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CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

“Reflectarray antenna” refers to the class of radiating structures that are comprised
of an array of radiating elements, reradiating the energy that is impinged on them
from one or more radiating feeds that are located in free space. The whole diversity
and variety in the world of reflectarray stems from the variety of constituent
elements used, the way they are set into a lattice, and the method of feeding the
structure.
The characterization of the reflectarray element is of paramount importance for successful
and effective reflectarray design. By evaluating the reflected (scattered) electric-field
amplitude and phase from the individual, isolated, reradiating elements in a unit cell, better
understanding of the physics and fundamentals of the reflection phase behavior from the
element itself can be achieved. Identification of the critical geometrical parameters of the
reflectarray element that contribute to the reflection phase shift can potentially foster
development of new element designs. By placing these elements in an actual reflectarray
environment, reflectarray performance can be evaluated in terms of reflection phase.

Reflect array antenna technology has been the most rapidly developing topic in the antenna
field in the last twenty years, receiving the creative attentions of academic, industrial, and
government engineers and researchers throughout the world. During this period there have
been over fifteen hundred published journal articles ,five books, and innumerable symposia
sessions and short courses devoted to the subject of reflect array antennas. As a result, reflect
array antennas have quickly evolved from academic novelty to commercial reality, with
applications in a wide variety of microwave systems. In fact, rapidly developing markets in
personal communications systems(PCS),mobile satellite communication, direct broad-cast
television, wireless local area networks(WLANs),and intelligent vehicle highway
antennas(IVHS),suggest that the demand for reflect array antennas will increase even further.

1.1 Literature survey

In [1], Basic concepts on reflect array antennas, elementary cells in reflect arrays , shaped,
contoured and multi-beam reflect arrays.

In [2], the phase compensation techniques for Microstrip Reflectarray antennas have been
investigated for W-Band frequency and reviews of various techniques for phase
compensation, like variable sizes of the patch, adding stubs of variable lengths which
form the essential part in the design of a reflectarray antenna. A waveguide simulator concept
is implemented in the characterization of reflected phase. An array of 9X9 patch elements
with and without patch compensation is designed at 94GHz with a waveguide feed using
ANSYS HFSS.

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In [3], the fundamental principles of antenna theory and explained how to apply them to the
analysis, design, and measurements of antennas. Due to the variety of methods of analysis
and design, and the different antenna structures available, the applications covered in this
book are made to some of the most basic and practical antenna configurations. Among these
antenna configurations are linear dipoles; loops; arrays; broadband antennas; aperture
antennas; horns; microstrip antennas; and reflector antennas.

In [4], two basic methods for analysis of the radiation performance of reflect array antennas
are compared. Two different approaches – array theory and aperture field – are first
described, and numerical results are then presented for various reflectarray configurations.
The advantages and limitations for each method are discussed, and the numerical results are
compared with each other, showing very good agreement. Comparison with full-wave
simulations showed that these approaches are time-efficient methods that can accurately
calculate the reflectarray antenna’s pattern shape, mainbeam direction, beamwidth, and
sidelobe and cross-polarization levels. As such, these methods are efficient tools for
designing and analyzing reflectarray antennas.

In [5], article presents an efficient phase‐only synthesis method applied to contoured‐beam

reflectarrays. The method, based on the intersection‐approach concept, provides the phase
distribution of the reflected field that best suits the required gain‐pattern specifications. In
order to avoid undesired local minima, several successive stages, in which the tapering on the
reflectarray's edge is gradually increased, are carried out to reach a final suitable result.

In[6], article presents a unique point of view for microstrip reflectarrays. Through the
effective utilization of graphical visualization of the scattered fields from the reflectarrays,
one can gain insightful understanding into the fundamental workings of these antennas. The
most important part of the reflectarray analysis and design is the accurate characterization of
the individual reflectarray element for reflection phase performance. Using this visualization
approach, reflectarray elements are characterized in unit-cell environments. This exercise aids
in identifying the important geometrical parameters of the element that contribute to the refl
ection phase shift. These elements are then placed in an actual reflectarray environment, and
the performance of the reflectarray is evaluated through full-wave electromagnetic
simulations and measurements. It is validated that this technique can be successfully used to
analyze, design, and potentially diagnose reflectarray antennas.

