CHAPTER 2: FORM All of these properties of form are in reality affected by

the conditions under which we view them.

“Architectural form is the point of contact between mass
and space … Architectural forms, textures, materials,  A changing perspective or angle of view
modulation of light and shade, color, all combine to inject presents different shapes or aspects of a form to
a quality or spirit that articulates space. The quality of the our eyes.
architecture will be determined by the skill of the designer  Our distance for a form determines its apparent
in using and relating these elements, both in the interior size.
spaces and in the spaces around buildings.”  The lighting conditions under which we view a
form affects the clarity of its shape and
Edmund N. Bacon The Design of Cities 1974
structure.
Form is an inclusive term that has several meanings. It  The visual field surrounding a form influences
may refer to an external appearance that can be our ability to read and identify it.
recognized, as that of a chair or the human body that sits
Shape refers to the characteristic outline of a plane
in it; form suggests reference to both internal structure
figure or the surface configuration of a volumetric form.
and external outline and the principle that gives unity to
It is the primary means by which we recognize, identify,
the whole.
and categorize particular figures and forms.
VISUAL PROPPERTIES OF FORM:
Bust of Queen Nefertiti -The pattern of eye
Shape - The characteristic outline or surface movement of a person viewing the figure, from research
configuration of a particular form. Shape is the principal by Alfred L. Yarbus of the Institute for Problems of
aspect by which we identify and categorize forms. Information Transmission in Moscow.

Size - The physical dimensions of length, width, and In architecture, we are concerned with the shapes of:
depth of a form. While these dimensions determine the
 Floor, wall, and ceiling planes that enclose space
proportions of a form, its scale is determined by its size
 Door and window openings within a spatial
relative to other forms in its context.
closure
Color - A phenomenon of light and visual perception  Silhouettes and contours of building forms
that may be described in terms of an individual’s
PRIMARY SHAPES
perception of hue, saturation, and tonal value. Color is the
attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its Circle - A plane curve every point of which is equidistant
environment. It also affects the visual weight of a form. from a fixed point within the curve

Texture - The visual and especially tactile quality given Triangle - A plane figure bounded by three sides and
to a surface by the size, shape, arrangement, and having three angles
proportions of the parts. Texture also determines the
degree to which the surfaces of a form reflect or absorb Square - A plane figure having four equal sides and four
incident light. right angles

RELATIONAL PROPERTIES OF FORM:

Position - The location of a form relative to its

environment or the visual field within which it is seen.

Orientation - The direction of a form relative to the

ground plane, the compass points, other forms, or to the
person viewing the form.

