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Preface vii

I Minitab for Data Management 1

4 Pdqxdo Ryhuylhz dqg Frqyhqwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
5 Dffhvvlqj dqg H{lwlqj Plqlwde 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
6 Ilohv Xvhg e| Plqlwde 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :
7 Jhwwlqj Khos 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :
8 Wkh Zrunvkhhw 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ;
9 Plqlwde Frppdqgv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 43
: Hqwhulqj Gdwd lqwr d Zrunvkhhw 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 46
:14 Lpsruwlqj Gdwd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 47
:15 Sdwwhuqhg Gdwd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4;
:16 Sulqwlqj Gdwd lq wkh Vhvvlrq Zlqgrz 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4<
:17 Dvvljqlqj Frqvwdqwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 53
:18 Qdplqj Yduldeohv dqg Frqvwdqwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 54
:19 Lqirupdwlrq derxw d Zrunvkhhw 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 55
:1: Hglwlqj d Zrunvkhhw 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 56
; Vdylqj/ Uhwulhylqj/ dqg Sulqwlqj 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 59
< Uhfruglqj dqg Sulqwlqj Vhvvlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5<
43 Pdwkhpdwlfdo Rshudwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5<
4314 Dulwkphwlfdo Rshudwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5<
4315 Pdwkhpdwlfdo Ixqfwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 64
4316 Froxpq dqg Urz Vwdwlvwlfv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 65
4317 Frpsdulvrqv dqg Orjlfdo Rshudwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 66
44 Vrph Pruh Plqlwde Frppdqgv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 68
4414 Frglqj 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 68
4415 Frqfdwhqdwlqj Froxpqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 69
4416 Frqyhuwlqj Gdwd W|shv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6:
4417 Klvwru| 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6;
4418 Frpsxwlqj Udqnv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6<
4419 Vruwlqj Gdwd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 73
441: Vwdfnlqj dqg Xqvwdfnlqj Froxpqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 74
45 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 76

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ly CONTENTS

II Minitab for Data Analysis 45

1 Looking at Data–Distributions 47
414 Wdexodwlqj dqg Vxppdul}lqj Gdwd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7;
41414 Wdoo|lqj Gdwd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7<
41415 Ghvfulelqj Gdwd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 84
415 Sorwwlqj Gdwd lq d Judsk Zlqgrz 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 86
41514 Grwsorwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 86
41515 Vwhp0dqg0Ohdi Sorwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 87
41516 Klvwrjudpv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 88
41517 Er{sorwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8:
41518 Wlph Vhulhv Sorwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8<
41519 Edu Fkduwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 93
4151: Slh Fkduwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 93
416 Wkh Qrupdo Glvwulexwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 93
41614 Fdofxodwlqj wkh Ghqvlw| 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 94
41615 Fdofxodwlqj wkh Glvwulexwlrq Ixqfwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 95
41616 Fdofxodwlqj wkh Lqyhuvh Glvwulexwlrq Ixqfwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 95
41617 Qrupdo Suredelolw| Sorwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 96
417 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 97

2 Looking at Data–Relationships 67
514 Vfdwwhusorwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9:
515 Fruuhodwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :3
516 Uhjuhvvlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :3
517 Wudqvirupdwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :7
518 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :8

3 Producing Data 77
614 Jhqhudwlqj d Udqgrp Vdpsoh 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :;
615 Vdpsolqj iurp Glvwulexwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ;3
616 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ;5

4 Probability: The Study of Randomness 85

714 Edvlf Suredelolw| Fdofxodwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ;8
715 Pruh rq Vdpsolqj iurp Glvwulexwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ;9
716 Vlpxodwlrq iru Dssur{lpdwlqj Suredelolwlhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ;<
717 Vlpxodwlrq iru Dssur{lpdwlqj Phdqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <3
718 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <4

5 Sampling Distributions 95
814 Wkh Elqrpldo Glvwulexwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <8
815 Vlpxodwlqj Vdpsolqj Glvwulexwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <;
816 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 435
CONTENTS y

6 Introduction to Inference 105

914 }0Frqghqfh Lqwhuydov 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 438
915 }0Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 43:
916 Vlpxodwlrqv iru Frqghqfh Lqwhuydov 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 43<
917 Vlpxodwlrqv iru Srzhu Fdofxodwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 443
918 Wkh Fkl0Vtxduh Glvwulexwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 446
919 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 447

7 Inference for Distributions 117

:14 Wkh Vwxghqw Glvwulexwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 44:
:15 w0Frqghqfh Lqwhuydov 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 44;
:16 w0Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 44<
:17 Wkh Vljq Whvw 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 453
:18 Frpsdulqj Wzr Vdpsohv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 455
:19 Wkh F 0Glvwulexwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 458
:1: H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 459

8 Inference for Proportions 129

;14 Lqihuhqfh iru d Vlqjoh Sursruwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 45<
;15 Lqihuhqfh iru Wzr Sursruwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 464
;16 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 466

9 Inference for Two-Way Tables 135

<14 Wdexodwlqj dqg Sorwwlqj 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 468
<15 Wkh Fkl0vtxduh Whvw 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 46;
<16 Dqdo|}lqj Wdeohv ri Frxqwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 474
<17 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 476

10 Inference for Regression 145

4314 Vlpsoh Uhjuhvvlrq Dqdo|vlv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 478
4315 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 485

11 Multiple Regression 155

4414 H{dpsoh 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 488
4415 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 493

