Köppen climate

classification

An updated Köppen–Geiger climate map[1]

    Af                
   BWh  Csa  Cwa  Cfa  Dsa  Dwa  Dfa  ET
 Am                
   BWk  Csb  Cwb  Cfb  Dsb  Dwb  Dfb  EF
 Aw/As              
 BSh  Csc  Cwc  Cfc  Dsc  Dwc  Dfc
       
 BSk  Dsd  Dwd  Dfd

The Köppen climate classification is one

of the most widely used climate
classification systems. It was first
published by the Russian climatologist
Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) in
1884,[2][3] with several later modifications
by Köppen, notably in 1918 and 1936.[4][5]
Later, the climatologist Rudolf Geiger
(1954, 1961) introduced some changes to
the classification system, which is thus
sometimes called the Köppen–Geiger
climate classification system.[6][7]

The Köppen climate classification divides

climates into five main climate groups,
with each group being divided based on
seasonal precipitation and temperature
patterns. The five main groups are A
(tropical), B (dry), C (temperate), D
(continental), and E (polar). Each group
and subgroup is represented by a letter. All
climates are assigned a main group (the
first letter). All climates except for those in
the E group are assigned a seasonal
precipitation subgroup (the second letter).
For example, Af indicates a tropical
rainforest climate. The system assigns a
temperature subgroup for all groups other
than those in the A group, indicated by the
third letter for climates in B, C, and D, and
the second letter for climates in E. For
example, Cfb indicates an oceanic climate
with warm summers as indicated by the
ending b. Climates are classified based on
specific criteria unique to each climate
type.[8]

Köppen designed the system based on his

experience as a botanist, so the main
climate groups are based on the different
variety of vegetation that grows in
climates belonging to each group. In
addition to identifying climates, the
system can be used to analyze ecosystem
conditions and identify the main types of
vegetation within climates. Due to its link
with the plant life of a region, the system is
useful in predicting future changes in plant
life within a region.[9]

The Köppen climate classification system

has been further modified, within the
Trewartha climate classification system in
the middle 1960s (revised in 1980). The
Trewartha system sought to create a more
refined middle latitude climate zone, which
was one of the criticisms of the Köppen
system (the C climate group was too
broad).[10]:200–1

Overview
Köppen climate classification scheme symbols description table[1][8][11]
1st 2nd 3rd

f (Rainforest)

m (Monsoon)
A (Tropical)
w (Savanna, Wet)

s (Savanna, Dry)

W (Desert)

S (Steppe)
B (Arid)
h (Hot)

k (Cold)

s (Dry summer)

w (Dry winter)

f (Without dry season)

C (Temperate)
a (Hot summer)

b (Warm summer)

c (Cold summer)

s (Dry summer)

w (Dry winter)

f (Without dry season)

D (Continental) a (Hot summer)

b (Warm summer)

c (Cold summer)

d (Very cold winter)

T (Tundra)
E (Polar)
F (Eternal winter (ice cap))
The Köppen climate classification scheme
divides climates into five main climate
groups: A (tropical), B (dry), C (temperate),
D (continental), and E (polar).[12] The
second letter indicates the seasonal
precipitation type, while the third letter
indicates the level of heat.[13] Summers
are defined as the 6 month period that is
warmer either from April–September
and/or October–March while winter is the
6 month period that is cooler.[1][11]

Group A: Tropical (megathermal) climates

This type of climate has every month of

the year with an average temperature of
18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher, with significant
precipitation.[1][11]

Af = Tropical rainforest climate; average

precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in)
in every month.
Am = Tropical monsoon climate; driest
month (which nearly always occurs at or
soon after the "winter" solstice for that
side of the equator) with precipitation
less than 60 mm (2.4 in), but more than
4% the total annual precipitation.
Aw or As = Tropical wet and dry or
savanna climate; with the driest month
having precipitation less than 60 mm
 (2.4 in) and less than 4% of the total
annual precipitation.

Group B: Dry (arid and semiarid) climates

This type of climate is defined by little

precipitation.

Multiply the average annual temperature in

Celsius by 20, then add

(a) 280 if 70% or more of the total

precipitation is in the spring and
summer months (April–September in
the Northern Hemisphere, or October–
March in the Southern), or
(b) 140 if 30%–70% of the total
precipitation is received during the
 spring and summer, or
(c) 0 if less than 30% of the total
precipitation is received during the
spring and summer.

If the annual precipitation is less than 50%

of this threshold, the classification is BW
(arid: desert climate); if it is in the range of
50%–100% of the threshold, the
classification is BS (semi-arid: steppe
climate).[1][11]

A third letter can be included to indicate

temperature. Originally, h signified low-
latitude climate (average annual
temperature above 18 °C (64.4 °F)) while k
signified middle-latitude climate (average
annual temperature below 18 °C), but the
more common practice today, especially in
the United States, is to use h to mean the
coldest month has an average
temperature above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C
(27 °F)), with k denoting that at least one
month's averages below 0 °C (or −3 °C
(27 °F)). The n is used to denote a climate
characterized by frequent fog.[14][15][16]

BWh = Hot desert climate

BWk = Cold desert climate
BSh = Hot semi-arid climate
BSk = Cold semi-arid climate
Group C: Temperate (mesothermal)
climates

This type of climate has the coldest month

averaging between 0 °C (32 °F)[11] (or
−3 °C (27 °F))[8] and 18 °C (64.4 °F) and at
least one month averaging above 10 °C
(50 °F).[11][8]