Visual - Inertia The degree of concentration and stability

of a form. The visual inertia of a form depends on its
geometry as well as its orientation relative to the ground
plane, the pull of gravity, and our line of sight.
The circle is a centralized, introverted figure that is that these are beautiful forms, the most beautiful
normally stable and self-centering in its environment. forms.” Le Corbusier
Placing a circle in the center of a field reinforces its
The primary shapes can be extended or rotated to
inherent centrality.
generate volumetric forms or solids that are distinct,
The triangle signifies stability. When resting on one of regular, and easily recognizable. Circles generate
its sides, the triangle is an extremely stable figure. spheres and cylinders; triangles generate cones and
pyramids; squares generate cubes. In this context,
The square represents the pure and the rational. It is a
the term “solid” does not refer to firmness of
bilaterally symmetrical figure having two equal and
substance but rather to a three-dimensional
perpendicular axes. All other rectangles can be considered
geometric body or figure.
variations of the square—deviations from the norm by the
addition of height or width. Sphere A solid generated by the revolution of a
semicircle about its diameter, whose surface is at all
SURFACE first refers to any figure having only two
points equidistant from the center; centralized and
dimensions, such as a flat plane. The term, however, can highly concentrated form.
also allude to a curved two-dimensional locus of points
defining the boundary of a three-dimensional solid. Cylinder A solid generated by the revolution of a
rectangle about one of its sides. A cylinder is
 Cylindrical Surfaces – generated by sliding a
centralized about the axis passing through the centers
straight line along a plane curve, or vice versa. of its two circular faces; can easily be extended.
Depending on the curve, a cylindrical surface may
be circular, elliptic, or parabolic. Cone A solid generated by the revolution of a right
 Translational Surfaces – generated by sliding a triangle about one of its sides. Like the cylinder, the
plane curve along a straight line or over another cone is a highly stable form when resting on its
plane curve. circular base, and unstable when its vertical axis is
 Ruled Surfaces – generated by the motion of a tipped or overturned.
straight line. Because of its straight line
Pyramid A polyhedron having a polygonal base and
geometry, a ruled surface is generally easier to
triangular faces meeting at a common point or vertex.
form and construct than a rotational or
The pyramid has properties similar to those of the
translational surface.
cone.
 Rotational Surfaces – generated by rotating a
plane curve about an axis. Cube A prismatic solid bounded by six equal square
 Paraboloids – surfaces all of whose intersections sides, the angle between any two adjacent faces
by planes are either parabolas and ellipses or being a right angle.
parabolas and hyperbolas.
 Hyperbolic Paraboloids – surfaces generated by REGULAR FORMS refer to those whose parts are
sliding a parabola with downward curvature along related to one another in a consistent and orderly
a parabola with upward curvature, or by sliding a manner.
straight line segment its end on two skew lines.
Forms can retain their regularity even when
It can thus be considered to be both a
transformed dimensionally or by the addition or
translational and a ruled surface.
subtraction of elements.
 Saddle Surfaces - have an upward curvature in
one direction and a downward curvature in the Irregular forms are those whose parts are dissimilar
perpendicular direction. in nature and related to one another in an
inconsistent manner.
Symmetrical curved surfaces, such as domes and
barrel vaults, are inherently stable. Asymmetrical TRANSFORMATIONS:
curved surfaces, on the other hand, can be more
vigorous and expressive in nature. Their shapes  Dimensional Transformation A form can be
change dramatically as we view them from different transformed by altering one or more of its
perspectives. dimensions and still retain its identity as a
member of a family of forms.
“…cubes, cones, spheres, cylinders, or pyramids are  Subtractive Transformation A form can be
the great primary forms that light reveals to transformed by subtracting a portion of its
advantage; the image of these is distinct and tangible volume.
within us and without ambiguity. It is for this reason
 Additive Transformation A form can be A corner condition can be visually reinforced by
transformed by the addition of elements to its introducing a separate and distinct element
volume. that is independent of the surfaces it joins. This
element articulates the corner as a linear condition,
The basic possibilities for grouping two or more defines the edges of the adjoining planes, and
forms are by:
becomes a positive feature of the form.
 Spatial Tension This type of relationship relies
If an opening is introduced to one side of the corner,
on the close proximity of the forms or their
one of the planes will appear to bypass the other. The
sharing of a common visual trait, such as shape, opening diminishes the corner condition, weakens the
color, or material. definition of the volume within the form, and
 Edge-to-Edge Contact In this type of emphasizes the planar qualities of the neighboring
