- safety speed predicting a future position by course(s) and

- nav errors speed(s) from a known present position.

- criteria safe nav speed - Only approximate position because it does
- buys ballot not allow for the effect of leeway, current,
- factors in selection of anchorage area helmsman error, or compass error
- 1 shot = 90 ft approx 27 m
- Helps in determining sunrise and sunset; in
- GMDSS, EPIRB
Emergency signals (i.e. flares) at sandamakmak predicting landfall, sighting lights and
na enumeration, integrated bridge system (ano predicting arrival times; and evaluating the
daw yun?). accuracy of electronic positioning
ay tas tinanong yung types of drydocking (+ information
konting definition) In navigation, dead
at least 10 ways to fix point/position safety reckoning (also ded (for deduced) reckoning
speed or DR) is the process of calculating one's current
position by using a previously determined
- Integrated Bridge System position, or fix, and advancing that position
based upon known or estimated speeds over
- RUles of the ROad elapsed time, and course.
Plot the vessel’s DR position:
> who has the right of way
1. At least every hour on the hour
>how to know if there is a threat of 2. After every change of course speed
3. After every fix or running fix
collision
4. After plotting a single line of position
- Short range distress signals Fix expansion - takes into account possible errors in
the DR calculation by factors which tend to affect
- sources of error navigation the vessel’s actual course and speed over the ground
- safe nav speed Assumption is that the various individual effects of
- buys ballot current, leeway, and steering error combine to cause
- factors in selection of anchorage area
a cumulative error which increases over time, hence,
- 1 shot = 90 ft approx 27 m
the concept of expansion.
- GMDSS, EPIRB
Lights (red, green)
Factors affecting DR Position Accuracy
Intersection of LOP’s(Line of position) 1. Tidal current – periodic horizontal
movement of the water’s surface caused by
Lines of Position
tide-affecting gravitational forces of the
Ranges
moon and sun
Position Fix set-current’s direction
Estimated Position drift- speed
Dead Reckoning 2. Leeway – leeward motion of the vessel due
Running Fix to that component of the wind vector
Turn bearing perpendicular to the vessel’s track
Snellius construction 3. Helmsman and steering compass error

Dead reckoning is the process of determining Estimated track made good – direction of a
straight line form the last fix to the estimated
one’s present position by projecting course(s)
position
and speed(s) from a known past position and
 Estimated speed made good – length of this line 4 navigator – officer directly responsible to the
divided by the time between the fix and EP ship’s captain for the safe navigation of the ship the
most senior officer who devotes his effort
Piloting involves navigating a vessel in a restricted exclusively to monitoring the navigation picture
waters and fixing its position as precisely as possible 5 bearing plotting team
at frequent intervals 6 Radar operator
7 plot supervisor
1. Prepare the following instruments 8 fathometer operator
Plot setup instruments:
a. dividers – to measure distances between Types of fixes:
points on the chart
b. compasses 1 Fix by bearings
c. plotters 2 fix by ranges
d sharpened pencils and erasers a radar ranges
e. fischer radar plotting template b stadimeter ranges
f. time-speed-distance calculator c sextant vertical angles
g. time and current graph d sonar ranges
3 Fix by bearing and range
2. tape down the chart on the chart table 4 Fix by range line and distance
3. energize and test all electronic navigation
equipment (e.g. radar, GPS receiver, electronic Criteria for choosing anchoring position:
navigation suite) 1 depth of water
4 assemble all required publications—coast pilots, 2 type of bottom
light lists, tide and current tables, notice to mariners 3 proximity to navigational hazard
4 proximity to adjacent ship
The navigator should always accomplish the 5 proximity to harbor traffic lanes
following evolution prior to piloting: 6 weather
1 testing the shaft on the main engine in the astern 7 availability of NAVAIDS for monitoring the ship’s
direction pos’n
2 making the anchor ready for letting go
3 calculate gyro error Swing circle – check for navigational hazard; radius
equal to the sum of the ship’s length and scope of
Factors to consider in piloting from the harbor anchor chain released
entrance to mooring
1 weather Drag circle – to ensure the anchor is holding; radius
2 mooring procedures equals the sum of the hawsepipe to pelorus distance
3 ships’s density and the scope of the chain released.