Cfa = Humid subtropical climate; coldest

month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or
−3 °C (27 °F)), at least one month's
average temperature above 22 °C
(71.6 °F), and at least four months
averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No
significant precipitation difference
between seasons (neither
abovementioned set of conditions
fulfilled). No dry months in the summer.
Cfb = Temperate oceanic climate;
coldest month averaging above 0 °C
(32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months with
average temperatures below 22 °C
(71.6 °F), and at least four months
averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No
significant precipitation difference
between seasons (neither
abovementioned set of conditions
fulfilled).
Cfc = Subpolar oceanic climate; coldest
month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or
−3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3 months
averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No
significant precipitation difference
between seasons (neither
abovementioned set of conditions
fulfilled).
Cwa = Monsoon-influenced humid
subtropical climate; coldest month
averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C
(27 °F)), at least one month's average
temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and
at least four months averaging above
10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much
rain in the wettest month of summer as
in the driest month of winter (alternative
definition is 70% or more of average
annual precipitation is received in the
warmest six months).
Cwb = Subtropical highland climate or
Monsoon-influenced temperate oceanic
climate; coldest month averaging above
0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months
with average temperatures below 22 °C
(71.6 °F), and at least four months
averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least
ten times as much rain in the wettest
month of summer as in the driest month
of winter (an alternative definition is 70%
or more of average annual precipitation
received in the warmest six months).
Cwc = Cold subtropical highland climate
or Monsoon-influenced subpolar
oceanic climate; coldest month
averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C
(27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging
above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times
as much rain in the wettest month of
summer as in the driest month of winter
(alternative definition is 70% or more of
average annual precipitation is received
in the warmest six months).
Csa = Hot-summer Mediterranean
climate; coldest month averaging above
0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), at least
one month's average temperature above
22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months
averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least
three times as much precipitation in the
wettest month of winter as in the driest
month of summer, and driest month of
summer receives less than 30 mm
(1.2 in).
Csb = Warm-summer Mediterranean
climate; coldest month averaging above
0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months
with average temperatures below 22 °C
(71.6 °F), and at least four months
averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least
three times as much precipitation in the
wettest month of winter as in the driest
month of summer, and driest month of
 summer receives less than 30 mm
(1.2 in).
Csc = Cold-summer Mediterranean
climate; coldest month averaging above
0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3
months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).
At least three times as much
precipitation in the wettest month of
winter as in the driest month of summer,
and driest month of summer receives
less than 30 mm (1.2 in).

Group D: Continental (microthermal)

climates

This type of climate has at least one

month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or
−3 °C (27 °F)) and at least one month
averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).[11][8]

Dfa = Hot-summer humid continental

climate; coldest month averaging below
−0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), at least
one month's average temperature above
22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months
averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No
significant precipitation difference
between seasons (neither
abovementioned set of conditions
fulfilled).
Dfb = Warm-summer humid continental
climate; coldest month averaging below
−0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all
months with average temperatures
below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four
months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).
No significant precipitation difference
between seasons (neither
abovementioned set of conditions
fulfilled).
Dfc = Subarctic climate; coldest month
averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C
(27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging
above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant
precipitation difference between
seasons (neither abovementioned set of
conditions fulfilled).
Dfd = Extremely cold subarctic climate;
coldest month averaging below −38 °C
(−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging
above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant
precipitation difference between
seasons (neither abovementioned set of
conditions fulfilled).
Dwa = Monsoon-influenced hot-summer
humid continental climate; coldest
month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or
−3 °C (27 °F)), at least one month's
average temperature above 22 °C
(71.6 °F), and at least four months
averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least
ten times as much rain in the wettest
month of summer as in the driest month
of winter (alternative definition is 70% or
more of average annual precipitation is
received in the warmest six months).
Dwb = Monsoon-influenced warm-
summer humid continental climate;
coldest month averaging below 0 °C
(32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months with
average temperatures below 22 °C
(71.6 °F), and at least four months
averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least
ten times as much rain in the wettest
month of summer as in the driest month
of winter (alternative definition is 70% or
more of average annual precipitation is
received in the warmest six months).
Dwc = Monsoon-influenced subarctic
climate; coldest month averaging below
0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3
months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).
At least ten times as much rain in the
wettest month of summer as in the
driest month of winter (alternative
definition is 70% or more of average
annual precipitation is received in the
warmest six months).
Dwd = Monsoon-influenced extremely
cold subarctic climate; coldest month
averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and
1–3 months averaging above 10 °C
(50 °F). At least ten times as much rain
in the wettest month of summer as in
the driest month of winter (alternative
definition is 70% or more of average
annual precipitation is received in the
warmest six months).
Dsa = Mediterranean-influenced hot-
summer humid continental climate;
coldest month averaging below 0 °C
(32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), average
temperature of the warmest month
above 22 °C (71.6 °F) and at least four
months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).
At least three times as much
precipitation in the wettest month of
winter as in the driest month of summer,
and driest month of summer receives
less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
Dsb = Mediterranean-influenced warm-
summer humid continental climate;
coldest month averaging below 0 °C
(32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), average
temperature of the warmest month
below 22 °C (71.6 °F) and at least four
months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).
At least three times as much
precipitation in the wettest month of
winter as in the driest month of summer,
and driest month of summer receives
less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
Dsc = Mediterranean-influenced
subarctic climate; coldest month
averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C
(27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging
above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times
as much precipitation in the wettest
month of winter as in the driest month
of summer, and driest month of summer
receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
Dsd = Mediterranean-influenced
extremely cold subarctic climate;
coldest month averaging below −38 °C
(−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging
above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times
as much precipitation in the wettest
month of winter as in the driest month
of summer, and driest month of summer
receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
Group E: Polar and alpine (montane)
climates

This type of climate has every month of

the year with an average temperature
below 10 °C (50 °F).[1][11]

ET = Tundra climate; average

temperature of warmest month between
0 °C (32 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F).[1][11]
EF = Ice cap climate; eternal winter, with
all 12 months of the year with average
temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).[1][11]

Group A:
Tropical/megathermal
climates
Tropical climates are characterized by
constant high temperatures (at sea level
and low elevations); all 12 months of the
year have average temperatures of 18 °C
(64.4 °F) or higher. They are subdivided as
follows:

Af: Tropical rainforest climate

All 12 months have an average

precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in).
These climates usually occur within 10°
latitude of the equator. This climate has
no natural seasons in terms of thermal
and moisture changes.[10]. When it is
dominated most of the year by the
doldrums low-pressure system due to the
presence of the Intertropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ) and when they are no
cyclones then the climate is qualified as
equatorial. When the trade winds are
dominant most of the year, the climate is a
tropical trade-wind rainforest climate[17].