1.2 Motivation
The microspacecraft, having sizes on the order of one-half meter, will certainly require
components that are small both in size and mass. High-gain antennas are one part of the
telecommunications equipment that warrants attention since they generally require a
significant amount of real estate and mass. The conventional high-gain antennas most often
used are parabolic reflectors. Although they are efficient radiators, parabolic reflectors are
generally bulky in size and large in mass, due to their curved reflecting surfaces. As a result, a

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flat reflector called a microstrip reflectarray is being proposed as a future candidate high-gain
antenna. It is well known that when a required antenna gain is given at a particular frequency,
the antenna aperture size is more or less fixed. The only significant size reduction that may be
achieved for an antenna is its profile thickness. The flat-plate microstrip reflectarray offers
such an advantage of profile size reduction as compared to a conventional parabolic reflector.
By reason of its expected higher efficiency, the microstrip reflectarray with patches having
identical sizes and different phase-delay lines is proposed and studied here.

1.3 Objectives of the project

The objective of this project is to design and simulate reflect array antenna.

The objectives of this project can be summarized as:

 Designing reflect array antenna for 22GHz frequency.
 Feeding reflect array by horn and patch array antennas.
 Optimising reflect array design for increased gains and reduced return loss.

1.4 Methodology
Having understood the need for reflect array antenna brief methodology is constituted for its
subsequent designing and simulation.
The work flow of the project is mentioned below:

1. Understanding the basic antenna design principles.

2. Getting familiarised with Ansys HFSS tool.
3. Designing reflect array antenna.
4. Optimising design for significant gains,high directivity and less return loss.

The methodology of this project is shown in Figure 1.1

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Literature Survey

Design of horn/patch array antenna

Simulation of horn/patch array antenna

Design of reflect array

Simulation of reflect array and horn antenna solving together

Parametric Sweep of theta and phi of horn and reflect array

Analysis of results(gain,directivity,return loss etc.)

Fig.1.1 Methodology of the project

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CHAPTER-2

REFLECTARRAY AND DESIGN PRINCIPLES

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CHAPTER 2
REFLECTARRAY AND DESIGN PRINCIPLES

2.1. Description of the Microstrip Reflectarray

When many antenna elements with open- or short-circuited terminations are arranged in a
planar aperture and are illuminated by a feed antenna, as shown in Fig. 2, these elements will
reradiate their illuminated energy into space. The total reradiated energy will be non-cophasal
if all the elements and their terminations are identical. This is because the fields that
propagate to the elements from the 154 feed have different path lengths, S1, S2, ··· ,SN , as
shown in Fig. 1(b), and thus form different phases. However, if each element’s phase is
adjusted to compensate for these different path lengths, the total reradiated field can be made
co-phasal and concentrated toward a specific direction. The array antenna formed by the
above concept is named the reflectarray and was introduced many decades ago using a horn,
dipole, open-ended waveguide, etc., for the element. Since these elements are large in size at
lower microwave frequencies and many elements are needed in a reflectarray in order for it to
be efficient, the earlier reflectarray antennas were bulky in size and heavy in weight. Due to
the recent advancement of the lightweight and low-profile printed antennas, such as the
microstrip patch, the printed reflectarray becomes physically more realizable and attractive.
Several different versions of the printed reflectarray have recently been developed. One
version, shown in Fig. 3, has all identical microstrip patch elements but with different-length
microstrip transmission lines. This microstrip reflectarray was first patented by Munson and
Haddad and then openly published and analyzed by Huang and Metzler. Litva, Zhuang, and
Wu, as well as Chang and Huang, have demonstrated the concept via hardware development.
Malibu Research Center developed a different reflectarray with printed dipoles having
different sizes and no phase delay lines. The required path delay-compensating phases from
the elements are achieved primarily via the differing lengths of the dipoles. Different lengths
yield different input impedances (complex quantity) at a particular frequency, which in turn
give different phases. Targonski and Pozar developed a microstrip reflectarray with patches
having different sizes and no delay lines. It is expected that the reflectarray with printed
dipoles or patches having different sizes will not radiate as efficiently as the identical-patch
reflectarray with different-length delay lines. This is because, for a particular frequency, there
is only one optimal size of the resonant structure (dipole or patch) to reflect or reradiate
energy; other sizes will result in lower amplitudes. This is similar to the phenomenon
observed with frequency selective surfaces (FSS), where only a narrow spectrum will yield
total reflection. By reason of its expected higher efficiency. This flat reflector antenna, as
shown in Fig. 3, is composed of a thin (≤0.03 wavelength) slab of dielectric material having
one side completely covered with a thin layer of metal (serving as a ground plane) and the
other side etched with many identical metallic microstrip patches. A feed antenna, located at
an optimally designed distance from the array elements, will effectively illuminate all the
patches. The size of each patch, which can be rectangular, square, or circular, is designed to

