of April GONZALES N.V.M

A Season of Grace
Seven Hills Away
Children of the Ash-Covered Loam
The Bamboo Dancers
Children of the City GUERRERO, AMADIS MA

Dogeaters HAGEDOREN, JESSICA

Gangster of Love
Encanto IGLORIA, MARIA LUISA
Blood Sacrifice
Juanita Crus JALANDONI, MAGDALENA
Ang Dalaga sa Tindahan
Ermita JOSE, FRANCISO SIONIL
Poon
My Brother, My Executioner
The Woman Who Had Two Navels JOAQUIN, NICK
Summer Soistice
May Day Eve
Small Key LATORENA, PAZ
Desire
Sunset
Literature and Society LOPEZ, SALVADOR

Reevaluation LUMBERA, BIENVENIDO

Abot-Tanaw
My humble Opinion NAKPIL, CARMEN GUERRERO
Women Enough
The Virgin POLOTAN-TUVERA-KERIMA
The Hand of the Enemy

Mythology RAMOS. MAXIMO

The Creatures of Philippine Lower
Zita ROTOR, ARTURO
The Wound and the Scar
The Volcano SANTOS, BIENVENIDO
The Man Who ( Thought He) Looked Like
Robert Taylor
The Day the Dancers Came
Scent of Apples
Lidia SOTTO, JUSN CRISOSTOMO
His Native Coast TIEMPO, EDITH
The Tracks of Babylon
Blade of Fem
Valediction sa Hillcrest TINO, ROLANDO
Claudia and Her Mother
Man Songs VILLA, JOSE GARCIA
Footnote to Youth
Like the Molave ZULUETA DA COSTA, RAFAEL

Twisted ZAFRA, JESSICA

IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS

EXPRESSION MEANING

Come hell of high water I am by your side come hell or high water.
This means the speaker would not leave the one
he/she is speaking with no matter what happens

Put your finger in the pie To finish the task at a much earlier time, everyone
must put his/her finger in the pie.
It means they must do their share in a particular
task.

Be in the limelight The soprano did her best to be in the limelight.

It means to be at the center of everybody’s
attention.

Flogging a dead horse Rallies and mass demonstrations against the RH

law are like flogging a dead horse.
It means that the work being done is futile.

Bring home the bacon The speech coach cheered his contestants. He
said “Bring the bacon!”
It means that he wants the team to win.

Between the devil and the deep blue sea This situation is hopeless!. It is like the devil and
the deep blue sea.
This situation is at its worst and the resolution is
seen to be unpleasant.

In your face The debater was criticized straight in her face.

To state something in an aggressive manner.

Under the weather She did not attend her class. She said that she
feels under the weather.
The person is sick.

Back to square one Her efforts are wasted since she is back to square
one.
The person has to start again from the beginning.

Hold your horses The commandant reminds his team hold their
horses until the right time comes.
Be patient.

Tickled your horses The news tickled her pink.

 Made one every happy.

When pigs fly There is no chance of us being husband and wife,

unless when pigs fly.
Impossible to happen.

At the pink of health She looks beautiful and well rested. I assume she
is at the pink of health
Good health.

Phrasal Verbs

Add up Add

Bring about Cause to happen

Bring up Raise

Call off Cancel

Carry on Continue

Back up Support

Bring off Accomplish

Carry out Complete

Count in Include

Cut down Reduce

Fill out Complete (printed form)