Examples
Apia, Samoa (Af)
Balikpapan, Indonesia (Af)
Davao, Philippines (Af)
Georgetown, Guyana (Af)
Hilo, Hawaii, United States (Af)
Honiara, Solomon Islands (Af)
Innisfail, Queensland, Australia (Af)
Ishigaki, Japan (Af)
Kampala, Uganda (Af)
Kisumu, Kenya (Af)
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Af)
Kuching, Malaysia (Af)
Lae, Papua New Guinea (Af)
Medan, Indonesia (Af)
Moroni, Comoros (Af)
Paramaribo, Suriname (Af)
Pontianak, Indonesia (Af)
Quibdó, Colombia (Af)
Ratnapura, Sri Lanka (Af)
Salvador da Bahia, Brazil (Af)
Santos, Brazil (Af)
Singapore (Af)
Suva, Fiji (Af)
Toamasina, Madagascar (Af)
Victoria, Seychelles (Af)
West Palm Beach, Florida, United States
(Af)
Some of the places with this climate are
indeed uniformly and monotonously wet
throughout the year (e.g., the northwest
Pacific coast of South and Central
America, from Ecuador to Costa Rica; see,
for instance, Andagoya, Colombia), but in
many cases, the period of higher sun and
longer days is distinctly wettest (as at
Palembang, Indonesia) or the time of
lower sun and shorter days may have
more rain (as at Sitiawan, Malaysia).
Among these places some have a pure
equatorial climate (Balikpapan, Kuala
Lumpur, Kuching, Lae, Medan, Paramaribo,
Pontianak and Singapore) with the
dominant ITCZ aerological mechanism
and no cyclones or a subequatorial
climate with occasional cyclones (Davao,
Ratnapura, Victoria).

(Note. The term aseasonal refers to the

lack in the tropical zone of large
differences in daylight hours and mean
monthly (or daily) temperature throughout
the year. Annual cyclic changes occur in
the tropics, but not as predictably as those
in the temperate zone, albeit unrelated to
temperature, but to water availability
whether as rain, mist, soil, or ground water.
Plant response (e. g., phenology), animal
(feeding, migration, reproduction, etc.), and
human activities (plant sowing, harvesting,
hunting, fishing, etc.) are tuned to this
'seasonality'. Indeed, in tropical South
America and Central America, the 'rainy
season' (and the 'high water season') is
called invierno or inverno, though it could
occur in the Northern Hemisphere
summer; likewise, the 'dry season' (and
'low water season') is called verano or
verão, and can occur in the Northern
Hemisphere winter).

Am: Tropical monsoon climate

This type of climate results from the

monsoon winds which change direction
according to the seasons. This climate
has a driest month (which nearly always
occurs at or soon after the "winter"
solstice for that side of the equator) with
rainfall less than 60 mm, but more than
1⁄ the total annual precipitation.[10]:208
25

Examples
Cairns, Queensland, Australia (Am)[18]
Chittagong, Bangladesh (Am)
Coatzacoalcos, Mexico (Am)
Conakry, Guinea (Am)
Douala, Cameroon (Am)
Freetown, Sierre Leone (Am)
Guanare, Venezuela (Am)
Huế, Thừa Thiên–Huế, Vietnam (Am)
Jakarta, Indonesia (Am)
Kochi, India (Am)
Libreville, Gabon (Am)
Malabo, Equatorial Guinea (Am)

Malé, Maldives (Am)

 Miami, Florida, United States (Am)
Monrovia, Liberia (Am)
Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria (Am)
Puerto Ayacucho, Venezuela (Am)
Qionghai City, China (Am)
Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil (Am)
San Juan, Puerto Rico (Am)
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
(Am)
Taitung, Taiwan (Am)
Yangon, Myanmar (Am)
Zanzibar City, Tanzania (Am)

Aw/As: Tropical wet and dry or

savanna climate

Aw climates have a pronounced dry

season, with the driest month having
precipitation less than 60 mm and less
than 1⁄25 of the total annual
precipitation.[10]:208–11

Examples
Abidjan, Ivory Coast (Aw, bordering on
Am)
Abuja, Nigeria (Aw)
Accra, Ghana (Aw)
Bamako, Mali (Aw)
Bangkok, Thailand (Aw)
Banjul, The Gambia (Aw)
Barquisimeto, Venezuela (Aw)
Brasília, Brazil (Aw)
Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo (Aw)
Bujumbura, Burundi (Aw)
Cali, Colombia (Aw)
Cancun, Mexico (Aw)
Caracas, Venezuela (Aw)
Cartagena, Colombia (Aw)
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India (Aw)
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (Aw)
Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia
(Aw)
Dhaka, Bangladesh (Aw)
Dili, East Timor (Aw)
Guatemala City, Guatemala (Aw)
Guayaquil, Ecuador (Aw)
Havana, Cuba (Aw, bordering on Am)
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (Aw)
Kano, Nigeria (Aw)
Kaohsiung, Taiwan (Aw)
Katherine, Northern Territory, Australia
(Aw)

Key West, Florida, United States (Aw)

Kigali, Rwanda (Aw)
Kingston, Jamaica (Aw)
Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of
Congo (Aw)
Kolkata, West Bengal, India (Aw)
Kumasi, Ghana (Aw)
Kupang, Indonesia (Aw)
Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria (Aw)
Managua, Nicaragua (Aw)
Mandalay, Myanmar (Aw, bordering on
BSh)
Maputo, Mozambique (Aw, bordering on
BSh)
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India (Aw)
Naples, Florida, United States (Aw)
Panamá City, Panamá (Aw)
Phnom Penh, Cambodia (Aw)
Port-au-Prince, Haiti (Aw)
Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago (Aw)
Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil (Aw)
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Aw, bordering on
Am)
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia (Aw)
Sanya, Hainan, China (Aw)
Surabaya, Indonesia (Aw)
 Tegucigalpa, Honduras (Aw)
Veracruz, Veracruz, Mexico (Aw)
Vientiane, Laos (Aw)
Yaoundé, Cameroon (Aw)

Most places that have this climate are

found at the outer margins of the tropical
zone from the low teens to the mid-20s
latitudes, but occasionally an inner-tropical
location (e.g., San Marcos, Antioquia,
Colombia) also qualifies. Actually, the
Caribbean coast, eastward from the Gulf
of Urabá on the Colombia–Panamá border
to the Orinoco River delta, on the Atlantic
Ocean (about 4,000 km), have long dry
periods (the extreme is the BSh climate
(see below), characterised by very low,
unreliable precipitation, present, for
instance, in extensive areas in the Guajira,
and Coro, western Venezuela, the
northernmost peninsulas in South
America, which receive <300 mm total
annual precipitation, practically all in two
or three months).