Common piloting errors:

Piloting team 1. Failure to obtain or evaluate soundings
1 captain – ultimately responsible for the safe 2. Mis-identification of aids to navigation
navigation 3. Failure to use available navigational aids
2 pilot – captain’s most important navigational effectively
advisor 4. Failure to correct charts
3 OOD (conning officer) – directs the ship’s 5. Failure to adjust a magnetic compass or keep a
table of corrections
movements by rudder and engine orders
6. Failure to apply deviation
7. Failure to apply variation Electronic navigational chart (ENC) – electronic
8. Failure to check gyro and magnetic compass chartr issued by a nat’l hydro authority designed to
readings regularly satisfy the regulatory requirement s for chart
9. Failure to keep a dead reckoning plot carriage
10. Failure to plot new information
11. Failure to properly evaluate information IMO ECDIS performance standards general
12. Poor judgment requirements:
13. Failure to use information in charts and  Display of govt-authorized vector chart data
navigational publications including an updating capability
14. Poor navigation team organization  Enable route planning, route monitoring,
15. Failure to “keep ahead of the vessel” manual positioning, and continuous plotting
16. Failure to have backup navigational methods in of the ship’s position
place  Have a presentation as reliable and
17. Failure to recognize degradation of available as an official paper chart
electronically obtained LOP’s or lat./long. Positions  Provide appropriate alarms or indications
regarding displayed information or
Factors affecting interpretation of Radar malfunctions
1. Resolution in range – ability of radar to  Permit a mode of operation with raster
separate targets close together on the same charts
bearing Additional functions:
2. Resolution in bearing – ability to separate • Display of system information in three selectable
targets close together at the same range levels of detail
- a function : a)beam width, and: b) range to • Means to ensure correct loading of ENC data and
targets. updates
>>narrower beam and shorter distance to • Apply updates automatically to system display
the objects both increase bearing resolution • Protect chart data from any alteration
3. Height of antenna and target • Permit display of update content
4. Reflecting quality and aspect of target • Store updates separately and keep records of
5. Frequency-as frequency increases, application in system
reflections occur from smaller targets • Indicate when user zooms too far in or out on a
chart (over- or under-scale) or when a larger scale
Atmospheric noise, sea return and precipitation chart is available in memory
complicate radar interpretation by creating clutter, • Permit the overlay of radar image and ARPA
which is usually strongest near the vessel information onto the display
• Require north-up orientation and true motion
Electronic chart system (ECS) – commercial mode, but permit other combinations
electronic chart system not designed to satisfy the • Use IHO-specified resolution, colors and symbols
regulatory requirements of the IMO SOLAS. • Use IEC-specified navigational elements and
- When used on SOLAS regulated vessels is to parameters (range & bearing marker, position fix,
be used with corrected paper charts own ship’s track and vector, waypoint, tidal
information, etc.)