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resonate at the frequency of the feed antenna. A short transmission line is connected to each
patch at one end with the other end of the line either open or short circuited. To generate
circular polarization, two equal-length transmission lines are needed to be orthogonally
connected to each square or circular patch, as shown in Fig. 3. In this case, the feed has to be
circularly polarized. The short transmission line connected to each patch can be either a
microstrip line etched on the same side of the patch or a stripline sandwiched in an additional
layered structure placed behind the patch’s ground plane. The advantage of the microstrip line
is ease of fabrication, while that of the stripline is minimum interference to the patch’s
radiation. When the radiation field of the feed antenna (in transmit mode) strikes each patch,
the received resonant field of the patch will travel through its connected transmission line and
be reflected by its open- or short-circuited termination and then reradiated by the patch into
space. Thus, all the microstrip patches behave as reradiators, while the short transmission
lines serve as phase delay lines. The lengths of these transmission lines are intentionally made
different for differently located patches to compensate for the path delay differences from the
feed antenna. With proper design and calibration of these line lengths, the reradiated fields
from all the patches can be made cophasal in the broadside direction. Also, by redesigning the
line lengths, the main beam can be directed toward other directions at large angles (up to
more than 50 deg) from the broadside direction. Since the required phase changes for all the
elements are between 0 and 360 deg, the maximum length needed for the transmission line is
only one-half wavelength. Consequently, the insertion loss associated with these short lines
will be insignificantly small. The transmission line should be impedance matched to the patch
radiator, which can be done using a quarter-wave-long impedance matching section. Because
this is a phase-delay approach and not a time delay, as frequency changes, a phase excursive
error will occur, especially for the outer elements of the array (assuming the feed is located at
the center axis of the array). In other words, the phase will accumulate more error for the 155
outer elements as the frequency changes, and this limits the bandwidth performance of the
reflectarray. This accumulated phase error can be reduced by using longer transmission lines
for the center elements (time delay approach) or by using a larger f /D ratio, where f is the
distance between the feed and the array center and D is the array diameter. Since the
microstrip reflectarray does not require any power divider, its efficiency in a large array
system is much higher than a conventional array having the same aperture size. One possible
drawback is that, in addition to the reradiated fields from the patches, there will also be
scattered field from the patches, reflected field from the ground plane (especially away from
the resonant frequency of the patch), scattered field from the phase delay lines, and diffracted
field from the edge of the reflectarray. These backscattered fields may increase the sidelobe
level and possibly distort the main beam shape. However, because most of these scattered
fields are noncophasal, and as long as the aperture directivity of the reflectarray is sufficiently
higher (20 dB or more) than the feed directivity, the backscattered energy is generally small
relative to the desired main beam. In other words, the microstrip reflectarray can be an
efficient antenna system only if it has a large number of array elements (500 or more).