This condition extends to the Lesser

Antilles and Greater Antilles forming the
circum-Caribbean dry belt. The length and
severity of the dry season diminishes
inland (southward); at the latitude of the
Amazon River—which flows eastward, just
south of the equatorial line—the climate is
Af. East from the Andes, between the dry,
arid Caribbean and the ever-wet Amazon
are the Orinoco River's llanos or savannas,
from where this climate takes its name.

Sometimes As is used in place of Aw if the

dry season occurs during the time of
higher sun and longer days (during
summer).[8][19] This is the case in parts of
Hawaii, northwestern Dominican Republic,
East Africa, and the Brazilian Northeastern
Coast. In most places that have tropical
wet and dry climates, however, the dry
season occurs during the time of lower
sun and shorter days because of rain
shadow effects during the 'high-sun' part
of the year.

Examples

Lihue, Hawaii, United States (As)

Monte Cristi, Dominican Republic (As)
Natal, Brazil (As)
Trincomalee, Sri Lanka (As)
Mombasa, Kenya (As)

Group B: Dry (desert and

semi-arid) climates
These climates are characterized by actual
precipitation less than a threshold value
set equal to the potential
evapotranspiration.[10]:212 The threshold
value (in millimeters) is determined as:

Multiply the average annual temperature in

°C by 20, then add (a) 280 if 70% or more
of the total precipitation is in the high-sun
half of the year (April through September
in the Northern Hemisphere, or October
through March in the Southern), or (b) 140
if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is
received during the applicable period, or
(c) 0 if less than 30% of the total
precipitation is so received.

According to the modified Köppen

classification system used by modern
climatologists, total precipitation in the
warmest six months of the year is taken as
reference instead of the total precipitation
in the high-sun half of the year.[20]

If the annual precipitation is less than 50%

of this threshold, the classification is BW
(arid: desert climate); if it is in the range of
50%–100% of the threshold, the
classification is BS (semi-arid: steppe
climate).

A third letter can be included to indicate

temperature. Originally, h signified low-
latitude climate (average annual
temperature above 18 °C) while k signified
middle-latitude climate (average annual
temperature below 18 °C), but the more
common practice today, especially in the
United States, is to use h to mean the
coldest month has an average
temperature above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C
(27 °F)), with k denoting that at least one
month averages below 0 °C.

Desert areas situated along the west

coasts of continents at tropical or near-
tropical locations characterized by
frequent fog and low clouds, despite the
fact that these places rank among the
driest on earth in terms of actual
precipitation received are labelled BWn
with the n denoting a climate
characterized by frequent fog.[14][15][16] The
BSn category can be found in foggy
coastal steppes.[21]

BW: Arid desert climate

Coober Pedy, Australia (BWh)
Alice Springs, Australia (BWh)
Almería, Andalusia, Spain (BWh,
bordering on BSh)
Baghdad, Iraq (BWh)
Upington, Northern Cape South Africa
(BWh)
Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico (BWh)
Phoenix, Arizona, United States (BWh)
Death Valley, California, United States
(BWh), location of the hottest air
temperature ever recorded on Earth.
Las Vegas, Nevada, United States (BWh)
Las Palmas, Canary Islands, Spain
(BWh)
Eilat, Southern District, Israel (BWh)
‘Aziziya, Jafara, Libya (BWh)
Karachi, Pakistan (BWh)
Doha, Qatar (BWh)
Mecca, Makkah Region, Saudi Arabia
(BWh)
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (BWh)

Kuwait City, Capital Governorate, Kuwait

(BWh)
Dubai, United Arab Emirates (BWh)
Muscat, Oman (BWh)
Cairo, Egypt (BWh)
Alexandria, Egypt (BWh)
Khartoum, Sudan (BWh)
Djibouti City, Djibouti (BWh)
Nouakchott, Mauritania (BWh)
Timbuktu, Mali (BWh)
Lima, Peru (BWh)
Ashgabat, Turkmenistan (BWk)
Turpan, Xinjiang, China (BWk)
Leh, India (BWk)
Nukus, Uzbekistan (BWk)
Aral, Kazakhstan (BWk)
Damascus, Syria (BWk)
Walvis Bay, Erongo Region, Namibia
(BWk)
BS: Semi-arid (steppe) desert
climate
Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan (BSh)
Jodhpur, India (BSh)
Oranjestad, Aruba (BSh)
Alicante, Spain (BSh)
Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands,
Spain (BSh)
Ivanhoe, New South Wales, Australia
(BSh)
Honolulu, Hawaii, United States (BSh)
Odessa, Texas, United States (BSh)
Monterrey, Mexico, (BSh)
Querétaro City, Querétaro, Mexico (BSh)
Maracaibo, Venezuela (BSh)
Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil (BSh)
Patos, Paraíba, Brazil (BSh)
Piraeus, Greece (BSh)
Nicosia, Cyprus (BSh)
Amman, Amman Governorate, Jordan
(BSh)
Tripoli, Libya (BSh)
Mogadishu, Somalia (BSh)
Dakar, Senegal (BSh)
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso (BSh)
Niamey, Niger (BSh)
N'Djamena, Chad (BSh)
Luanda, Angola (BSh)
Windhoek, Namibia (BSh)
Yerevan, Armenia (BSk bordering Dfa)
Baku, Azerbaijan (BSk)
Denver, Colorado, United States (BSk)
Zaragoza, Spain (BSk)
Konya, Turkey (BSk)
Zacatecas City, Zacatecas, Mexico
(BSk)
Ulan-Ude, Russia (BSk)
Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada (BSk)
Brooks, Alberta, Canada (BSk)
Kabul, Afghanistan (BSk)
Aleppo, Syria (BSk)
Tianjin, China (BSk)
Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China (BSk)
 Lhasa, Tibet Autonomous Region, China
(BSk bordering on Dwb)
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia (BSk bordering
on Dwb)
Comodoro Rivadavia, Argentina (BSk)
La Quiaca, Jujuy, Argentina (BSk)
L'Agulhas, Western Cape, South Africa
(BSk)
Sana'a, Yemen (BSk)

Group C:
Temperate/mesothermal
climates
In the Koppen climate system, temperate
climates are defined as having an average
temperature above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C
(26.6 °F), as noted previously) in their
coldest month but below 18 °C (64.4 °F).
The average temperature of −3 °C (26.6 °F)
roughly coincides with the equatorward
limit of frozen ground and snowcover
lasting for a month or more.