Electronic chart display and information system • Use specified size of symbols, letters and figures at
(ECDIS)- an electronic chart system which satisfies scale specified in chart data
the IMO SOLAS convention carriage requirements • Permit display of ship as symbol or in true scale
for corrected paper charts when used with an ENC • Display route planning and other tasks
• Display route monitoring
Electronic chart – any digitized chart intended for • Permit display to be clearly viewed by more than
display on a computerized navigation system one user in day or night conditions
• Permit route planning in straight and curved
Electronic chart data base (ECDB) – digital database segments and adjustment of waypoints
from shich electronic charts are produced • Display a route plan in addition to the route
selected for monitoring
• Permit track limit selection and display an • Hydrographic office cautions
indication if track limit crosses a safety contour or a • Hydrographic office color-fill area data
selected prohibited area • Hydrographic office on demand data
• Permit display of an area away from ship while • Radar information
continuing to monitor selected route • User’s data
• Give an alarm at a selectable time prior to ship • Manufacturer’s data
crossing a selected safety contour or prohibited area • User’s color-fill area data
• Plot ship’s position using a continuous positioning • Manufacturer’s color-fill area data
system with an accuracy consistent with the
requirements of safe navigation An alarm is required for the following:
• Identify selectable discrepancy between primary • Exceeding cross-track limits
and secondary positioning system • Crossing selected safety contour
• Provide an alarm when positioning system input is • Deviation from route
lost • Position system failure
• Provide an alarm when positioning system and • Approaching a critical point
chart are based on different geodetic datums • Chart on different geodetic datum from positioning
• Store and provide for replay the elements System
necessary to reconstruct navigation and verify chart
data in use during previous 12 hours An alarm or indication is required for the following:
• Record the track for entire voyage with at least • Largest scale for alarm (indicates that presently
four hour time marks loaded chart is too small a scale to activate anti
• Permit accurate drawing of ranges and bearings grounding feature)
not limited by display resolution • Area with special conditions (means a special type
• Require system connection to continuous position of chart is within a time or distance setting)
fixing, heading and speed information • Malfunction of ECDIS (means the master unit in a
• Neither degrade nor be degraded by connection to master-backup network has failed)
other sensors
• Conduct on-board tests of major functions with An indication is required for the following:
alarm or indication of malfunction • Chart overscale (zoomed in too close)
• Permit normal functions on emergency power • Larger scale ENC available
circuit • Different reference units (charted depths not in
• Permit power interruptions of up to 45 seconds meters)
without system failure or need to reboot • Route crosses safety contour
• Enable takeover by backup unit to continue • Route crosses specified area activated for alarms
navigation if master unit fails • System test failure

ECDIS uses the following units of measure: Integrated Bridge System (IBS) – combination of
• Position: Latitude and longitude will be shown in equipment and software which uses interconnected
degrees, minutes, and decimal minutes, normally controls and displays to present a comprehensive
based on WGS-84 datum. suite in navigational information to the mariner
• Depth: Depths will be indicated in meters and Consists of at least:
decimeters.  Dual ECDIS installation – 1 master and 1
• Height: Meters backup
• Distance: Nautical miles and tenths, or meters  Dual radar/ARPA installation
• Speed: Knots and tenths  Conning display with a concentrated
presentation of navigational information
ECDIS requires data layers to establish a priority of  DGPS positioning
data displayed. The minimum number of information  Ship’s speed measuring system
categories required and their relative priority from  Auto-ilot and gyrocompass system
highest to lowest are listed below:  Full GMDSS functionality
• ECDIS warnings and messages  Some include full internal communications,
• Hydrographic office data and a means of monitoring fire control,
• Notice to Mariners information shipboard status alarms, and machinery
 control, functions for the loading and solutions when there are two or more courses and
discharge of cargo determines the equivalent course and distance
IBS is designed to centralize the functions of made good by a vessel steaming along a series of
monitoring collision and grounding risks, and to rhumb lines.
automate navigation and ship control.
3. Parallel sailing is the interconversion of departure
NAVIGATIONAL ERRORS and difference of longitude when a vessel is
Error – difference between a specific value and the proceeding due east or due west.
correct or standard value
Mistake – a blunder, such as incorrect reading of an 4. Middle- (or mid-) latitude sailing uses the mean
instrument, taking of a wrong value from a table, a latitude for converting departure to difference of
data entry error, or plotting a reciprocal bearing longitude when the course is not due east or due
standard – value or quantity established by custom, west.
agreement, or authority as a basis for comparison
accuracy – the degree of conformance with the 5. Mercator sailing provides a mathematical solution
correct value of the plot as made on a Mercator chart. It is similar
precision – measure of refinement of a value to plane sailing, but uses meridional difference and
difference of longitude in place of difference of
3 types of accuracy with respect to navigation latitude and departure.
systems:
1. Absolute/predictable/geodetic accuracy – 6. Great circle sailing involves the solution of
accuracy of a position with respect to the courses, distances, and points along a great circle
true geographic coordinates according to between two points.