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Fig. 2. Reflectarray configuration: (a) three-dimensional view and (b) two-dimensional view.

Fig. 3. Flat-plate microstrip reflectarray with identical patches but different-length microstrip
transmission lines.

Reflectarray technology is a hybrid of conventional reflector and phased array technologies.

Constituent elements of the reflectarray that are set into a regular lattice mimic the function
of phased array radiating elements and the free space acts as the transmission medium
between the elements and the signal source (feed). The fact that the reflectarray, in its most
general form, collimates the plane wave that impinges on its surface into the feed constitutes
the affinity between the conventional parabolic reflector and reflectarray. Generally,
adjustment of the geometrical features of constituent elements of reflectarray is utilized to
realize desired aperture field distribution. Contrary to conventional microstrip phased arrays
that employ printed transmission lines and henceforth suffer from excessive loss at higher
frequencies, reflectarrays use the free space medium to transmit the electrical signal from the
feed to the elements and thus avoid degradation in the gain performance as a result of loss in
the feeding system. Open waveguide structures are among the radiators that have a long

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record of implementation both as an isolated or array of radiator(s). Therefore, open

waveguide turned out to be a natural choice for initial introduction and realization of a
reflectarray that was comprised of 426 lattice of open-waveguides fed by a horn antenna.
Complexity of the fabrication process of waveguide structures, especially when their
operating frequency band is high, hindered further development of waveguide-based
reflectarray. Subsequent developments and advances in lithographic technology was an
impetus to reflectarray research and raised its profile as a viable and appealing high gain
antenna with versatile and flexible features Amenability of reflectarray technology to etching
and lithographic techniques is an important advantage for reflectarrays as it permits adoption
of new developments in fabrication technology to further enhance the functionality and
performance of reflectarrays. For instance, microelectromechanical system (MEMS)
technology was utilized to realize reconfigurable reflectarray, amplifiers were embedded in a
cell to enhance power handling of reflectarray at higher frequencies, or laser induced plasma
was exploited in realization of beam switched reflectarray.

2.2 Advantages of Reflectarrays

Geometrical rules are the basis of the first-order synthesis and analysis algorithms in the case
of conventional parabolic reflectors. Physical optics and Geometrical Theory of Diffraction
(GTD) are used to increase accuracy in the design and analysis. It is important to note that the
laws of geometry are neutral to the operating frequency and polarization of the incoming
wave. In other words, the surface of a conventional solid parabolic reflector does not
distinguish different frequency bands or polarizations of the incoming signal and treats them
the same to the first order of approximation. Therefore, a conventional parabolic reflector is
capable of operating at a given frequency band and polarization as long as the feed
accommodates that same frequency band and polarization. However, constituent printed
elements of a reflectarray that are located on its surface impart a given phase onto the
incoming wave that depends on frequency, polarization, and angle of incidence of the
incoming wave. Therefore, a judicious design of the constituent elements of reflectarray leads
to a unique aperture field distribution for each of its operating bands and polarizations. This
fundamental difference between the underlying operating principles of conventional reflector
and reflectarray brings about a whole range of flexibility and versatility in operation of
reflectarray that is not readily available in the case of conventional reflectors as will be
pointed in the coming sections.
A reflectarray is shown in Fig. 4 that is comprised of printed dipoles. Lithographic
technology is a low-cost and mature technology that can be used for fabrication of printed
reflectarrays. As noted above, the reflected phase response of the elements depends on their
geometrical features. A different class of elements with a given phase response to polarization
and/or frequency that is different from the polarization and/or operating frequency of the first
set of elements, can be embedded within the lattice of the first set of elements to achieve
collimation for this second set of elements. It is obvious that the coupling between the two
sets must be accounted for in the design process. Having embedded two sets of elements
within the reflectarray lattice, two different focal points can be achieved and
only one focal point is dedicated to each combination of frequency band and state
of polarization. Figure 5 shows the case of a reflectarray with two focal points, each
dedicated to a given linear polarization. Two sets of dipoles are shown on the reflectarray
with different orientations. Each set collimates the incoming field with horizontal or vertical
into a separate dedicated feed. The possibility of achieving a dedicated focal point for each
given frequency and/or polarization is not readily available in the case of conventional solid
reflectors, whereas reflectarray structure is inherently amenable to multifoci operation for