The second letter indicates the

precipitation pattern—w indicates dry
winters (driest winter month average
precipitation less than one-tenth wettest
summer month average precipitation. s
indicates at least three times as much rain
in the wettest month of winter as in the
driest month of summer. f means
significant precipitation in all seasons
(neither above-mentioned set of
conditions fulfilled).[1]

The third letter indicates the degree of

summer heat—a indicates warmest month
average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F)
while b indicates warmest month
averaging below 22 °C but with at least
four months averaging above 10 °C
(50.0 °F), and c indicates less than four
months averaging above 10 °C
(50.0 °F).[1][11][8]
Csa: Mediterranean hot
summer climates

These climates usually occur on the

western sides of continents between the
latitudes of 30° and 45°.[22] These climates
are in the polar front region in winter, and
thus have moderate temperatures and
changeable, rainy weather. Summers are
hot and dry, due to the domination of the
subtropical high pressure systems, except
in the immediate coastal areas, where
summers are milder due to the nearby
presence of cold ocean currents that may
bring fog but prevent rain.[10]:221–3

Examples
Beirut, Lebanon (Csa)
Latakia, Syria (Csa)
Halabja, Iraq (Csa)
Jerusalem, Israel (Csa)
Tel Aviv, Israel (Csa)
Tangier, Morocco (Csa)
Casablanca, Morocco (Csa)
Algiers, Algeria (Csa)
Valletta, Malta (Csa)
Rome, Italy (Csa)
Naples, Italy (Csa)
Seville, Spain (Csa)
Málaga, Spain (Csa)
Palma de Mallorca, Spain (Csa)
Lisbon, Portugal (Csa)
Faro, Portugal (Csa)

Monaco (Csa)
Marseille, France (Csa)
Nice, France (Csa)
Athens, Greece (Csa bordering on BSh)
Tunis, Tunisia (Csa)
Antalya, Turkey (Csa)
Izmir, Turkey (Csa)
Tirana, Albania (Csa)
Tashkent, Uzbekistan (Csa)
Dushanbe, Tajikistan (Csa)
 Los Angeles, California, United States
(Csa/Csb bordering on BSh/BSk)
Sacramento, California, United States
(Csa)
Medford, Oregon, United States (Csa)
Perth, Australia (Csa)
Adelaide, Australia (Csa)

Csb: Mediterranean warm/cool

summer climates

Dry-summer climates sometimes extend

to additional areas (sometimes well north
or south of) typical Mediterranean
climates, however since their warmest
month average temperatures do not reach
22 °C (71.6 °F) they are classified as
Csb.[1] Some of these areas would border
the Oceanic climate (Cfb), except their dry-
summer patterns meet Köppen's Cs
minimum thresholds.

Examples

Santiago, Chile (bordering BSk)

A Coruña, Spain
Essaouira, Morocco
Porto, Portugal
Potenza, Italy
San Francisco, California, United States
 Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
Cape Town, South Africa
Albany, Western Australia, Australia

Csc: Mediterranean cold

summer climates

Cold summer Mediterranean climates

(Csc) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent
to coastal Csb climate areas, where the
strong maritime influence prevents the
average winter monthly temperature from
dropping below 0 °C. This climate is rare
and is predominantly found in climate
fringes and isolated areas of the Cascades
and Andes Mountains, as the dry-summer
climate extends further poleward in the
Americas than elsewhere.[10] Rare
instances of this climate can be found in
some coastal locations in the North
Atlantic and at high altitudes in Hawaii.

Examples

Balmaceda, Chile (Csc)

Haleakalā Summit, Hawaii, United
States (Csc)

Cfa: Humid subtropical

climates

These climates usually occur on the

eastern coasts and eastern sides of
continents, usually in the high 20s and 30s
latitudes. Unlike the dry summer
Mediterranean climates, humid subtropical
climates have a warm and wet flow from
the tropics that creates warm and moist
conditions in the summer months. As
such, summer (not winter as is the case in
Mediterranean climates) is often the
wettest season.

The flow out of the subtropical highs and

the summer monsoon creates a southerly
flow from the tropics that brings warm and
moist air to the lower east sides of
continents. This flow is often what brings
the frequent but short-lived summer
thundershowers so typical of the more
southerly subtropical climates like the far
southern United States, southern China
and Japan.[10]:223–6

Examples
Buenos Aires, Argentina (Cfa)
Montevideo, Uruguay (Cfa)
Asunción, Paraguay (Cfa, bordering on
Aw)
Campinas, Brazil (Cfa)
Porto Alegre, Brazil (Cfa)
São Paulo, Brazil (Cfa)
Brisbane, Australia (Cfa)
Sydney, Australia (Cfa)
Albury, Australia (Cfa)
Washington, D.C., United States (Cfa)
Orlando, Florida, United States (Cfa)
Dallas, Texas, United States (Cfa)
Astara, Azerbaijan (Cfa)
Horta, Azores, Portugal (Cfa)
Flores Island, Azores, Portugal (Cfa,
bordering on Cfb)

Adapazarı, Turkey (Cfa)

Belgrade, Serbia (Cfa)
Lugano, Switzerland (Cfa, bordering on
Cfb)
Sochi, Russia (Cfa)
Kutaisi, Georgia (Cfa)
Portorož, Slovenia (Cfa)
Kozani, Greece (Cfa)
Milan, Italy (Cfa)
Venice, Italy (Cfa)
 Srinagar, India (Cfa)
Shanghai, China (Cfa)
Taipei, Taiwan (Cfa)
Tokyo, Japan (Cfa)
Osaka, Japan (Cfa)
Rasht, Iran (Cfa, bordering on Csa)
Durban, South Africa (Cfa)

Cfb: Oceanic climate

Cfb climates usually occur in the higher

middle latitudes on the western sides of
continents between the latitudes of 40°
and 60°; they are typically situated
immediately poleward of the
Mediterranean climates, although in
Australia and extreme southern Africa this
climate is found immediately poleward of
temperate climates, and at a somewhat
lower latitude. In western Europe, this
climate occurs in coastal areas up to 63°N
in Norway.