relationship, the forms share a common edge and surfaces.
can pivot about that edge.
 Face-to-Face Contact This type of relationship If neither plane is extended to define the corner, a
requires that the two forms have corresponding volume of space is created to replace the
planar surfaces which are parallel to each other. corner. This corner condition deteriorates the
 Interlocking Volumes In this type of volume of the form, allows the interior space to leak
relationship, the forms interpenetrate each outward, and clearly reveals the surfaces as planes in
other’s space. The forms need not share any space.
visual traits.
Rounding off the corner emphasizes the continuity
FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS of the bounding surfaces of a form, the compactness
of its volume, and softness of its contour.
 Centralized Form A number of secondary forms
clustered about a dominant, central parent-form. Our perception of the shape, size, scale, proportion, and
 Linear Form A series of forms arranged visual weight of a plane is influenced by its surface
sequentially in a row. properties as well as its visual context.
 Radial Form A composition of linear forms
 A distinct contrast between the surface color of
extending outward from a central form in a radial
a plane and that of the surrounding field can
manner.
clarify its shape, while modifying its tonal value
 Clustered Form A collection of forms grouped
can either increase or decrease its visual weight.
together by proximity or the sharing of a common
 A frontal view reveals the true shape of a plane;
visual trait.
oblique view distort it.
 Grid Form A set of modular forms related and
 Elements of known size within the visual context
regulated by a three-dimensional grid.
of a plane can aid our perception its size and
ARTICULATION refers to the manner in which the scale.
surfaces of a form come together to define its shape  Texture and color together affect the visual
and volume. weight and scale of a plane and the degree to
which it absorbs or reflects light and sound.
A form can be articulated by:  Directional or oversized optical pattern can
 Differentiating adjoining planes with a change in distort the shape or exaggerate the opposites of
material, color, texture, or pattern a plane.
 Developing corners as distinct linear elements The color, texture, and pattern of surfaces
independent of the abutting planes articulate the existence of planes and influence the
 Removing corners to physically separate visual weight of a form.
neighboring planes
 Lighting the form to create a sharp contrast in Linear patterns have the ability to emphasize the
tonal value along edges and corners height or length of a form, unify its surfaces, and
define its textural quality.
Corners define the meeting of two planes. If the two
planes simply touch and the corner remains
unadorned, the presence of the corner will depend on
the visual treatment of the adjoining surfaces. This
corner condition emphasizes the volume of a form.
CHAPTER 3: FORM AND SPACE Rome. In portions of the map, buildings appear to be
Space constantly encompasses our being. Through the positive forms that define street spaces. In other parts
volume of space, we move, see forms, hear sounds, feel of the drawing, urban squares, courtyards, and major
breezes, smell the fragrances of a flower garden in spaces within important public buildings read as positive
bloom. It is a material substance like wood or stone. Yet elements seen against the background of the
it is an inherently formless vapor. Its visual form, its surrounding building mass.
dimensions and scale, the quality of its light—all of these At the scale of a building site, there are various
qualities depend on our perception of the spatial strategies for relating the form of a building to the space
boundaries defined by elements of form. As space around it. A building can:
begins to be captured, enclosed, molded, and organized
by the elements of mass, architecture comes into being. A. form a wall along an edge of its site and begin
to define a positive outdoor space;
OUR VISUAL FIELD IS NORMALLY CONSISTS OF B. merge its interior space with the private outdoor
HETEROGENOUS ELEMENTS: space of a walled site;
- differ in shape, size, color, or orientation C. enclose a portion of its site as an outdoor room
and shelter it from undesirable climatic
• POSITIVE ELEMENTS - perceived as figures conditions;
D. surround and enclose a courtyard or atrium
• NEGATIVE ELEMENTS - provide a background
space within its volume— an introverted
for the figures
scheme.
In all cases, however, we should understand that E. stand as a distinct object in space and dominate
figures, the positive elements that attract our its site through its form and topographical
attention, could not exist without a contrasting positioning—an extroverted scheme;
background. Figures and their background,
F. stretch out and present a broad face to address
therefore, are more than opposing elements.
a view, terminate an axis, or define an edge of
Together, they form an inseparable reality—a unity
an urban space;
of opposites—just as the elements of form and
space together form the reality of architecture. G. stand free within its site but extend its interior
spaces to merge with private exterior spaces;
A. Line defining the boundary between solid mass
and spatial void H. stand as a positive form in a negative space.