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multibands .This can result in major simplification of the feed [Link] of the challenges
in high gain antenna technology is design of antennas that are portable and easily deployable
in extreme and adverse environmental conditions. Reflectarrays are superior in terms of
portability as a result of its flat shape. Transportation and deployment of large conventional
reflectors can pose challenges in using such antennas in extreme field conditions. However,
multipanel rendition of flat reflectors offers an effective response to portability and
deployability factors.
Radar cross section (RCS) and volume specifications of antennas can be an important factor
in a particular application. The flat nature of reflectarrays is better suited to the fulfillment of
volume requirements. Reduced volume of the antenna is generally tantamount to lower RCS.
However, more involved reflectarray designs can be implemented to disperse selected
frequency bands in order to further reduce RCS at given bands. Severing the ties with
Euclidean geometry in the operation of reflectarray allows for straightforward design and
fabrication of conformal reflectarray antennas. This does not necessarily require a
complicated feed design as opposed to conventional reflectors. The same feed structure can
be used and the feed complexity can be relegated to the adjustment of the cell elements that
can be addressed easily by appropriate lithographic technology.

Fig. 4. Constituent components of a reflectarray

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Fig.5. Local multipoint communication system (LMCS) reflectarray that is designed for two
focal points, each dedicated to a given linear polarization.

2.3 Design Equations

Reflectarray antennas are comprised of a quasi-periodic set of cell elements often set in a
regular lattice to emulate a given phase front transformation. In its most basic form, the
antenna carries out spherical to planar phase front transformation which is akin to the
function of its conventional counterpart, namely, the center-fed parabolic reflector. The side
view of a reflectarray antenna is shown in Figure 6 which is comprised of printed elements on
a substrate of thickness h and relative permittivity εr. The structure is illuminated by a horn
antenna located at the focal point F. Patch dimensions are adjusted to realize an equiphase
aperture field distribution that is tantamount to broadside radiation from the reflectarray. To
achieve this objective, the patch element located at A (see Figure 6) of the reflectarray ought
to impart the following phase to the incoming spherical field that originates from the focal
point:
k0(FA-FO) - φA = 2n π (2.1)

where n is an integer, k0 is the free space wavenumber, and φA is the scattered phase
generated by the patch located at point A. Fulfillment of (2.1) forces a phase difference of 2np
between any given patch on the reflectarray and the patch located at O, which is the center of
reflectarray. The phase generated by the patch is limited between 0° and 360°. Therefore, the
integer n is used to keep φA within this [Link] regions of the reflectarray, where φA jumps
between 0° and 360°, are called transition regions. The same procedure can be followed to
obtain the required phase contribution of each given patch to realize a scanned beam
reflectarray shown in Figure7

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Fig.6. Side view of a center-fed reflectarray with broadside beam.

.

Fig.7. Side view of scanned beam center-fed reflectarray

The direction of the outgoing beam is represented as rout. The following relationship gives the
amount of phase to be imparted by the patch located at point A ofreflectarray to maintain the
scanned beam:
k0(FA-FO .rout ) - φA = 2n π
(2.2)

uivalent in the case of conventional center-fed “parabolic reflector.” Offset reflectors have
been devised in the past to achieve scanned-beam operation at the expense of less mechanical
robustness compared to centre-fed reflectors and higher cross-polarization. This is an
illustration of the one of the many flexibilities offered by reflectarrays. A reflectarray can be
used to emulate phase transformations carried out by a shaped reflector. Figure 8 shows a
known shaped reflector and its equivalent reflectarray. The function of the reflectarray is to
realize the same aperture phase distribution as the shaped reflector. To this end, it is
attempted to find the required phase shift on the patch located at point B by examination of
the ray that emanates from the feed phase center F and lands on B after reflection from point

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A on the shaped reflector. Note that point B is at the center of a given cell location on the
reflectarray.