12 One-Way Analysis of Variance 163

4514 D Fdwhjrulfdo Yduldeoh dqg d Txdqwlwdwlyh Yduldeoh 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 496
4515 Rqh0Zd| Dqdo|vlv ri Yduldqfh 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 499
4516 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4:4

13 Two-Way Analysis of Variance 173

4614 Wkh Wzr0Zd| DQRYD Frppdqg 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4:6
4615 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4::
yl CONTENTS

14 Nonparametric Tests 179

4714 Wkh Zlofr{rq Udqn Vxp Surfhgxuhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4:<
4715 Wkh Zlofr{rq Vljqhg Udqn Surfhgxuhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4;4
4716 Wkh Nuxvndo0Zdoolv Whvw 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4;5
4717 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4;6

15 Logistic Regression 185

4814 Wkh Orjlvwlf Uhjuhvvlrq Prgho 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4;8
4815 H{dpsoh 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4;9
4816 H{huflvhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4;;

Appendices 191
A Projects 191

B Mathematical and Statistical Functions in Minitab 193

E14 Pdwkhpdwlfdo Ixqfwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4<6
E15 Froxpq Vwdwlvwlfv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4<7
E16 Urz Vwdwlvwlfv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4<8

C Macros and Execs 197

F14 Joredo Pdfurv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4<:
F1414 Frqwuro Vwdwhphqwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4<;
F1415 Vwduwxs Pdfur 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 535
F1416 Lqwhudfwlyh Pdfurv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 535
F15 Orfdo Pdfurv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 536
F16 H{hfv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 536
F1614 Fuhdwlqj dqg Xvlqj dq H{hf 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 536
F1615 Wkh FN Fdsdelolw| iru Orrslqj 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 537
F1616 Lqwhudfwlyh H{hfv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 538
F1617 Vwduwxs H{hfv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 539

D Matrix Algebra in Minitab 207

G14 Fuhdwlqj Pdwulfhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 53;
G15 Frppdqgv iru Pdwul{ Rshudwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 543

E Advanced Statistical Methods in Minitab 213

F References 215

Index 216
Preface

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Minitab for Data

Management

4
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1 Manual Overview and Conventions

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6
7 Minitab for Data Management

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DIEIF

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2 Accessing and Exiting Minitab

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Minitab for Data Management 8

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vkrzq lq Glvsod| L151 Wkh Plqlwde zlqgrz lv glylghg lqwr wzr vxe0zlqgrzv
zlwk wkh xsshu zlqgrz fdoohg wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz dqg wkh orzhu rqh fdoohg wkh
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9 Minitab for Data Management

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3 Files Used by Minitab

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4 Getting Help
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5 The Worksheet
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dqg froxpq F8 frqwdlqv wkh jhqghu gdwd1 Qrwlfh wkdw d froxpq frqwdlqv wkh
ydoxhv froohfwhg iru d vlqjoh yduldeoh/ dqg d urz frqwdlqv wkh ydoxhv ri doo wkh
yduldeohv iru d vlqjoh vwxghqw1 Vrphwlphv/ d urz lv uhihuuhg wr dv dq revhuydwlrq
ru fdvh1 Revhuyh wkdw wkh gdwd iru wklv vwxg| rffxslhv d 10  5 vxewdeoh ri wkh
ixoo zrunvkhhw1 Doo ri wkh rwkhu eodqn hqwulhv ri wkh zrunvkhhw fdq eh ljqruhg/
dv wkh| duh xqghqhg1

Glvsod| L17= Wkh pdunv zrunvkhhw1

Wkhuh zloo eh olplwdwlrqv rq wkh qxpehu ri froxpqv dqg urzv |rx fdq kdyh lq
|rxu zrunvkhhw/ dqg wklv ghshqgv rq wkh sduwlfxodu lpsohphqwdwlrq ri Plqlwde
|rx duh xvlqj1 Vr li |rx sodq wr xvh Plqlwde iru d odujh sureohp/ |rx vkrxog
fkhfn zlwk wkh v|vwhp shuvrq ru ixuwkhu grfxphqwdwlrq wr vhh zkdw wkhvh duh1
Iru h{dpsoh/ lq vrph yhuvlrqv ri Plqlwde wkhuh lv d olplwdwlrq ri 8333 fhoov1 Vr
wkhuh fdq eh rqh yduldeoh zlwk 8333 ydoxhv lq lw/ ru 83 yduldeohv zlwk 433 ydoxhv
hdfk/ hwf1
Dvvrfldwhg zlwk d zrunvkhhw lv d wdeoh ri frqvwdqwv1 W|slfdoo|/ wkhvh duh
qxpehuv wkdw |rx zdqw wr xvh lq vrph dulwkphwlfdo rshudwlrq dssolhg wr hyhu|
ydoxh lq d froxpq1 Iru h{dpsoh/ |rx pd| kdyh uhfrughg khljkwv ri shrsoh lq
lqfkhv dqg zdqw wr frqyhuw wkhvh wr khljkwv lq fhqwlphwhuv1 \rx pxvw pxowlso|
hyhu| khljkw e| wkh ydoxh 51871 Wkh Plqlwde frqvwdqwv duh odehohg N4/ N5/ hwf1
Djdlq/ wkhuh duh olplwdwlrqv rq wkh qxpehu ri frqvwdqwv |rx fdq dvvrfldwh zlwk d
zrunvkhhw1 Iru h{dpsoh/ lq pdq| yhuvlrqv wkhuh fdq eh dw prvw 4333 frqvwdqwv1
Vr wr frqwlqxh zlwk wkh deryh sureohp/ zh pljkw dvvljq wkh ydoxh 5187 wr N41
Lq L1:17/ zh vkrz krz wr pdnh vxfk dq dvvljqphqw/ dqg lq L14314 zh vkrz krz
wr pxowlso| hyhu| hqwu| lq d froxpq e| wklv ydoxh1
43 Minitab for Data Management

