Voice path, PCM system, Line code

✔ PCM ~ Pulse Code Modulation

› Sampling
› Quantizing
ÿ Linear
ÿ Non-linear
› Quantizing error
✔ TDM- time division multiple access
› PCM-frame structure, CRC4 -multi-frame
› PCM 30, PCM 120, PCM 480, PCM 1920 (see also course s38.118)
› PCM-line code

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3-1

Summary of course scope

H.323 or
SIP
SIP or
IP
ISUP

CAS, R2 IP HLR
PABX Switching
Fabric MAP
ISDN Voice path
CCS7 ISUP

V5 Control Part INAP

AN

SCP

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3-2

Page 1
 Requirements for the Voice path and the
Switching Fabric
✔ The Switching Fabric must understand the bits, the
timeslots and the frames in the same way as the
transmission systems that carry the bits
› The Fabric and the transmission systems must be synchronized
✔ Voice must be coded efficiently (what is efficient changes over time)
✔ CRC -multi-frame must enable transparent transmission
(= any octet values can be sent over the network freely)
✔ An exchange must supervise voice connections:
› calls shall/should not be offered to faulty connections
› calls must sometimes be cleared from faulty connections
› detected faulty connections must be reported to far end if possible

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3-3

Sampling
✔ Nyquist theorem
› If an analogue signal with limited spectrum is sampled
regularly with a frequency of at least twice as high as the
highest frequency component, the samples carry all the
information in the original signal. The original signal can
be reconstructed using a low pass filter.
✔ In voice transmission, the spectrum carried is
specified to be 300 - 3400 Hz, resulting in a
minimum sampling rate of 6,8 kHz.
✔ In practice, since the width of the transmission
channel in an analogue system is 4kHz, in a
digital system a sampling rate of 8 kHz (8000
samples/s) is used.

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3-4

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 Digital voice transmission

✔ The voice path includes a microphone, A/D-converter,

D/A-converter and a loudspeaker.
✔ In practice, the analogue signal needs to be filtered before
the conversion

microphone
m ikrofoni switch
kytkin Transmission
siirtotiepath Low pass filter
alipäästösuodatin

D /A
coding
A/D -koodaus
-dekoodaus
decoding

receiver
kuuloke
n ytteenpito-
Sampling
kondensaattori
capacitor

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3-5

Pulse Code Modulation - PCM

✔ In PCM, analogue voice is digitized and thus it can be

carried by digital transmission systems and switched in
digital switching fabrics.
✔ PCM was invented in 1937 but the first real implementa-
tions became possible only using transistor technology
during 1960’s. This is also one of the origins of Nokia
Electronics (1968) and Nokia Telecommunications.
✔ PCM conversion has four steps:
› filtering
› sampling
› quantizing
› coding

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3-6

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 Sampling of the analogue signal

✔ Sampling of the analogue signal is done with a frequency

of 8 kHz, I.e. with an inter-sample interval of 125 µs.
✔ The result is a PAM -signal

µs
125µ

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3-7

Pulse Amplitude Modulation PAM

✔ Sampling produces a time discrete PAM signal reflecting

the amplitude of the analogue signal.
✔ PAM-signal is quatized producing PCM-code.

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3-8

Page 4
 Quantizing results in approximation of
the samples
✔ Real valued amplitude figures are replaced by discrete
integer values.
✔ Quantizing should result in values that appear in the
signal 18with equal probability.
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
12 15 16 16 17 17 16 16 14 11 6 3 2 2 1 2 2 3 6

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3-9

Quantizing distortion
✔ Quantizing produces distortion, that is called quantizing
distortion.
✔ Quantizing distortion is made by the replacement of real values
by their integer approximates and at maximum can reach ½
quantizing interval.
✔ In linear quantizing the signal to distortion ratio is
S/D=6n+1,8 dB n=word length

12
11 Quantizing error

10
9
© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 10

Page 5
 Linear vs. non-linear

✔ The result of quantizing should use signal values with

equal probability.
✔ This results in minimization of distortion, because a larger
number of discrete signal values falls into the most typical
analogue signal value area.
✔ In a voice signal, small analogue values appear with higher
probability than larger values.

--> non-linear quantizing

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 11

Non-linearity

✔ Non-linear conversion can be implemented in two ways:

› using non-linear quantizing
› using compression before linear quatizing is applied

✔ Non-linear quantizing can be implemented e.g. using a

network of resistors, compression requires a non-linear
amplifier.
✔ Irrespective of the method of implementation, the non-
linear quantizing follows a conversion function giving the
mapping of analogue signal values to integers.
› In Europe (ETSI) A-function
› In USA (ANSI) µ-function

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 12

Page 6
 PCM-coding and quantizing

✔ Accoding to ETSI specification, voice coding uses 8 bits

per sample.
› bit-1 gives the polarity of the signal
› bits 2-4 give the segment of the non-linear quantizing
› bits 5-8 give the value of the discrete signal inside the segment
✔ Non-linearity follows the so called A -law
ÿ Ax 1
,0 ≤ x ≤
1 + ln( A) A
ÿ 1 + ln Ax 1
, ≤ x ≤1
1 + ln( A) A

The value of A is 87,6.