Figure 8 Shaped reflector and its equivalent reflectarray counterpart

The required phase to be imparted by the patch to realize the same phase distribution as the
shaped reflector on aperture of reflectarray is given as:

k0( FA+AB-FB ) – φpatch = 2n π

(2.3)

One common factor between these three equations is the presence of free-space wavenumber,
k0, that corresponds to the design frequency of the reflectarray and constrains the desired
phase shift to be valid for optimum performance at a given design frequency. Therefore,
deviation from the design frequency leads to a different value for the required phase that
might not be fulfilled once the element dimensions have been chosen for optimum
performance at the design [Link] leads to loss of gain because of the emergence of
phase error on the radiating aperture of the reflectarray. So far, we have restricted ourselves to
derivation of the phase value required at each patch and have not discussed methods to
realize this phase. Figure 9 shows an infinite two-dimensional periodic structure composed of
microstrip patches that is illuminated by a normally incident plane wave. A typical plot of the
phase of the reflected wave versus the length of the patch is also shown in Figure 9. Lattice
dimensions along the x-axis and y-axis (Tx and Ty) are selected to be less than freespace half
wavelength (λ0/2) to prevent the emergence of grating lobes. The propagating reflected wave
is composed of direct reflection from the grounded dielectric substrate and patches. The
presence of the ground plane does not allow scattering into the lower half-plane, which
implies unity amplitude of the reflected wave in upper half plane for lossless dielectric
substrate and perfect electric conductor (PEC) patches. However, the phase of the reflected
wave can be adjusted by changing the length of the patch. Noting the gradual variation of the
desired phase on the surface of the reflectarray, the infinite periodic structure approximation
can be used to synthesize the length of the patch based on the desired phase at a given
location. In other words, each locality of the reflectarray is assumed to be an infinite two-

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dimensional periodic structure that is illuminated by a plane wave whose direction of

propagation is along the ray that connects the feed and that given locality. Then the phase of
the reflected wave is calculated for this infinite periodic structure using numerical methods.

Fig.9. Two-dimensional array of square patches: (a) side view, (b) top view, and (c) typical
phase-length design curve that is used in the design of a reflectarray.

Therefore, the required patch phase as outlined in 6 to 9 can be obtained by changing patch
dimensions according the phaselength plot of Figure 9(c). The same two-dimensional infinite
periodic structure assumption can be used for other types of cell elements. Figure 10 shows a
number of conventional cell elements that have been used in reflectarray structure and the
geometrical feature that is to be adjusted in order to realize the required phase shift.

Fig.10. Several conventional cell elements that have been used in reflectarray antennas.

2.4 Aperture Efficiency of Reflectarray and Comparison with Conventional

Parabolic Reflector

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Aperture efficiency of a conventional reflector has been decomposed into a number of

efficiency figures to isolate the factors that cause deviation from ideal performance. The most
common factors that degrade the performance are listed as:
feed illumination taper, feed illumination spillover, aperture phase error, cross-polarization
effects, feed blockage, dielectric and conductor loss, and feed mismatch. The definitions used
in are applied in this section to present a mathematical expression for each of these degrading
factors and provide a qualitative comparison of the performance of reflectarrays with
conventional parabolic reflector in terms of each of these factors.