the particular datum being used
2. Repeatable accuracy – with which a 7. Composite sailing is a modification of great circle
navigation system can return to a sailing to limit the maximum latitude, generally to
previously identified position avoid ice or severe weather near the poles
3. Relative accuracy – measure of the ability
of two different receivers of the same type Bridge Team Management – management of the
to define a position at the same time human resources available to the navigator—
Systematic errors – follow some rule by which helmsman, lookout, engine room watch, etc—and
they can be predicted how to ensure that tall members contribute to the
Random errors – unpredictable, governed by goal of safe and efficient voyage
the laws of probability
Bridge Resource Management – study of the
The Sailings - collective method of finding the resources available to the navigator and the
course and distance from one known point to exploitation of them in order to conduct safe and
another, which often uses p purely efficient voyages
mathematical solution especially for trans- Requires:
oceanic distances • Clearly defined navigational goals
• Defined procedures—a system—for achieving
Types of sailings: goals
• Means to achieve the goals
1. Plane sailing solves problems involving a single • Measures of progress toward goals
course and distance, difference of latitude, and • Constant awareness of the situation tactically,
departure, in which the Earth is regarded as a plane operationally, and strategically
surface. This method, therefore, provides solution • Clearly defined accountability and responsibility
for latitude of the point of arrival, but not for • Open communication throughout the system
longitude. To calculate the longitude, the spherical • External support
sailings are necessary. Plane sailing is not intended
for distances of more than a few hundred miles. Conditions that increase the demands for
navigator:
2. Traverse sailing combines the plane sailing  Fog
  Heavy traffic ship’s chronometer. A portable radio capable of
 Entering a channel, harboe or restricte area receiving time signals, together with a good
 Heavy weather wristwatch, will also suffice.
 Fire, flooding or other emergency 7. A marine sextant. (An inexpensive plastic sextant
willsuffice.) Several types are available commercially.
Watch Condition I indicates unrestricted The emergency sextant should be used periodically
maneuverability, weather clear, little or no traffic, so its limitations and capabilities are fully
and all systems operating normally. In this condition, understood.
depending on the size and type of vessel and its 8. A celestial navigation calculator and spare
mission, often a single licensed person can handle batteries, or a current Nautical Almanac and this
the bridge watch. book or a similar text. Another year’s almanac can
be used for stars and the Sun without serious error
Watch Condition II applies to situations where by emergency standards. Some form of long-term
visibility is somewhat restricted, and almanac might be copied or pasted in the notebook.
maneuverability is constrained by hydrography and 9. Tables. Some form of table might be needed for
other traffic. This condition may require additional reducing celestial observations if the celestial
navigational resources, such as a lookout, calculator fails. The Nautical Almanac produced
helmsman, or another licensed watch officer. by the U.S. Naval Observatory contains detailed
procedures for calculator sight reduction and a
Watch Condition III reflects a condition where compact sight reduction table.
navigation is seriously constrained by poor visibility, 10. Flashlight. Check the batteries periodically and
close quarters (as in bays, sounds, or approach include extra batteries and bulbs in the kit.
channels), and heavy traffic. 11. Portable radio. A handheld VHF transceiver
approved by the Federal Communications
Watch Condition IV is the most serious, occurring Commission for emergency use can establish
when visibility is poor, maneuvering is tightly communications with rescue authorities. A small
constrained (as in channels and inner harbors), and portable radio may be used as a radio direction
traffic is heavy. finder or for receiving time signals.
12. An Emergency Position Indicating Radiobeacon
Emergency Navigation Kit (EPIRB) and a Search and Rescue Transponder
1. At least one proven and personally tested (SART) are absolutely essential.
handheld GPS receiver with waypoints and routes
entered, and with plenty of spare batteries. Routing System: Any system of routes or routing
2. A small, magnetic hand-bearing compass such as measures designed to minimize the possibility of
is used in small craft navigation, to be used if all collisions between ships, including TSS’s, twoway
other compasses fail. routes, recommended tracks, areas to be
3. A minimal set of paper charts for the voyage at avoided, inshore traffic zones, precautionary
hand, ranging from small-scale to coastal to areas, and deep-water routes.
approach and perhaps harbor, for the most likely
scenarios. A pilot chart for the ocean basin in Traffic Separation Scheme: A routing measure which
question makes a good small scale chart for offshore separates opposing traffic flow with traffic lanes.
use.