These climates are dominated all year

round by the polar front, leading to
changeable, often overcast weather.
Summers are mild due to cool ocean
currents, although hotter, stable weather
patterns can set in for periods of time,
typically longer at the lower latitude range
in the northern hemisphere. Winters are
milder than other climates in similar
latitudes, but usually very cloudy however
not always wet. Cfb climates are also
encountered at high elevations in certain
subtropical and tropical areas, where the
climate would be that of a
subtropical/tropical rain forest if not for
the altitude. These climates are called
"highlands".[10]:226–9

Examples
Paris, France (Cfb)
Bordeaux, France (Cfb)
Dunkirk, France (Cfb)
Skagen, Denmark (Cfb, bordering on
Dfb)
Copenhagen, Denmark (Cfb)
Bergen, Hordaland, Norway (Cfb)
Berlin, Germany (Cfb)
Cologne, Germany (Cfb)
Munich, Bavaria, Germany (Cfb,
bordering on Dfb)
Vienna, Austria (Cfb)
Zürich, Switzerland (Cfb, bordering on
Dfb)
Vaduz, Liechtenstein (Cfb)
London, United Kingdom (Cfb)
Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
(Cfb)
Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom (Cfb)
Dublin, Ireland (Cfb)
Brussels, Belgium (Cfb)
Amsterdam, Netherlands (Cfb)
Luxembourg City, Luxembourg (Cfb)

Bilbao, Spain (Cfb)

Santiago de Compostela, Spain (Cfb)
Andorra la Vella, Andorra (Cfb)
Corvo Island, Azores, Portugal (Cfb,
bordering on Cfa)
Zagreb, Croatia (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
Ljubljana, Slovenia (Cfb, bordering on
Cfa, Dfa and Dfb)
Zonguldak, Turkey (Cfb)
Auckland, New Zealand (Cfb)
Wellington, New Zealand (Cfb)
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (Cfb)
Hobart, Tasmania, Australia (Cfb)
Prince Rupert, British Columbia, Canada
(Cfb)
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
(Cfb, bordering on Csb)
 Forks, Washington, United States (Cfb)
Ketchikan, Alaska, United States (Cfb)
George, Western Cape, South Africa
(Cfb)
Port Elizabeth, South Africa (Cfb)
Mar del Plata, Buenos Aires Province,
Argentina (Cfb)
Valdivia, Los Ríos Region, Chile (Cfb)

Cfb(2): Subtropical Highland

climates with uniform rainfall

Subtropical Highland climates with

uniform rainfall (Cfb) are a type of oceanic
climate mainly found in highlands of
Australia, such as in or around the Great
Dividing Range in the states of New South
Wales and Victoria, and also sparsely in
other continents, such as in South
America, among others. Unlike a typical
Cwb climate, they tend to have rainfall
spread evenly throughout the year. They
have characteristics of both the Cfb and
Cfa climates. Though unlike these
climates, they have a high diurnal
temperature variation and low humidity,
owing to their inland location and relatively
high elevation.

Examples
 Quito, Pichincha Province, Ecuador (Cfb)
Bogotá, Cundinamarca, Colombia (Cfb)
Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil (Cfb)
Campos do Jordão, São Paulo, Brazil
(Cfb)
Boone, North Carolina, United States
(Cfb)
Constanza, Dominican Republic (Cfb)
Lithgow, New South Wales, Australia
(Cfb)
Cameron Highlands, Malaysia (Cfb)
Nuwara Eliya, Sri Lanka (Cfb)
Mount Hagen, Papua New Guinea (Cfb)

Cfc: Subpolar oceanic climate

Subpolar oceanic climates (Cfc) occur
poleward of or at higher elevations than
the maritime temperate climates, and are
mostly confined either to narrow coastal
strips on the western poleward margins of
the continents, or, especially in the
Northern Hemisphere, to islands off such
coasts. They occur in both hemispheres,
most often at latitudes from 60° north and
south to 70° north and south.[10]

Examples

Reykjavík, Iceland (Cfc, borders on Dfc)

Tórshavn, Faroe Islands (Cfc)
Røst, Norway (Cfc)
 Miena, Tasmania, Australia (Cfc)
Auckland Islands, New Zealand (Cfc)
Punta Arenas, Chile (Cfc)
Unalaska, Alaska, United States (Cfc)

Cwa: Subtropical-Dry Winter

Cwa is monsoonal influenced, having the

classic dry winter/wet summer pattern
associated with tropical monsoonal
climates.

Examples
Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of
Congo (Cwa)
Lusaka, Zambia (Cwa)
Córdoba, Argentina (Cwa)
Santiago del Estero, Argentina (Cwa)
Mackay, Queensland, Australia (Cwa)
Islamabad, Pakistan (Cwa)
Sialkot, Pakistan (Cwa)
New Delhi, India (Cwa)
Patna, India (Cwa)

Imphal, India (Cwa)

Kathmandu, Nepal (Cwa)
Haikou, China (Cwa)
 Zhengzhou, China (Cwa)
Chengdu, Sichuan, China (Cwa)
Hong Kong (Cwa)
Taunggyi, Myanmar (Cwa)
Hanoi, Vietnam (Cwa)
Guadalajara, Mexico (Cwa)

Cwb: Dry winter Subtropical

Highland climate

Dry-winter subtropical highland climate

(Cwb) is a type of climate mainly found in
highlands inside the tropics of Central
America, South America, Africa and Asia
or areas in the subtropics. Winters are
noticeable and dry, and summers can be
very rainy. In the tropics, the rainy season
is provoked by the tropical air masses and
the dry winters by subtropical high
pressure.