Fill up Complete ( container0

Hang up Suspend

Hold up Rob

Pay off To complete payment

Touch up Repair

Turn down Refuse

Throw over Reject

Save up Accumulate

Put off Postpone

Down play Diminish

Figure out Understand

Breakdown Analyze
 WORDS TAKEN FROM PREVIOUS LET EXAMS
VOCABULARY REVIEW

1. Diabolical - showing cunning or ingenuity or wickedness

2. Debacle - a sudden and violent collapse
3. Dragnet - a conical fishnet dragged through the water at great depths
4. Accomplice - a person who joins with another in carrying out some plan
5. Abduct - take away to an undisclosed location against their will
6. Masticate - bite and grind with the teeth
7. Oar - an implement used to propel or steer a boat
8. Ewe - female sheep
9. Manifest - clearly revealed to the mind or the senses or judgment
10. Motley - consisting of a haphazard assortment of different kinds
11. Taxonomy - a classification of organisms based on similarities
12. Entail - have as a logical consequence
13. Empathise - be understanding of
14. Ostentation - pretentious or showy or vulgar display
15. grubby - thickly covered with ingrained dirt or soot
16. Disingenuous - not straightforward or candid
17. Iffy- subject to accident or chance or change
18. Winch - lifting device consisting of a horizontal cylinder turned by a crank on which a cable or rope winds
19. Backtrack - retrace one's course
20. Pique - a sudden outburst of anger
21. Siphon - a tube used to move liquid from one vessel to another
22. Edgy - being in a tense state
23. Volte-face - a major change in attitude or principle or point of view
24. Hokum - a message that seems to convey no meaning
25. Onus - an onerous or difficult concern
26. Uppish - (used colloquially) overly conceited or arrogant
27. insidious - working or spreading in a hidden and usually injurious way
28. Flaccid - drooping without elasticity
29. abject - of the most contemptible kind
30. Bleak - unpleasantly cold and damp
31. Chastise - censure severely
32. Disdain - lack of respect accompanied by a feeling of intense dislike
33. Encumbrance - an onerous or difficult concern
34. Flimsy - a thin strong lightweight translucent paper
35. Grisly - shockingly repellent; inspiring horror
36. Hapless – deserving or inciting pity
37. Intrigue - a crafty and involved plot to achieve your ends
38. Jaded - exhausted
39. Keen - intense or sharp
40. dainty - something considered choice to eat
41. Tarry - leave slowly and hesitantly
42. Knuckle - a joint of a finger when the fist is closed
43. Discrete - constituting a separate entity or part
44. Efface - remove by or as if by rubbing or erasing
45. Evident - clearly revealed to the mind or the senses or judgment
46. Composure - steadiness of mind under stress
47. Embargo - a government order imposing a trade barrier
48. Interdict - command against
49. Intrepid - invulnerable to fear or intimidation
50. Importune - beg persistently and urgently
51. Destitute - poor enough to need help from others
52. Pauper - a person who is very poor
53. Evacuation - the act of leaving a dangerous place in an orderly fashion
54. yuppie- a young upwardly mobile professional individual
55. Silo - a cylindrical tower used for storing silage
56. Demur - politely refuse or take exception to
57. Acumen - shrewdness shown by keen insight
58. Antebellum - belonging to a period before a war
59. bellicose - having or showing a ready disposition to fight
60. Bowdlerize - edit by omitting or modifying parts considered indelicate
61. Abjure - formally reject or disavow a formerly held belief
62. Circumlocution - an indirect way of expressing something
63. Ameliorate - to make better
64. Accolade - a tangible symbol signifying approval or distinction
65. Apprise - inform somebody of something
66. Agile - moving quickly and lightly
67. Clandestine -conducted with or marked by hidden aims or methods
68. Clemency - leniency and compassion shown toward offenders
69. Conspicuous - obvious to the eye or mind
70. Havoc - violent and needless disturbance
71. Jeopardy - a source of danger
72. Exorbitant - greatly exceeding bounds of reason or moderation
73. Fiasco - a complete failure or collapse
74. Sap - a watery solution in the vascular system of a plant
75. Blend - mix together different elements
76. Exultation - the utterance of sounds expressing great joy
77. Forthwith - without delay or hesitation; with no time intervening
78. Fortitude - strength of mind that enables one to endure adversity
79. Jubilant - full of high-spirited delight
80. Relinquish - turn away from; give up
81. Redundant - more than is needed, desired, or required
82. Sordid - foul and run-down and repulsive
83. Sporadic - recurring in scattered or unpredictable instances
84. Ruthless - without mercy or pity
85. Heartfelt - earnest
86. Amity - a state of friendship and cordiality
87. Honorary - given as an award without the normal duties
88. Excerpt - a passage selected from a larger work
89. Amiable - diffusing warmth and friendliness
90. Zenith - the point above the observer directly opposite the nadir
91. Pinnacle - a slender upright spire at the top of a buttress of tower
92. Dilemma - state of uncertainty in a choice between unfavorable options
93. Paradox - a statement that contradicts itself
94. Admonish - scold or reprimand; take to task
95. Pilfer -make off with belongings of others
96. Foe - an armed adversary
97. Woe - misery resulting from affliction
98. Mendicant- a pauper who lives by begging
99. Importune - beg persistently and urgently
100. Mull - reflect deeply on a subject
101. Emulate - imitate
102. Vouchsafe - grant
103. Abeyance - suspended
104. Denigrate - malign
105. Furtive - sneaky
106. Remonstrate - protest
107. Corroborate - confirm
108. Gullible - easily deceived
109. Germane - relevant
110. Plebeian - common
111. Vulpine - cunning
112. Spendthrift - spender
113. Impolitic - unwise
114. Terse - concise
115. Parsimonious - stingy
116. Stupefy - make numb
117. Pariah - outcast
118. Wizened - shrivelled
119. Dubious - doubtful
120. Incriminates - accuse
121. Frivolous - worthless
122. Susceptible - inclined
123. Impertinent - irrelevant
124. Ostracized - excluded
125. Conglomeration - diffusion
126. Cacophonous - loud and unpleasant
127. Carnal - worldly
128. Aplomb - composure
129. Candour - honesty
130. Contemptuous - scornful
131. Feeble - weak
132. Inevitable - certain