B. The form of solid mass rendered as a figure

C. The form of the spatial void rendered as a figure THE UNITY OF OPPOSITES FORM DEFINING
SPACE
Architectural form occurs at the juncture between
mass and space. In executing and reading design 1. HORIZONTAL ELEMENTS: BASE PLANE
drawings, we should be concerned with both the
form of the mass containing a volume of space as Base Plane :
well as the form of the spatial volume itself. A horizontal plane laying as
a figure on a contrasting background defines a
simple field of space. This field can be
visually reinforced in the following ways.

a. Elevated Base Plane: A horizontal plane

elevated above the ground plane establishes
vertical surfaces along its edges that reinforce
the visual separation between its field and the
surrounding ground.

b. Depressed Base Plane: A horizontal plane

depressed into the ground plane utilizes the
Depending on what we perceive to be positive elements, vertical surfaces of the lowered area to define
the figure-ground relationship of the forms of mass and a volume of space.
space can be inverted in different parts of this map of
 c. Overhead Plane: A horizontal plane located of form, proportion, scale, texture, light and sound
overhead defines a volume of space between ultimately depend on the properties of the enclosure of a
itself and the ground plane. space.

a. Degree of Enclosure: When buildings

2. VERTICAL ELEMENTS
enclose space , the arrangement, height and
proximity determine the sense of enclosure
a. Vertical Linear Elements: Define the
used architecturally when their purpose is to
edges of volume of space.
It can: define spatial edges and establish a
volume. As determined by the configuration
 Express movement across space
of its defining elements and the pattern of
 Provide support for an overhead plane
its openings, has a significant impact on our
 Form a 3D structural frame for
perception of its form and orientation.
architectural space
b. Single Vertical Plane: It defines the
b. View or Outlook: These factors don’t only
volume it fronts by dividing a volume of
control the amount of the light and also
space. These frontal qualities establish the
determine the view. Some rooms have an
edges of two spatial zones
outward orientation given to by a view to
c. L-shaped Plane: An L-shaped
the outdoors; another quality of space that
configuration defines a field of space along a
must be considered in establishing openings
Diagonal from its corner outward.
in the enclosure of a room is its focus and
d. Parallel Planes: Two parallel vertical
orientation. While some rooms have an
planes define a volume of space between
internal focus, such as a fireplace, others
them that is oriented axially toward both
have an outward orientation given to them
open ends of the configuration
by a view to the outdoors or an adjacent
e. U-shaped Plane: A U-shaped plane
space. Window and skylight openings
configuration of vertical planes defines a
provide this view and establish a visual
volume of space that is oriented primarily
relationship between a room and its
toward the open end of the configuration
surroundings. The size and location of these
f. Four Planes: Closure: Four vertical planes
openings determine, of course, the nature of
establish boundary of an introverted space
the outlook as well as the degree of visual
and influence the field of space around the
privacy for an interior space.
closure
3. OPENING IN SPACE
c. Light: The sun is the rich source of natural
a. Opening Within Planes: An opening can
light for the illumination of forms and spaces
be positioned within a plane. For example,
in architecture. While the sun’s radiation is
the opening can be centred on a wall, off
intense, the quality of its light, manifested in
centre, a selection of openings grouped on a
the form of direct sunlight or diffuse
wall or perhaps a ceiling skylight.
daylight, varies with the time of day, from
b. Opening at Corners: A corner opening
season to season, and from place to place.
may be used to capture a view or create a
As the luminous energy of the sun is
composition within a room. A corner window
dispersed by clouds, haze, and precipitation,
will allow light to wash the surface of the
it transmits the changing colors of the sky
adjacent planes, creating a favourable
and the weather to the forms and surfaces it
source of light and improving the brightness
illuminates.
of the space.
c. Openings Between Planes: Openings can Properties of Qualities of Space
also be positioned between planes, so the Enclosure
window could be vertical between the floor Shape Form
and ceiling plane, or horizontal between two Surface Color
wall planes. Edges Texture, Pattern, Sound
Dimensions Proprtion, Scale
4. QUALITIES OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACE Configuration Definition
Openings Degree of Enclosure
The qualities of architectural space are much richer than View or Outlook
what diagrams are able to portray .The spatial qualities Light
CHAPTER 3: ORGANIZATION

SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS

 Space within a Space A space may be

contained within the volume of a larger
space.
 Interlocking Spaces The field of a
space may overlap the volume of
another space.
 Adjacent Spaces Two spaces may
abut each other or share a common
border.
 Spaces Linked by a Common Space
Two spaces may rely on an intermediary
space for their relationship.

SPATIAL ORGANIZATIONS

 Centralized Organization A central,

dominant space about which a number
of secondary spaces are grouped.
 Linear Organization A linear sequence
of repetitive space.
 Radial Organization A central space
from which linear organizations of space
extend in a radial manner.
 Clustered Organization Spaces
grouped by proximity or the sharing of a
common visual trait or relationship.
- Repetitive spaces
- Sharing a common shape
- Organized by an axis
- Clustered about an entry
- Grouped along a path
- A loop path
- Centralized pattern
- Clustered pattern
- Contained within a space
- Axial conditions
- Axial condition
- Symmetrical condition
 Grid Organization Spaces organized
within the field of a structural grid or
other three-dimensional framework.