2.4.1 Illumination Efficiency

Illumination efficiency is a measure of the uniformity of the feed illumination of the

reflectarray. It is well known that as the illumination tapers toward the rim of the reflectarray
or reflector, the sidelobe level tends to decrease and the main beam broadens. The
mathematical expression for illumination efficiency is given as follows:

(2.4)

where it is assumed that the desired aperture field is y-polarized and the aperture is of circular
shape with radius a. In the case of conventional reflector, the feed illumination taper is solely
determined by the feed pattern but in the case of reflectarray, the illumination also depends on
the radiation pattern of the constituent elements of the reflectarray. The broadside radiation
pattern of the cell element necessarily leads to reduction of intercepted power by the element
when it is illuminated by rays from the feed that are away from the broadside direction of that
given element. Therefore, the illumination taper of the feed is further accentuated by the
element pattern. The element pattern makes an impact for F/D < 0.5 when the illumination
angle of feed for the edge elements of the reflectarray is increased. This relatively larger taper
entails marginally lower illumination efficiency in the case of reflectarray and also lower
sidelobe levels.
2.2.2 Spillover Efficiency

This efficiency figure represents the amount of power that is not intercepted by the
reflectarray and it is calculated using the following expression:

(2.5)

where ψ is the subtended angle of reflectarray or reflector aperture defined in Figure 11 and
g(θ, φ) is the feed radiation pattern. It can be seen that for the same D and F/D ratio, the
subtended angle of the parabolic reflector is slightly larger than that of the reflectarray. The
difference between the subtended angles of parabolic reflector and its equivalent reflectarray

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increases as F/D shrinks and puts parabolic reflector at an advantage in terms of spillover
efficiency as compared to its reflectarray equivalent.

Fig.11. Side views of a center-fed parabolic reflector and its equivalent reflectarray. The two
structures have the same diameter and F/D ratio.

Assuming that the feed pattern is of cosn(θ) form, the following expression for spillover
efficiency [2]:
ηs = 1 – cosn+1 (ψ /2)
RA

where ψ is the subtended angle of the reflectarray that is shown in Figure 11. A similar
RA

expression has been derived for illumination efficiency of the reflectarray illuminated by
cosn(θ) feed structure [2]:

(2.6)

The illumination efficiency is the product of spillover and taper efficiencies

.
2.2.3 Polarization Efficiency

This efficiency term represents the polarization purity of the antenna radiation and
is calculated according to the following relation:

(2.7)

The above expression is a measure of the power that is coupled into the crosspolarization
component of the antenna radiation. Normally, a feed with poor cross-polarization
performance leads to low ηx in the case of center-fed parabolic reflector because its surface is
indifferent the sense of linear polarization and it collimates both co- and cross-polarization
components. However, the elements of a reflectarray can be selected on the basis of low

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cross-polarization radiation (such as printed dipole), which leads to diffraction and scattering
of cross-polarization component of the feed radiation. Hence, one can expect superior cross-
polarization performance with a feed of moderate cross-polarization performance in the case
of center-fed broadside reflectarray as compared to it conventional reflector counterpart.
The same statement holds for the case of offset-fed reflectors that are plagued by relatively
high cross-polarization for observation angles off the main beam. The equivalent offset-fed
reflectarray can attain better cross-polarization as compared to its equivalent conventional
reflector, as a result of the polarization selectivity of its constituent elements.

2.2.4 Phase Efficiency

Deviation from uniform phase on the radiating aperture of the antenna leads to
degradation in antenna gain. The measure of phase uniformity is defined as follows:

(2.8)