Lq Yhuvlrq 46 ri Plqlwde/ wkhuh lv dq dgglwlrqdo vwuxfwxuh eh|rqg wkh zrun0

vkhhw fdoohg wkh surmhfw1 D surmhfw fdq kdyh pxowlsoh zrunvkhhwv dvvrfldwhg zlwk
lw1 Dovr/ d surmhfw fdq kdyh dvvrfldwhg zlwk lw ydulrxv judskv dqg uhfrugv ri wkh
frppdqgv |rx kdyh w|shg dqg wkh rxwsxw rewdlqhg zkloh zrunlqj rq wkh zrun0
vkhhwv1 Surmhfwv/ zklfk duh glvfxvvhg lq Dsshqgl{ D/ fdq eh vdyhg dqg uhwulhyhg
iru odwhu zrun1 Surmhfwv 1

6 Minitab Commands
Zh zloo qrz ehjlq wr lqwurgxfh ydulrxv Plqlwde frppdqgv wr jhw gdwd lqwr d
zrunvkhhw/ hglw d zrunvkhhw/ shuirup ydulrxv rshudwlrqv rq wkh hohphqwv ri d
zrunvkhhw/ dqg vdyh dqg dffhvv d vdyhg zrunvkhhw1 Ehiruh zh gr/ krzhyhu/ lw lv
xvhixo wr nqrz vrphwklqj derxw wkh edvlf vwuxfwxuh ri doo Plqlwde frppdqgv1
Dvvrfldwhg zlwk hyhu| frppdqg lv ri frxuvh lwv qdph/ dv lq Iloh I H{lw dqg
 
Khos1 Prvw frppdqgv dovr wdnh dujxphqwv/ dqg wkhvh dujxphqwv duh froxpq

qdphv/ frqvwdqwv/ dqg vrphwlphv oh qdphv1
Frppdqgv fdq eh dffhvvhg e| pdnlqj xvh ri wkh Iloh/ Hglw/ Pdqls/ Fdof/
   
Vwdw/ Judsk dqg Hglwru hqwulhv lq wkh phqx edu1 Folfnlqj dq| ri wkhvh eulqjv
  
xs d olvw ri frppdqgv wkdw |rx fdq xvh wr rshudwh rq |rxu zrunvkhhw1 Wkh olvwv
wkdw dsshdu pd| ghshqg rq zklfk zlqgrz lv dfwlyh/ h1j1/ hlwkhu d Gdwd zlqgrz
ru wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Xqohvv rwkhuzlvh vshflhg/ zh zloo dozd|v dvvxph wkdw
wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz lv dfwlyh zkhq glvfxvvlqj phqx frppdqgv1 Li d frppdqg
qdph lq d olvw lv idghg/ wkhq lw lv qrw dydlodeoh1
W|slfdoo|/ xvlqj d frppdqg iurp wkh phqx edu uhtxluhv wkh xvh ri d gldorj
er{ ru gldorj zlqgrz wkdw rshqv zkhq |rx folfn rq d frppdqg lq wkh olvw1
Wkhvh duh xvhg wr surylgh wkh dujxphqwv dqg vxefrppdqgv wr wkh frppdqg
dqg vshfli| zkhuh wkh rxwsxw lv wr jr1 Gldorj er{hv kdyh ydulrxv er{hv wkdw
pxvw eh oohg lq wr fruuhfwo| h{hfxwh d frppdqg1 Folfnlqj lq d er{ wkdw qhhgv
wr eh oohg lq w|slfdoo| fdxvhv d yduldeoh olvw wr dsshdu lq wkh ohiw0prvw er{/ ri
doo lwhpv lq wkh dfwlyh zrunvkhhw wkdw fdq eh sodfhg lq wkdw er{1 Grxeoh folfnlqj
rq lwhpv lq wkh yduldeoh olvw sodfhv wkhp lq wkh er{/ ru/ dowhuqdwlyho|/ |rx fdq
w|sh wkhp lq gluhfwo|1 Zkhq |rx kdyh oohg lq wkh gldorj er{ dqg folfnhg RN/

wkh frppdqg lv sulqwhg lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz dqg h{hfxwhg1 Dq| rxwsxw lv
dovr sulqwhg lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Gldorj er{hv kdyh d Khos exwwrq wkdw fdq
eh xvhg wr ohduq krz wr pdnh wkh hqwulhv1
Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh wkdw zh zdqw wr fdofxodwh wkh phdq ri froxpq F5
lq wkh zrunvkhhw marks1 Wkhq wkh frppdqg Fdof I Froxpq Vwdwlvwlfv eulqjv
 
xs wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| L181 Qrwlfh wkdw wkh udglr exwwrq Vxp lv

oohg lq1 Folfnlqj wkh udglr exwwrq odehoohg Phdq uhvxowv lq wklv exwwrq ehlqj

oohg lq dqg wkh Vxp exwwrq ehfrplqj hpsw|1 Zklfkhyhu exwwrq lv oohg lq zloo

uhvxow lq wkdw vwdwlvwlf ehlqj fdofxodwhg iru wkh uhohydqw froxpqv zkhq zh qdoo|
lpsohphqw wkh frppdqg e| folfnlqj RN1