Examples
Da Lat, Vietnam (Cwb)
Shimla, India (Cwb)
Thimphu, Bhutan (Cwb)
Hakha, Myanmar (Cwb)
Mokhotlong, Lesotho (Cwb)
Mbabane, Swaziland (Cwb)
Nairobi, Kenya (Cwb)
Baguio, Philippines (Cwb)
Kunming, China (Cwb)

Mexico City, Mexico (Cwb)

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Cwb)
Harare, Zimbabwe (Cwb)
Antananarivo, Madagascar (Cwb)
 Johannesburg, South Africa (Cwb)
Cusco, Peru (Cwb)
La Paz, Bolivia (Cwb bordering on
Cwc)
Salta, Argentina (Cwb)

Group D:
Continental/microthermal
climates
 

The snowy city of Sapporo

These climates have an average

temperature above 10 °C (50 °F) in their
warmest months, and a coldest month
average below 0 °C (or −3 °C (27 °F), as
noted previously). These usually occur in
the interiors of continents and on their
upper east coasts, normally north of 40°N.
In the Southern Hemisphere, group D
climates are extremely rare due to the
smaller land masses in the middle
latitudes and the almost complete
absence of land at 40–60°S, existing only
in some highland locations.

Dfa/Dwa/Dsa: Hot summer

continental climates

Dfa climates usually occur in the high 30s

and low 40s latitudes, with a qualifying
average temperature in the warmest
month of greater than 22 °C/72 °F. In
Europe, these climates tend to be much
drier than in North America. Dsa exists at
higher elevations adjacent to areas with
hot summer Mediterranean (Csa)
climates.[10]:231–2

Examples

Almaty, Kazakhstan (Dfa)

Oral, Kazakhstan (Dfa)
Aomori, Aomori Prefecture, Japan (Dfa)
Nagano, Nagano Prefecture, Japan (Dfa)
Sapporo, Japan (Dfa, bordering on Dfb)
Chicago, Illinois, United States (Dfa)
Boston, Massachusetts, United States
(Dfa)
Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
(Dfa)
 Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Dfa, bordering
on Dfb)
Montreal, Quebec, Canada (Dfa,
bordering on Dfb)
Windsor, Ontario, Canada (Dfa)
Bucharest, Romania (Dfa)
Rostov-on-Don, Russia (Dfa)
Volgograd, Russia (Dfa)

In eastern Asia, Dwa climates extend

further south due to the influence of the
Siberian high pressure system, which also
causes winters there to be dry, and
summers can be very wet because of
monsoon circulation.
Examples

Pyongyang, North Korea (Dwa)

Seoul, South Korea (Dwa)
Beijing, China (Dwa)
Harbin, China (Dwa)
North Platte, Nebraska, United States
(Dwa)

Dsa exists only at higher elevations

adjacent to areas with hot summer
Mediterranean (Csa) climates.

Examples

Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (Dsa)

Saqqez, Kurdistan Province, Iran (Dsa)
 Arak, Markazi Province, Iran (Dsa)
Hakkâri, Turkey (Dsa)
Muş, Turkey (Dsa)
Ogden, Utah, United States (Dsa)

Dfb/Dwb/Dsb: Warm summer

continental or hemiboreal
climates

Dfb climates are immediately poleward of

hot summer continental climates,
generally in the high 40s and low 50s
latitudes in North America and Asia, and
also extending to higher latitudes in
central and eastern Europe and Russia,
between the maritime temperate and
continental subarctic climates, where it
extends up to 65 degrees latitude in
places.[10]

Dfb examples
Kushiro, Hokkaido, Japan (Dfb)
Karaganda, Kazakhstan (Dfb)
Oslo, Norway (Dfb)
Lillehammer, Norway (Dfb)
Stockholm, Sweden (Dfb)
Helsinki, Finland (Dfb)
Tallinn, Estonia (Dfb)
Riga, Latvia (Dfb)
Vilnius, Lithuania (Dfb)
Kiev, Ukraine (Dfb)
Budapest, Hungary (Dfb)
Moscow, Russia (Dfb)
Kaliningrad, Russia (Dfb)
Saint Petersburg, Russia (Dfb)
Minsk, Belarus (Dfb)
Warsaw, Poland (Dfb)
Pristina, Kosovo (Dfb)
Erzurum, Turkey (Dfb)
Ardahan, Turkey (Dfb)
Quebec City, Quebec, Canada (Dfb)
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (Dfb)
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada (Dfb)
Buffalo, New York, United States (Dfb)
Portland, Maine, United States (Dfb)
Marquette, Michigan, United States
(Dfb)
Dwb examples

Calgary, Alberta, Canada (Dwb,

bordering on Dfb)
Heihe, China (Dwb)
Vladivostok, Russia (Dwb)
Irkutsk, Russia (Dwb)
Baruunturuun, Mongolia (Dwb)
Pyeongchang County, South Korea
(Dwb)
Mount Rushmore, South Dakota, United
States (Dwb)

Dsb arises from the same scenario as Dsa,

but at even higher altitudes or latitudes,
and chiefly in North America, since the
Mediterranean climates extend further
poleward than in Eurasia.

Examples

Sivas, Turkey (Dsb)

Roghun, Tajikistan (Dsb)
Dras, India (Dsb)
Flagstaff, Arizona, United States (Dsb)
South Lake Tahoe, California, United
States (Dsb)
Wallace, Idaho, United States (Dsb)

Dfc/Dsc/Dwc: Subarctic or
boreal climates
Dfc, Dsc and Dwc climates occur poleward
of the other group D climates, generally in
the 50s and 60s North latitudes,
occasionally reaching up to 70°N
latitude.[10]:232–5

Examples:
Yellowknife, Northwest Territories,
Canada (Dfc)
Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada (Dfc)
Labrador City, Newfoundland and
Labrador, Canada (Dfc)
Anchorage, Alaska, United States (Dfc)
Fairbanks, Alaska, United States (Dfc)
Fraser, Colorado, United States (Dfc)
Mount Buller, Victoria, Australia (Dfc)
Charlotte Pass, New South Wales,
Australia (Dfc)
Murmansk, Murmansk Oblast, Russia
(Dfc)
Arkhangelsk, Russia (Dfc)
Aldan, Russia (Dfc)
Magadan, Magadan Oblast, Russia
(Dwc, bordering Dwd)

Tromsø, Norway (Dfc)

St. Moritz, Grisons, Switzerland (Dfc)
Kangerlussuaq, Greenland (Dfc)
Homer, Alaska, United States (Dsc)
Bodie, California, United States (Dsc)
Brian Head, Utah, United States (Dsc)
Anadyr, Russia (Dfc)
Mohe County, Heilongjiang, China (Dwc)
Yushu City, Qinghai, China (Dwc)
Mörön, Mongolia (Dwc)
 Lukla, Nepal (Dwc)

Dfd/Dsd/Dwd: Subarctic or
boreal climates with severe
winters

Places with this climate have severe

winters, with the temperature in their
coldest month lower than −38 °C. These
climates occur only in eastern Siberia. The
names of some of the places with this
climate have become veritable synonyms
for extreme, severe winter cold.