4. A notebook or journal suitable for use as a deck Separation Zone or Line: An area or line which
log and for computations, plus maneuvering boards, separates opposing traffic, separates traffic from
graph paper, and position plotting sheets. adjacent areas, or separates different classes of
5. Pencils, erasers, a straightedge, protractor or ships from one another.
plotter, dividers and compasses, and a knife or pencil
sharpener. Traffic Lane: An area within which one-way traffic is
6. A timepiece. The optimum timepiece is a quartz established.
crystal chronometer, but any high-quality digital
wristwatch will suffice if it is synchronized with the Roundabout: A circular traffic lane used at junctions
of several routes, within which traffic moves
counterclockwise around a separation point or zone.
 The Class A AIS broadcasts the following data every
Inshore Traffic Zone: The area between a traffic 2-10 seconds while underway, and every three
separation scheme and the adjacent coast, usually minutes at anchor, at a power of 12.5 watts:
designated for coastal traffic. • MMSI number, a unique identification number
• Navigation status: underway, anchored, not under
Two-Way Route: A two-way track for guidance of command, etc.
ships through hazardous areas. • Rate of turn, right or left, to 720 degrees per
minute
Recommended Route: A route established for • Speed over ground
convenience of ship navigation, often marked with • Course over ground
centerline buoys. • Position accuracy; GPS, DGPS and whether RAIM
is in operation
Recommended Track: A route, generally found to be • Lat. and long. to 1/10,000 minute
free of dangers, which ships are advised to follow • True heading, derived from gyro if installed
to avoid possible hazards nearby. • Time of report

Deep-Water Route: A route surveyed and chosen for In addition, the Class A AIS will transmit every six
the passage of deep-draft vessels through shoal minutes:
areas. • MMSI number as above, links data above to vessel
• IMO number, a unique identifier related to ship’s
Precautionary Area: A defined area within which construction
ships must use particular caution and should • International call sign
follow the recommended direction of traffic flow. • Name of ship, to 20 characters
• Type of ship and cargo, from list of types
Area to be Avoided: An area within which navigation • Dimensions of ship, to nearest meter
by certain classes of ships is prohibited because of • Location on ship of reference point for position
particular navigational dangers or environmentally reports
sensitive natural features. They are depicted on • Source of fix information: GPS, Loran, DR,
charts by dashed or composite lines. undefined,
The smallest may cover less than a mile in extent; etc.
the largest may cover hundreds of square miles. • Draft of ship, to 0.1 meter; air draft is not defined
Notes on the appropriate charts and in pilots and • Destination, to 20 characters
Sailing Directions tell which classes of ships are • ETA: month, day, hour, and minute in UTC
excluded from the area.
Global Maritime Distress and Safety System
Established Direction of Traffic Flow: The direction (GMDSS) - an automated ship-to-ship, shore-to-ship
in which traffic within a lane must travel. and ship-to-shore communications system covering
distress alerting and relay, the provision of maritime
Recommended Direction of Traffic Flow: The safety information (MSI), and routine
direction in which traffic is recommended to communications. Satellite and advanced terrestrial
travel. system are incorporated into a communications
network to promote and improve safety of life and
Automatic Identification Ssystems –a ship-board property at sea throughout the world. The
transponder that operated in the maritime VHF equipment required on board ships depends not on
band, transmitting detailed information about a their tonnage, but rather on the area in which the
particular vessel and its operation vessel operates. This is fundamentally different from
Required by IMO: the previous system, which based requirements on
1 Operate in a ship-to-ship mode for collision vessel size alone. The greatest benefit of the GMDSS
avoidance is that it vastly reduces the chances of ships sinking
2 operate in a ship-to-chore mode for traffic without a trace, and enables search and rescue (SAR)
management operations to be launched without delay and
3 carry specified data about the ship and its cargo directed to the exact site of a maritime disaster.