Fxuuhqwo|/ wkhuh duh qr froxpqv vhohfwhg/ exw folfnlqj lq wkh Lqsxw yduldeoh
er{ eulqjv xs d olvw ri srvvleoh froxpqv lq wkh glvsod| zlqgrz rq wkh ohiw1 Wkh
Minitab for Data Management 44

uhvxowv ri wkhvh rshudwlrqv duh vkrzq lq Glvsod| L191 Zh grxeoh folfn rq F5 lq

wkh yduldeoh olvw/ zklfk sodfhv wklv hqwu| lq wkh Lqsxw yduldeoh er{ dv vkrzq lq

Glvsod| L1:1 Dowhuqdwlyho|/ zh frxog kdyh vlpso| w|shg wklv hqwu| lqwr wkh er{1
Diwhu folfnlqj wkh RN exwwrq/ zh rewdlq wkh rxwsxw

Mean of C2 = 69.900

lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1

Glvsod| L18= Lqlwldo ylhz ri wkh gldorj er{ iru Froxpq Vwdwlvwlfv1

Glvsod| L19= Ylhz ri wkh gldorj er{ iru Froxpq Vwdwlvwlfv diwhu vhohfwlqj Phdq dqg
eulqjlqj xs wkh yduldeoh olvw1
45 Minitab for Data Management

Glvsod| L1:= Ilqdo ylhz ri wkh gldorj er{ iru Froxpq Vwdwlvwlfv1

Txlwh riwhq/ lw lv idvwhu dqg pruh frqyhqlhqw wr vlpso| w|sh |rxu frppdqgv
gluhfwo| lqwr wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Vrphwlphv/ lw lv qhfhvvdu| wr xvh wkh Vhvvlrq
zlqgrz dssurdfk/ exw iru pdq| frppdqgv wkh phqx edu lv dydlodeoh1 Vr zh
qrz ghvfuleh wkh xvh ri frppdqgv lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1
Wkh edvlf vwuxfwxuh ri vxfk d frppdqg zlwk q dujxphqwv lv
command name H1 /H2 /111/Hq
zkhuh Hl lv wkh lwk dujxphqw1 Dowhuqdwlyho|/ zh fdq zulwh
command name H1 H2 111 Hq
li zh grq*w zdqw wr w|sh frppdv1 Frqyhqlhqwo|/ li wkh dujxphqwv H1 /H2 /111/Hq
duh frqvhfxwlyh froxpqv lq wkh zrunvkhhw/ zh kdyh wkh iroorzlqj vkruw0irup
command name H1 0Hq
zklfk vdyhv hyhq pruh w|slqj dqg dffruglqjo| ghfuhdvhv rxu fkdqfh ri pdnlqj d
w|slqj plvwdnh1 Li |rx duh jrlqj wr w|sh d orqj olvw ri dujxphqwv dqg |rx grq*w
zdqw wkhp doo rq wkh vdph olqh/ wkhq |rx fdq w|sh wkh frqwlqxdwlrq v|pero )
zkhuh |rx zdqw wr euhdn wkh olqh dqg wkhq klw Hqwhu1 Plqlwde uhvsrqgv zlwk
wkh surpsw
FRQWA
dqg |rx frqwlqxh wr w|sh dujxphqw qdphv1 Wkh frppdqg lv h{hfxwhg zkhq |rx
klw Hqwhu diwhu dq dujxphqw qdph zlwkrxw d frqwlqxdwlrq fkdudfwhu iroorzlqj
lw1
Pdq| frppdqgv fdq/ lq dgglwlrq/ eh vxssolhg zlwk ydulrxv vxefrppdqgv
wkdw dowhu wkh ehkdylru ri wkh frppdqg1 Wkh vwuxfwxuh iru frppdqgv zlwk
vxefrppdqgv lv
Minitab for Data Management 46

command name H1 111 Hq1 >

subcommand name Hq1 +1 111 Hq2 >
11
1
subcommand name Hqn1 +1 111 Hqn 1
Qrwlfh wkdw zkhq wkhuh duh vxefrppdqgv hdfk olqh hqgv zlwk d vhplfrorq xqwlo
wkh odvw vxefrppdqg/ zklfk hqgv zlwk d shulrg1 Dovr/ vxefrppdqgv pd| kdyh
dujxphqwv1 Zkhq Plqlwde hqfrxqwhuv d olqh hqglqj lq d vhplfrorq lw h{shfwv d
vxefrppdqg rq wkh qh{w olqh dqg fkdqjhv wkh surpsw wr
SUBC A
xqwlo lw hqfrxqwhuv d shulrg/ zkhuhxsrq lw h{hfxwhv wkh frppdqg1 Li zkloh
w|slqj lq rqh ri |rxu vxefrppdqgv |rx vxgghqo| ghflgh wkdw |rx zrxog udwkhu
qrw h{hfxwh wkh vxefrppdqg  shukdsv |rx uhdol}h vrphwklqj zdv zurqj rq d
suhylrxv olqh  wkhq w|sh abort diwhu wkh SUBC A surpsw dqg klw Hqwhu1 Dv
d ixuwkhu frqyhqlhqfh/ lw lv zruwk qrwlqj wkdw |rx qhhg wr rqo| w|sh lq wkh uvw
irxu ohwwhuv ri dq| Plqlwde frppdqg ru vxefrppdqg1
Iru h{dpsoh/ wr fdofxodwh wkh phdq ri froxpq F5 lq wkh zrunvkhhw pdunv
zh fdq xvh wkh mean frppdqg lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz/ dv lq
MTB A mean c2
dqg zh rewdlq wkh vdph rxwsxw lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz dv ehiruh1
Wkhuh duh wzr dgglwlrqdo zd|v lq zklfk |rx fdq lqsxw frppdqgv wr Plqlwde1
Lqvwhdg ri w|slqj wkh frppdqgv gluhfwo| lqwr wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz/ |rx fdq dovr
w|sh wkhvh gluhfwo| lqwr wkh Frppdqg Olqh Hglwru/ zklfk lv dydlodeoh yld Hglw