The uniformity of the aperture field distribution of a reflectarray can be disrupted by three
factors. The first stems from using infinite periodic structure assumption at the design stage
of the reflectarray. It should be noted that gradual variation of the geometrical features of the
constituent elements of reflectarray throughout its aperture is a deviation from infinite
periodic structure assumption at the design stage. Therefore, the actual phase that is realized
on the reflectarray can be different from the desired phase. Departure from desired phase
values is more intense in the transition regions where there is a phase jump from 0 to 2π,
which is manifested in abrupt changes of element dimensions in such regions. Noting that
the phase transformation is carried out in a quantized fashion, a quantization error might
occur for lattice size in excess of λ/2. However, the quantization error is less than 0.1 dB if
the lattice size is in the order of a half-wavelength and reduces rapidly as the lattice size
shrinks. Therefore, one can see the importance of maintaining small lattice size in achieving
uniform phase because the quantization error is reduced significantly and also the assumption
of infinite periodic structure becomes more relevant. The second source of nonuniform phase
is fabrication error. The etching technology that is used for the fabrication of the reflectarray
should be capable of exact realization of design dimensions. Any error in fabrication leads
to deviation from desired phase. Surface roughness in the case of conventional solid
reflectors acts similarly in degrading phase efficiency. It is usually difficult to maintain
roughness tolerance for large reflectors that operate in Ka- and higher frequency bands,
whereas the required fabrication tolerance for reflectarrays in such bands is well within the
realm of conventional lithographic techniques. The last factor that can adversely impact the
phase uniformity of aperture field distribution is deviation of the radiated phase front of the
feed from spherical phase front and also movement of the feed phase centre throughout the
operating band of the reflectarray. This issue can either be addressed by careful selection of
the feed or dispersion engineering of the elements reflected phase to compensate for the
movement of the phase center of the feed.

2.2.5 Blockage Efficiency

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The feed assembly blocks the aperture radiation and hence degrades the performance by

reducing the gain and also increasing the cross-polarization. Calculation of the following
expression gives a measure of the adverse effect of blockage on the antenna performance:

(2.9)

where b is the radius of the feed region. Feed blockage is inevitable in the case of centre-fed
parabolic reflectors. The larger the feed assembly is, the lower is the blockage efficiency.
However, a center-fed reflectarray can be designed to avoid the blockage completely by
setting the direction of the outgoing beam appropriately. Implementing this measure, higher
blockage efficiency is quite practical in the case of center-fed reflectarrays. Additionally, feed
return loss can be significantly improved in the case of center-fed reflectarray by setting the
outgoing beam at an off-boresight direction to avoid the feed assembly region.
2.2.6 Dielectric and Conductor Loss
Conductor loss and substrate loss are among the other factors that can reduce the
efficiency of the reflectarray. These two loss factors lead to less than unity reflection
coefficient for the reflectarray. This particular loss factor can be quantified using the
following expression:

(2.10)

where Γn is reflection from the nth cell element and summation has been carried out
over the total N cells.

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CHAPTER-3

TITLE OF THE CHAPTER

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CHAPTER 3
Chapter Title

Content of the chapter

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CHAPTER-4

TITLE OF THE CHAPTER

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CHAPTER 4
Chapter Title

Content of the chapter

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CHAPTER-5

TITLE OF THE CHAPTER

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CHAPTER 5
Chapter Title

Content of the chapter

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References

[1] Eduardo Carrasco, Jose A. Encinar “Reflectarray antennas: A review”, Forum for
Electromagnetic Research Methods and Application Technologies (FERMAT)

[2] Adepu Sravya Chandra , Srujana Vahini.N , D. Ramakrishna V.M.

Pandharipande ,”DESIGN OF MICROSTRIP PATCH REFLECTARRAY ANTENNA AT W-
BAND”, 2017 IEEE Applied Electromagnetics Conference (AEMC)

[3] Constantine A. Balanis,”Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4th Edition.

[4] Payam Nayeri , Atef Z. Elsherbeni , Fan Yang,” Radiation Analysis Approaches for Refl
ectarray Antennas” ,IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine ,Volume: 55 , Issue: 1 , Feb.
2013.

[5] J. Agustín Zornoza ,José A. Encinar,”Efficient phase‐only synthesis of contoured‐beam

patterns for very large reflectarrays”, International Journal of RF and Microwave Computer-
Aided Engineering(August 2004)

[6] Harish Rajagopalan, Shenheng Xu, Yahya Rahmat-Samii,” On Understanding the

Radiation Mechanism of Reflectarray Antennas: An Insightful and Illustrative Approach”
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine ( Volume: 54 , Issue: 5 , Oct. 2012 )

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Appendix
(include datasheets or any mathematical derivation etc)

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