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 13

Quantizing according to the A-law

6 1 111 xxxx
Vmax
5 1 110 xxxx ½ Vmax
4 1 101 xxxx 1/4Vmax

1/8Vmax
3 1 100 xxxx
1/16Vmax
2 1 011 xxxx
1/32Vmax
1 1 010 xxxx
1 001 xxxx 1/64Vmax
½ Vmax Vmax
0
1 000 xxxx
0 X (Vin)
1

4
5
6

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 14

Page 7
 Quantizing inside a Segment

✔ In a segment quantizing is linear

1 101 1111

1 101 0000

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 15

Linear vs non-linear quantizing

✔ Linear and non-linear quantizing can be
compared using the gain in signal resolution by
non-linearity.
✔ Non-linear quantizing emphasizes small signal
values, for which a gain in resolution of 24 dB
is achieved.

GdB=20log Vin/Vcomp

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 16

Page 8
 PCM-hierarchy
✔ PCM-hierarchy is created by overlapping time division
multiplexed signal connections bit by bit. Bits become
shorter.
✔ The basic speed in the hierarchy is the bitrate of a single
voice channel

S=8000Hz* 8bit = 64kbit/s

✔ The following voice channel groups are difined

› 30 voice channels
› 120 voice channels
› 480 voice channels
› 1920 voice channels

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 17

PCM 30 (E1)

✔ The most common information switching and transmission

format in the telecommunication network is PCM 30.
✔ PCM 30 contains:
› 1 synchronization and management channel
› 1 signaling channel
› 30 voice channel
✔ µs), created
A channel is a time slot in the PCM-frame (125µ
by TD multiplexing.
✔ PCM 30 system carries 32 time slots, each 64kbit/s. This
gives a total bit rate of 2048kbit/s.

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 18

Page 9
 PCM 30 frame

✔ PCM 30 -frame contains 32 time slots

› time slot 0 is dedicated for synchronization and management information
› Time slot 16 is assigned for signaling information (CAS)
› Time slots 1-15 and 17-32 are voice or user information channels
✔ Even and odd frame structures differ
› In even numbered frames time slot 0 carries the frame alignment signal
(C0 01 10 11). C is the CRC-bit (cyclic redundancy check) for ensuring the
frame alignment recovery in case someone is sending X0 01 10 11 on a
user information channel.
› Time slot 0 in odd frames carries alarm information. To avoid wrong
frame alignment, the second bit in tsl 0 is set to the constant value of 1.

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 19

The use of PCM time slots in the Finnish

CCS#7 network

Voice or user
information
channels 2 - 31

CCS# 7 signaling channel 1

0
PCM-alarms, frame alignment

Nowadays, tsl 16 is used for voice!

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 20

Page 10
 Even numbered PCM 30 -frame

1 ylikehys ==16
1 multi-frame 16kehyst
frames
K0 K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 K9 K10 K11 K12 K13 K14 K15

11kehys
frame==3232aikav
time lislots (even frame)
(parillinen kehys)
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 T13 T14 T15 T16 T17 T18 T19 T20 T21 T22 T23 T24 T25 T26 T27 T28 T29 T30 T31
KL puhekanavat
Voice channels1-15
1 - 15 MA puhekanavat
Voice channels 16 - 16-30
30

Frame alignment Signaling

merkinanto- Voice channel 26
puhekanava 26
kehyslukitus-
time slot T0
aikav li T0 time slot
aikav li T16T16 timeaikaväli
slot T27
T27
B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8
C 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 A 1 1
7 bitin lukitusmerkki ylikehys-
Multi-frame näytteen amplitudin
Voice Sample
7 bits
joka for alignment
toisessa kehyksess lukitusmerkki suuruus
in even frames alignment
kehyksess 0 amplitude value
in frame 0
CRC -bit
CRC-bitti Multi-frame
ylikehys- polarity
polariteetti
lukitush
alarmlytys

Applies only to K0, other

even numbered, look at the previous slide
© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 21

PCM-frame structure (odd frame)

1 multi-frame
1 ylikehys = =
1616 frames
kehyst
K0 K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 K9 K10 K11 K12 K13 K14 K15

1 frame
1 kehys==32
32time
aikavslots (odd frame)
li (pariton kehys)
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 T13 T14 T15 T16 T17 T18 T19 T20 T21 T22 T23 T24 T25 T26 T27 T28 T29 T30 T31
KL puhekanavat
Voice 1-151 - 15
channels MA puhekanavat
Voice 16-3016 - 30
channels