SOURCE: Compiled Reviewer -Civil Service

1. boisterous – noisy, rough, and energetic

Sample Sentence: The sound of her boisterous laughter was disturbing everyone.
2. camaraderie – a feeling of friendship to a group; good-fellowship
Sample Sentence: One of the most valuable things you learn in school aside from academic lessons is camaraderie.
3. conundrum – a difficult problem having only a guess as an answer; a riddle or puzzle
Sample Sentence: The origin of the universe has always been a conundrum to humankind.
4. divergent – to follow to different directions; deviates from the standard
Sample Sentence: My business partners and I have divergent ideas on how to runour company.
5. foster – to help grow or develop
Sample Sentence: The UN has helped foster peace and equality among all the nations in the world.
6. intuitive – having to know or understand by means of feelings (and not by facts)
Sample Sentence: Most people have the intuitive knowledge of right and wrong.
7. mundane – worldly, common, ordinary
Sample Sentence: His mundane desires make people think that he is a shallow person.
8. opulent – expensive and luxurious
Sample Sentence: Before he went bankrupt, he had an opulent lifestyle.
9. procrastinate – to delay to do something because it is boring; to delay doing something out of laziness

Sample Sentence: Even if you procrastinate, you will still make a decision, so I suggest that you make up your
mind once and for all.
10. spontaneous – done or said without lots of thoughts and planning
Sample Sentence: My friend has a habit of spontaneous visiting even in late hours of the evening.
Vocabulary Review 9
1. affliction – state of pain, distress, or grief
Sample Sentence: We must not abandon our brothers and sisters in the time of their affliction.
2. cajole – to persuade someone to do something or to give you something by making promises or saying nice
things
Sample Sentence: Anna, the favorite daughter in the family, cajoled her father to buy her a new computer.
3. drought – a long period of dry weather
Sample Sentence: Many crops were damaged because of the 5-month drought.
4. dumbfounded – so shocked that you cannot speech
Sample Sentence: Maria was dumbfounded when her boyfriend proposed to her in front of so many people.
5. extol – to praise highly
Sample Sentence: His first movie was extolled by critics for its profound originality and musical scoring.
6. illicit – not legally authorized; not allowed
Sample: A teacher and student relationship in the same school is an illicit affair.
7. harangue – a scolding or a long verbal attack; a long and passionate speech
Sample Sentence: He delivered his speech in a harangue: full of passion, vehemence, and discourse.
8. reverberate – to continue in a series of repeated sounds
Sample Sentence: The sound of his voice reverberates across the room.
9. succumb – to give away to a superior force; to yield to disease, or wounds (die)
Sample Sentence: After 3 years of suffering, she finally succumbed to cancer.
10. vehement – strongly emotional, passionate, zealous

Sample Sentence: Despite the vehement protest of the employees, the company did not give in to increasing their
salary or other benefits.