Inmarsat (International Maritime Satellite the wind and sea is such as to carry a vessel into the
Organization), a key player within GMDSS, is an path of the storm (in the forward part of the
international corporation comprising over 75 semicircle). The part to the left of the storm track is
international partners providing maritime safety called the less dangerous semicircle, or navigable
communications for ships at sea. semicircle. In this part, the wind is decreased by the
Inmarsat provides the space segment necessary for forward motion of the storm, and the wind blows
improving distress communications, efficiency and vessels away from the storm track (in the forward
management of ships, as well as public part). Because of the greater wind speed in the
correspondence services. dangerous semicircle, the seas are higher than
The basic components of the Inmarsat system in the less dangerous semicircle. In the Southern
include the Inmarsat space segment, Land Earth Hemisphere, the dangerous semicircle is to the left
Stations (LES), also referred to as Coast Earth of the storm track, and the less dangerous semicircle
Stations (CES), and mobile Ship Earth Stations (SES). is to the right of the storm track.
The Inmarsat space segment consists of 11
geostationary satellites. Four operational Inmarsat As a general rule, for a vessel in the Northern
satellites provide primary coverage, four additional Hemisphere, safety lies in placing the wind on the
satellites (including satellites leased from the starboard bow in the dangerous semicircle and on
European Space Agency (ESA) and the International the starboard quarter in the less dangerous
Telecommunications Satellite Organization semicircle. If on the storm track ahead of the storm,
(INTELSAT)) serve as spares and three remaining the wind should be put about 160 on the starboard
leased satellites serve as back-ups. quarter until the vessel is well within the less
dangerous semicircle, and the rule for that
Digital Selective Calling (DSC) is a system of digitized semicircle then followed.
radio communications which allows messages to While each storm requires its own analysis, and
be targeted to all stations or to specific stations, frequent or continual resurvey of the situation, the
allows for unattended and automated receipt and general rules for a steamer may be summarized as
storage of messages for later retrieval, and permits follows:
the printing of messages in hardcopy form
Northern Hemisphere
Types of DSC calls:
1. Distress Right or dangerous semicircle: Bring the wind on the
2. Urgent starboard bow (045° relative), hold course and
3. Safety make as much way as possible. If necessary, heave
4. Routine to with head to the sea.
Left or less dangerous semicircle: Bring the wind on
Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon(EPIRB) the starboard quarter , hold course
- Designed to save lives by automatically and make as much way as possible. If necessary,
alerting rescue authorities and indicating heave to with stern to the sea.
kistress location On storm track, ahead of center: Bring the wind 2
points on the starboard quarter (about 160
According to Buys Ballot’s law, an observer whose relative), hold course and make as much way as
back is to the wind has the low pressure on his left in possible. When well within the less dangerous
the Northern Hemisphere, and on his right in the semicircle, maneuver as indicated above.
Southern Hemisphere On storm track, behind center: Avoid the center by
the best practicable course, keeping in mind the
Maneuvering to avoid the storm center: tendency of tropical cyclones to curve northward
In the Northern Hemisphere, that part to the right and eastward.
of the storm track (facing in the direction toward
which the storm is moving) is called the dangerous
semicircle. It is considered dangerous because (1)
Southern Hemisphere
the actual wind speed is greater than that due to the Left or dangerous semicircle: Bring the wind on the
pressure gradient alone, since it is augmented by the port bow hold course and make as
forward motion of the storm, and (2) the direction of much way as possible. If necessary, heave to with
head to the sea.
Right or less dangerous semicircle: Bring the wind
on the port quarter, hold course and
make as much way as possible. If necessary, heave
to with stern to the sea.
On storm track, ahead of center: Bring the wind
about 200 relative, hold course and make as much
way as possible. When well within the less
dangerous semicircle, maneuver as indicated above.
On storm track, behind center: Avoid the center by
the best practicable course, keeping in mind the
tendency of tropical cyclones to curve southward
and eastward.

Short distress signals:

a. “SOS” signal made by any audio or visual
means\
b. International Code of Signals “NC”
c. Hoisting any square flag with a ball or
anything resembling a ball, above or below
it
d. Flames made visible
e. Rocket parachute flare or hand held flare
showing red light
f. Rockets or shells, throwing red stars fired
one at a time at short intervals
g. Orange smoke, as emitted from a distress
flare
h. Gun or explosive signal fired at regular
intervals for one minute
i. Continuous sounding of any for-signal
apparatus
j. Slowly and repeatedly raising and lowering
of arms outstretched to each side