Frame alignment Signaling

kehyslukitus- merkinanto-
time slot T0
aikav li T0
time slot
aikav T16
li T16
B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8
C 1 A D D D D D a b c d a b c d
Data bits for mgt
databitit kanavan 1
Channel 1
kanavan 16
merkinanto- Channel 16
merkinanto-
bitit
signaling bitit
signaling
CRC -bit
CRC-bitti kaukop
Far endn alarm
h lytys bits bits

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 22

Page 11
 CRC-4 calculation ensures, that the frame
alignement function can not lock into a user
signal of (x0011011)
Tsl-0/bit x
Frame nr t0/1 t0/2
0 C1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 A
2 C2 0 0
3 0 1 A
I- 4 C3 0 0
half 5 1 1 A
CRC-4 6 C4 0 0
7 0 1 A
multi- 8 C1 0 0 C1…C4 - CRC4 -bits
frame 9 1 1 A
E - CRC4-error bits
II- 10 C2 0 0
half 11 1 1 A 001011 - CRC4 -multi-frame
12 C3 0 0
13 E 1 A
alignment
14 C4 0 0 A - far-end alarm ( t0-
15 E 1 A frame alignment lost)
© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 23

E1 Frame alignement algorithm/ G.706

Search for Frame alignment SF_CRC-Multi-Frame alignment

Eightbits=y0011011 no Two correct CRC’s

Assume Frame n within 8 ms paced by
2 ms or n x 2 ms
In t0 of Frame n+1
Eightbits=y1yyyyyy
Monitor CRC and Frame alignm.
Frame n+2/t0
Eightbits=y0011011 Three consecutive
errors in y0011011 or
SF_CRC-Multi-Frame alignment in y1yyyyyy
Loss of CRC-
multi-frame

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 24

Page 12
 Higher levels in the hierarchy
✔ PCM multiples
› PCM 30 (E1) 2,048Mbit/s
› PCM 120 (E2) 8,448 Mbit/s
› PCM 480 (E3) 34,368 Mbit/s
› PCM 1920 (E4) 139,264 Mbit/s
✔ Multiples are formed by multiplexing frames from four
lower level connections into new higher order frames.
Management overhead info is added into the higher order
frame.
2 Mbit/s
1
8 Mbit/s
1
I 34 Mbit/s
2 1
30 3 II 139 Mbit/s
2 1
4 3 III 565 Mbit/s
2 1
PCM
PCM-perus- 4 3 IV
2
j rjestelm 4 V
basic 3
4
system
well established std Not a well established std

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 25

Line code in the PCM system

✔ PCM-system uses bipolar transmission.

✔ Binary one is transmitted only during 50% of the cycle
time.
› There is no direct current that would need to be eliminated
› Power spectrum is concentrated around ½ bit rate
✔ Two alternative line codes are used in the PCM system:
› AMI - Alternate Mark Inversion
› HDB3 - High Density Binary 3

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 26

Page 13
 Alternate Mark Inversion - AMI

✔ In the AMI-code
› Binary one changes polarity at each occurrence
› Binary zero is no signal on the line
✔ Weakness is in loosing bit sync in case of long series of
zeroes.

1 1 0 0 011 0 0 0 0 01 10 0 0 01 0 01
1
0
-1

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 27

High Density Binary 3 - HDB3

✔ In HDB3 code
› Binary one changes polarity as in the AMI-code
› Binary zero
ÿ First zero is replaced by "one" if in the previous group, an inversion
was used
ÿ Second and third zeroes are no signal
ÿ The fourth consecutive zero raises an inversion - I.e. violation of the
code, I.e. a pulse with the same polarity as the previous one or "one" is
transmitted
1 1 0 0 011 0 0 0 0 01 10 0 0 01 0 01
1
0
-1

Inversion

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 28

Page 14
 HDB3 mapping rules

Nrof B pulses Polarity of Line Representation

after previous last B pulse code of Line
violation code B - bipolar pulse

Odd Negative (-) 000- 000V

Odd Positive (+) 000+ 000V
Even Negative (-) +00+ B00V
Even Positive (+) -00- B00V

1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
+V
B 0 0 V
HDB3 0 0 0 0 V B V or inverse
-
V
HBD3 - high density bipolar 3
V - violation
B - balance

© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 29

HDBN -receiver initializes by detecting a

violation and starts decoding groups of
N+1 -bits A tentative algorithm:
Reconstructed from the text of the spec.
HDB3 -receiver:

• Interpret 0=0, +/- = 1, count pulses (odd, even)

• Until an AMI code violation is found in the signal =
Initiali- two consecutive + or - pulses,
zation
• =>interpret odd& previous 000V = 0000, even& prev. B00V =0000
=>next bit starts a groups of 4 bits
• count the nrof pulses
•0 --> interpret as 0
•+ --> interpret as 1 (increment nrof-pulses )
•- --> interpret as 1 (increment nrof-pulses )
• nrof pulses = odd & 000V
interpret = 0000
• nrof-pulses=even & B00V
interpret = 0000
© Rka/ML -k2002 Telecommunications Switching Technology 3 - 30

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