I Frppdqg Olqh Hglwru1 Pxowlsoh frppdqgv fdq wkhq eh w|shg gluhfwo| lqwr d

er{ wkdw srsv xs dqg h{hfxwhg zkhq wkh Vxeplw Frppdqgv exwwrq lv folfnhg1

Rxwsxw dsshduv lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Dovr/ pdq| frppdqgv duh dydlodeoh rq
d wrroedu wkdw olhv mxvw ehorz wkh phqx edu dw wkh wrs ri wkh Plqlwde zlqgrz1
Wkhuh lv d glhuhqw wrroedu ghshqglqj xsrq zklfk zlqgrz lv dfwlyh1 Zh jlyh d
eulhi glvfxvvlrq ri vrph ri wkh ihdwxuhv dydlodeoh lq wkh wrroedu lq odwhu vhfwlrqv1

7 Entering Data into a Worksheet

Wkhuh duh ydulrxv phwkrgv iru hqwhulqj gdwd lqwr d zrunvkhhw1 Wkh vlpsohvw
dssurdfk lv wr xvh wkh Gdwd zlqgrz wr hqwhu gdwd gluhfwo| lqwr wkh zrunvkhhw e|
folfnlqj |rxu prxvh lq d fhoo dqg wkhq w|slqj wkh fruuhvsrqglqj gdwd hqwu| dqg
klwwlqj Hqwhu1 Uhphpehu wkdw |rx fdq pdnh d Gdwd zlqgrz dfwlyh e| folfnlqj
dq|zkhuh lq wkh zlqgrz ru e| xvlqj Zlqgrzv lq wkh phqx edu1 Li |rx w|sh dq|

fkdudfwhu wkdw lv qrw d qxpehu/ Plqlwde dxwrpdwlfdoo| lghqwlhv wkh froxpq
frqwdlqlqj wkdw fhoo dv d wh{w yduldeoh dqg lqglfdwhv wkdw e| dsshqglqj W wr
wkh froxpq qdph/ h1j1/ F80W lq Glvsod| L171 \rx gr qrw qhhg wr dsshqg wkh W
zkhq uhihuulqj wr wkh froxpq1 Dovr/ wkhuh lv d gdwd gluhfwlrq duurz lq wkh xsshu
ohiw fruqhu ri wkh gdwd zlqgrz wkdw lqglfdwhv wkh gluhfwlrq wkh fxuvru pryhv
47 Minitab for Data Management

diwhu |rx klw Hqwhu1 Folfnlqj rq lw dowhuqdwhv ehwzhhq urz0zlvh dqg froxpq0
zlvh gdwd hqwu|1 Fhuwdlqo|/ wklv lv dq hdv| zd| wr hqwhu gdwd zkhq lw lv vxlwdeoh1
Uhphpehu/ froxpqv duh yduldeohv dqg urzv duh revhuydwlrqv$ Dovr/ |rx fdq kdyh
pxowlsoh gdwd zlqgrzv rshq dqg pryh gdwd ehwzhhq wkhp1 Xvh wkh frppdqg
Iloh I Qhz wr rshq d qhz zrunvkhhw1
 