Examples

Yakutsk, Sakha Republic, Russia (Dfd)

 Oymyakon, Sakha Republic, Russia (Dfd,
bordering Dwd)
Verkhoyansk, Sakha Republic, Russia
(Dfd)
Delyankir, Sakha Republic, Russia (Dwd)
Allakh-Yun, Sakha Republic, Russia
(Dwd)

Group E: Polar climates

In the Köppen climate system, polar
climates are defined as the warmest
temperature of any month is below 10 °C
(50 °F). Polar climates are further divided
into two types, tundra climates and icecap
climates:
ET: Tundra climate

Tundra climate (ET): Warmest month has

an average temperature between 0 and 10
°C. These climates occur on the northern
edges of the North American and Eurasian
land masses (generally north of 70 °N
although it may be found farther south
depending on local conditions), and on
nearby islands. ET climates are also found
on some islands near the Antarctic
Convergence, and at high elevations
outside the polar regions, above the tree
line.

Examples
Mount Rainier, Washington, United
States (ET)
Macquarie Island, Australia (ET)
Crozet Islands (ET)
Campbell Island, New Zealand (ET)
Kerguelen Islands (ET)
Prince Edwards Islands (ET)
Stanley, Falkland Islands (ET), borders
subpolar oceanic (Cfc)
Ushuaia, Argentina (ET), (borders on
Cfc)
Mount Wellington, Tasmania, Australia
(ET)
 Mount Read, Tasmania, Australia (ET),
(borders on Cfc)
La Rinconada, Peru (ET)
Ben Nevis, Scotland, United Kingdom
(ET), (borders on Cfc)
Cairn Gorm, Scotland, United Kingdom
(ET)

These ET climates are a colder and more

continental variants of tundra. They would
have characteristics of the ice cap climate,
but still manage to see monthly average
temperatures above 0 °C (32 °F):

Examples

Nanortalik, Greenland (ET)

Mount Fuji, Japan (ET)
Murghab, Tajikistan (ET)
Mount Washington, New Hampshire,
United States (ET)
Zugspitze, Bavaria, Germany (ET)
Eureka, Nunavut, Canada (ET)
Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada (ET)
Inukjuak, Quebec, Canada (ET)
Nuuk, Greenland (ET, bordering on Dfc)
Svalbard, Norway (ET)
Mys Shmidta, Russia (ET)
Dikson Island, Russia (ET)
Nord, Greenland (ET)
Esperanza Base, Antarctica (ET)
EF: Ice cap climate

Ice cap climate (EF): This climate is

dominant in Antarctica and inner
Greenland, but also occurs at extremely
high altitudes on mountains, above even
tundra. Monthly average temperatures
never exceed 0 °C (32 °F).

Examples

Mount Ararat, Turkey (EF)

Grossglockner, Carinthia, Austria (EF)
Mount Everest, China/Nepal (EF)
K2, China/Pakistan (EF)
Summit Camp, Greenland (EF)
 McMurdo Station, Antarctica (EF)
Scott Base, Antarctica (EF)
Byrd Station, Antarctica (EF)
Amundsen–Scott station, Antarctica
(EF)
Vostok Station, Antarctica (EF), location
of the lowest air temperature ever
recorded on Earth.

Ecological significance
The Köppen climate classification is based
on the empirical relationship between
climate and vegetation. This classification
provides an efficient way to describe
climatic conditions defined by temperature
and precipitation and their seasonality
with a single metric. Because climatic
conditions identified by the Köppen
classification are ecologically relevant, it
has been widely used to map geographic
distribution of long term climate and
associated ecosystem conditions.[23]

Over the recent years, there has been an

increasing interest in using the
classification to identify changes in
climate and potential changes in
vegetation over time.[13] The most
important ecological significance of the
Köppen climate classification is that it
helps to predict the dominant vegetation
type based on the climatic data and vice
versa.[24]

In 2015, a Nanjing University paper

published in Nature analyzing climate
classifications found that between 1950
and 2010, approximately 5.7% of all land
area worldwide had moved from wetter
and colder classifications to drier and
hotter classifications. The authors also
found that the change "cannot be
explained as natural variations but are
driven by anthropogenic factors."[25]

Trewartha climate
classification scheme
 This section does not cite any sources.
Learn more

The Trewartha climate classification is a

climate classification system published by
American geographer Glenn Thomas
Trewartha in 1966, and updated in 1980. It
is a modified version of the 1899 Köppen
system, created to answer some of the
deficiencies of the Köppen system. The
Trewartha system attempts to redefine the
middle latitudes to be closer to vegetation
zoning and genetic climate systems. It
was considered a more true or "real world"
reflection of the global climate.
For example, under the standard Köppen
system, in the United States, western
Washington and Oregon are classed into
the same climate zone as southern
California, even though the two regions
have strikingly different weather and
vegetation. Under the old Köppen system
cool oceanic climates like that of London
or Seattle were classed in the same zone
as hot subtropical cities like Savannah,
Georgia or Brisbane, Australia. In the
United States, locations like Colorado and
Kansas, which have long, severe winter
climates where plants are completely
dormant, were classed into the same
climate zone as Louisiana or northern
Florida which have mild winters and a
green winter landscape.

Other Köppen climate maps

All maps use the ≥0 °C definition for
temperate climates and the 18 °C annual
mean temperature threshold to distinguish
between hot and cold dry climates.[1]
  

North America

Europe
  

Russia

Central Asia
  

East Asia

South America
  

Africa

Middle East
  

South Asia

Southeast Asia
  

Australia/Oceania

See also
Holdridge life zones climate
classification by three dimensions:
precipitation, humidity, and potential
evapotranspiration ratio
Savory brittleness scale
Hardiness zone

References
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External links

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World Map of the Köppen–Geiger

climate classification for the period
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 Global climate maps, using Köppen
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Climate records

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