7.1 Importing Data

Li |rxu gdwd lv lq dq h{whuqdo oh +qrw dq .mtw oh,/ |rx zloo qhhg wr xvh Iloh

I Rwkhu Ilohv I Lpsruw Vshfldo Wh{w wr jhw wkh gdwd lqwr |rxu zrunvkhhw1 Iru
 
h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh lq wkh oh [Link] zh kdyh wkh iroorzlqj gdwd uhfrughg/
mxvw dv lw dsshduv1
12389 81 85 78
97658 75 72 62
53546 77 83 81
55542 63 42 55
11223 71 82 67
77788 87 56 *
44567 23 45 35
32156 67 72 81
33456 81 77 88
67945 74 91 92
Hdfk urz fruuhvsrqgv wr dq revhuydwlrq/ zlwk wkh vwxghqw qxpehu ehlqj wkh uvw
hqwu|/ iroorzhg e| wkh pdunv lq wkh vwxghqw*v Vwdwlvwlfv/ Fdofxoxv/ dqg Sk|vlfv
frxuvhv1 Wkhvh hqwulhv duh vhsdudwhg e| eodqnv1
Qrwlfh wkh - lq wkh vl{wk urz ri wklv gdwd oh1 Lq Plqlwde/ d - vljqlhv d
plvvlqj qxphulf ydoxh/ l1h1/ d gdwd ydoxh wkdw iru vrph uhdvrq lv qrw dydlodeoh1
Dowhuqdwlyho|/ zh frxog kdyh mxvw ohiw wklv hqwu| eodqn1 D plvvlqj wh{w ydoxh lv
vlpso| ghqrwhg e| d eodqn1 Vshfldo dwwhqwlrq vkrxog eh sdlg wr plvvlqj ydoxhv1
Lq jhqhudo/ Plqlwde vwdwlvwlfdo dqdo|vhv ljqruh dq| fdvhv wkdw frqwdlq plvvlqj
gdwd h{fhsw wkdw wkh rxwsxw ri wkh frppdqg zloo whoo |rx krz pdq| fdvhv
zhuh ljqruhg ehfdxvh ri plvvlqj gdwd1 Lw lv lpsruwdqw wr sd| dwwhqwlrq wr wklv
lqirupdwlrq1 Li |rxu gdwd lv ulggohg zlwk d odujh qxpehu ri plvvlqj ydoxhv/ |rxu
dqdo|vlv pd| eh edvhg rq yhu| ihz revhuydwlrqv  hyhq li |rx kdyh d odujh gdwd
vhw$
Zkhq gdwd lq vxfk d oh lv eodqn0gholplwhg olnh wklv lw lv yhu| hdv| wr uhdg lq1
Diwhu wkh frppdqg Iloh I Rwkhu Ilohv I Lpsruw Vshfldo Wh{w/ zh vhh wkh gldorj
  
er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| L1; plqxv F4F7 lq wkh Vwruh gdwd lq froxpq+v,= er{1 Zh

w|shg F40F7 lqwr wklv zlqgrz wr lqglfdwh wkdw zh zdqw wkh gdwd uhdg lq wr eh
vwruhg lq wkhvh froxpqv1 Qrwh wkdw lw grhvq*w pdwwhu li zh xvh orzhu ru xsshu
fdvh iru wkh froxpq qdphv/ dv Plqlwde lv qrw fdvh vhqvlwlyh1 Diwhu folfnlqj RN/

zh vhh wkh gldorj er{ ghslfwhg lq Glvsod| L1</ zklfk zh xvh wr lqglfdwh iurp
zklfk oh zh zdqw wr uhdg wkh gdwd1 Qrwh wkdw li |rxu gdwd lv lq .txt ohv
udwkhu wkdq .dat ohv/ |rx zloo kdyh wr lqglfdwh wkdw |rx zdqw wr vhh wkhvh lq
Minitab for Data Management 48

wkh Ilohv ri w|sh er{ e| vhohfwlqj Wh{w Ilohv ru shukdsv Doo Ilohv1 Folfnlqj rq

[Link] uhvxowv lq wkh gdwd ehlqj uhdg lqwr wkh zrunvkhhw1

Glvsod| L1;= Gldorj er{ iru lpsruwlqj gdwd iurp h{whuqdo oh1

Glvsod| L1<= Gldorj er{ iru vhohfwlqj oh iurp zklfk gdwd lv wr eh uhdg lq1

Ri frxuvh/ wklv gdwd vhw grhv qrw frqwdlq wkh wh{w yduldeoh ghqrwlqj wkh
vwxghqw*v jhqghu1 Vxssrvh wkdw wkh oh [Link] frqwdlqv wkh iroorzlqj
gdwd h{dfwo| dv w|shg1
49 Minitab for Data Management

12389 81 85 78 m
97658 75 72 62 m
53546 77 83 81 f
55542 63 42 55 m
11223 71 82 67 f
77788 87 56 * f
44567 23 45 35 m
32156 67 72 81 m
33456 81 77 88 f
67945 74 91 92 f
Dv wklv oh frqwdlqv wh{w gdwd lq wkh iwk froxpq/ zh pxvw whoo Plqlwde krz
wkh gdwd lv irupdwwhg lq wkh oh1 Wr dffhvv wklv ihdwxuh zh folfn rq wkh Irupdw

exwwrq lq wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| L1;1 Wklv eulqjv xs wkh gldorj er{
vkrzq lq Glvsod| L1431

Glvsod| L143= Lqlwldo gldorj er{ iru irupdwwhg lqsxw1

Wr lqglfdwh wkdw zh zloo vshfli| wkh irupdw/ zh folfn wkh udglr exwwrq Xvhu0
vshflhg irupdw dqg oo wkh sduwlfxodu irupdw lqwr wkh er{ dv vkrzq lq Glvsod|

L1441 Wkh irupdw vwdwhphqw vd|v wkdw zh duh jrlqj wr uhdg lq wkh gdwd dffrug0
lqj wr wkh iroorzlqj uxoh= d qxphulf yduldeoh rffxs|lqj 8 vsdfhv dqg zlwk qr
ghflpdov/ iroorzhg e| d vsdfh/ d qxphulf yduldeoh rffxs|lqj 5 vsdfhv zlwk qr
ghflpdov/ d vsdfh/ d qxphulf yduldeoh rffxs|lqj 5 vsdfhv zlwk qr ghflpdov/ d
vsdfh/ d qxphulf yduldeoh rffxs|lqj 5 vsdfhv zlwk qr ghflpdov/ d vsdfh/ dqg
d wh{w yduldeoh rffxs|lqj 4 vsdfh1 Wklv uxoh pxvw eh uljrurxvo| dgkhuhg wr ru
huuruv zloo rffxu1 Vr wkh uxohv |rx qhhg wr uhphpehu li |rx xvh irupdwwhg lqsxw
duh wkdw ak lqglfdwhv d wh{w yduldeoh rffxs|lqj k vsdfhv/ kx lqglfdwhv k vsdfhv/
dqg fk.l lqglfdwhv d qxphulf yduldeoh rffxs|lqj k vsdfhv/ ri zklfk o duh wr wkh
uljkw ri wkh ghflpdo srlqw1 Qrwh li d gdwd ydoxh grhv qrw oo xs wkh ixoo qxp0
ehu ri vsdfhv doorwwhg wr lw lq wkh irupdw vwdwhphqw/ lw pxvw eh uljkw mxvwlhg
lq lwv hog1 Dovr/ li d ghflpdo srlqw lv lqfoxghg lq wkh qxpehu/ wklv rffxslhv
rqh ri wkh vsdfhv doorfdwhg wr wkh yduldeoh dqg vlploduo| iru d qhjdwlyh ru soxv
Minitab for Data Management 4:

vljq1 Wkhuh duh pdq| rwkhu ihdwxuhv wr irupdwwhg lqsxw wkdw zh zloo qrw glvfxvv
khuh1 Xvh wkh Khos exwwrq lq wkh gldorj er{ iru lqirupdwlrq rq wkhvh ihdwxuhv1
Ilqdoo|/ folfnlqj rq wkh RN exwwrq uhdgv wklv gdwd lqwr d zrunvkhhw dv ghslfwhg

lq Glvsod| L171 W|slfdoo|/ zh wu| wr dyrlg wkh xvh ri irupdwwhg lqsxw ehfdxvh lw
lv vrphzkdw fxpehuvrph/ exw vrphwlphv zh pxvw xvh lw1

Glvsod| L144= Gldorj er{ iru irupdwwhg lqsxw zlwk wkh irupdw oohg lq1

Lq wkh vhvvlrq hqylurqphqw/ wkh read frppdqg lv dydlodeoh iru lqsxwwlqj

gdwd lqwr d zrunvkhhw zlwk fdsdelolwlhv vlplodu wr zkdw zh kdyh ghvfulehg1 Iru
h{dpsoh/ wkh frppdqgv

MTB Aread c1-c4

DATAA12389 81 85 78
DATAA97658 75 72 62
DATAA53546 77 83 81
DATAA55542 63 42 55
DATAA11223 71 82 67
DATAA77788 87 56 *
DATAA44567 23 45 35
DATAA32156 67 72 81
DATAA33456 81 77 88
DATAA67945 74 91 92
DATAAend
10 rows read.
sodfh wkh uvw irxu froxpqv lqwr wkh marks zrunvkhhw1 Diwhu w|slqj read c1-c4
diwhu wkh MTB A surpsw dqg klwwlqj Hqwhu/ Plqlwde uhvsrqgv zlwk wkh DATAA
surpsw/ dqg zh w|sh hdfk urz ri wkh zrunvkhhw lq dv vkrzq1 Wr lqglfdwh wkdw
wkhuh lv qr pruh gdwd/ zh w|sh end dqg klw Hqwhu1 Vlploduo|/ zh fdq hqwhu wh{w
gdwd lq wklv zd| exw fdq*w frpelqh wkh wzr xqohvv zh xvh d format vxefrppdqg1
Zh uhihu wkh uhdghu wr help iru pruh ghvfulswlrq ri krz wklv frppdqg zrunv1
4; Minitab for Data Management

7.2 Patterned Data

Riwhq/ zh zdqw wr lqsxw sdwwhuqhg gdwd lqwr d zrunvkhhw1 E| wklv zh phdq wkdw
wkh ydoxhv ri d yduldeoh iroorz vrph ghwhuplqhg uxoh1 Zh xvh wkh frppdqg Fdof

I Pdnh Sdwwhuqhg Gdwd iru wklv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ lpsohphqwlqj wklv frppdqg

zlwk wkh hqwulhv lq wkh gldorj er{ ghslfwhg lq Glvsod| L145 dggv d froxpq F9
wr wkh pdunv zrunvkhhw zkhuh wkh vhtxhqfh 0> 0=5> 1=0> 1=5> 2=0 lv uhshdwhg wzlfh1
Iru wklv zh hqwhuhg 3 lq wkh Iurp uvw ydoxh er{/ d 5 lq wkh Wr odvw ydoxh er{/
 
d 18 lq wkh Lq vwhsv ri er{/ d 4 lq wkh Olvw hdfk ydoxh er{/ dqg d 5 lq wkh Olvw
 
wkh zkroh vhtxhqfh er{1 Edvlfdoo|/ zh fdq vwduw d vhtxhqfh dw dq| qxpehu p

dqg vxffhvvlyho| lqfuhphqw wklv zlwk dq| qxpehu g A 0 xqwlo wkh qh{w dgglwlrq
zrxog h{fhhg wkh odvw ydoxh q suhvfulehg/ uhshdw hdfk hohphqw o wlphv/ dqg qdoo|
uhshdw wkh zkroh vhtxhqfh n wlphv1

Glvsod| L145= Gldorj er{ iru pdnlqj sdwwhuqhg gdwd zlwk vrph hqwulhv oohg lq1

Wkhuh lv vrph vkruwkdqg dvvrfldwhg zlwk sdwwhuqhg gdwd wkdw fdq eh yhu|
frqyhqlhqw1 Iru h{dpsoh/ w|slqj p : q lq d Plqlwde frppdqg lv htxlydohqw wr
w|slqj wkh ydoxhv p> p + 1> = = = > q zkhq p ? q dqg p> p  1> ===> q zkhq p A q
dqg p zkhq p = q1 Wkh h{suhvvlrq p : q@g> zkhuh g A 0/ h{sdqgv wr d olvw dv
deryh exw zlwk wkh lqfuhphqw ri g ru g/ zklfkhyhu lv uhohydqw/ uhsodflqj 1 ru
11 Li p ? q wkhq g lv dgghg wr p xqwlo wkh qh{w dgglwlrq zrxog h{fhhg q dqg
li p A q wkhq g lv vxewudfwhg iurp p xqwlo wkh qh{w vxewudfwlrq zrxog eh orzhu
wkdq q1 Wkh h{suhvvlrq n(p : q@g) uhshdwv p : q@g iru n wlphv zkloh (p : q@g)o
uhshdwv hdfk hohphqw lq p : q@g iru o wlphv1 Wkh h{suhvvlrq n(p : q@g)o uhshdwv
(p : q@g)o iru n wlphv1
Wkh set frppdqg lv dydlodeoh lq wkh vhvvlrq zlqgrz wr lqsxw sdwwhuqhg gdwd1
Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh zh zdqw F9 wr frqwdlq wkh 43 hqwulhv 4/ 5/ 6/ 7/ 8/ 8/ 7/ 6/
5/ 41 Wkh frppdqg
Minitab for Data Management 4<

MTB Aset c6
DATAA1:5
DATAA5:1
DATAAend
grhv wklv1 Dovr/ zh fdq dgg hohphqwv lq sduhqwkhvhv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ wkh frppdqg
MTB Aset c6
DATAA(1:2/.5 4:3/.2)
DATAAend
fuhdwhv wkh froxpq zlwk hqwulhv 413/ 418/ 513/ 713/ 61;/ 619/ 617/ 615/ 6131 Wkh
pxowlsolfdwlyh idfwruv n dqg o fdq dovr eh xvhg lq vxfk d frqwh{w1 Reylrxvo|/
wkhuh lv d juhdw ghdo ri vfrsh iru hqwhulqj sdwwhuqhg gdwd zlwk set1 Wkh jhqhudo
v|qwd{ ri wkh vhw frppdqg lv
set H1
zkhuh H1 lv d froxpq1

7.3 Printing Data in the Session Window

Rqfh zh kdyh hqwhuhg wkh gdwd lqwr wkh zrunvkhhw/ zh vkrxog dozd|v fkhfn
wkdw zh kdyh pdgh wkh hqwulhv fruuhfwo|1 W|slfdoo|/ wklv phdqv sulqwlqj rxw
wkh zrunvkhhw dqg fkhfnlqj wkh hqwulhv1 Wkh frppdqg Pdqls I Glvsod| Gdwd
 
zloo sulqw wkh gdwd |rx dvn iru lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Iru h{dpsoh/ zlwk wkh
zrunvkhhw marks wkh gldorj er{ slfwxuhg lq Glvsod| L146 fdxvhv wkh frqwhqwv ri
wklv zrunvkhhw wr eh sulqwhg zkhq zh folfn rq RN1 Zh vhohfwhg zklfk yduldeohv

wr sulqw e| uvw folfnlqj lq wkh Froxpqv/ frqvwdqwv/ dqg pdwulfhv wr glvsod| er{

dqg wkhq grxeoh folfnlqj rq wkh yduldeohv lq wkh yduldeoh olvw rq wkh ohiw1

Glvsod| L146= Gldorj er{ iru sulqwlqj zrunvkhhw lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1
53 Minitab for Data Management

Wkh print frppdqg lv dydlodeoh lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz dqg lv riwhq frqyh0
qlhqw wr xvh1 Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ iru wkh print frppdqg lv
print H1 111 Hp
zkhuh H1 > 111/ Hp duh froxpqv dqg frqvwdqwv1

7.4 Assigning Constants

Wr hqwhu frqvwdqwv/ zh xvh wkh Fdof I Fdofxodwru frppdqg dqg oo lq wkh gldorj
 
er{ dssursuldwho|1 Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh zh zdqw wr dvvljq wkh ydoxhv k1=.5/
k2=.25 dqg k3=.25 wr wkh frqvwdqwv n4/ n5/ dqg n61 Wkhvh frxog vhuyh dv zhljkwv
wr fdofxodwh d zhljkwhg dyhudjh ri wkh pdunv lq wkh marks zrunvkhhw1 Wkhq wkh
Fdof I Fdofxodwru frppdqg ohdgv wr wkh gldorj er{ glvsod|hg lq Glvsod| L147/
 
zkhuh zh kdyh w|shg n4 lqwr wkh Vwruh uhvxow lq yduldeoh er{ dqg wkh ydoxh 18

lqwr wkh H{suhvvlrq er{1 Folfnlqj rq RN wkhq pdnhv wkh dvvljqphqw1 Qrwh wkdw
  e| hqforvlqj wkh wh{w lq grxeoh txrwhv1
zh fdq dvvljq wh{w ydoxhv wr frqvwdqwv
Zh zloo wdon derxw ixuwkhu ihdwxuhv ri Fdofxodwru odwhu lq wklv pdqxdo1 Vlploduo|/
zh dvvljq ydoxhv wr n5 dqg n61

Glvsod| L147= Iloohg lq gldorj er{ iru dvvljqlqj wkh frqvwdqw n4 wkh ydoxh 181

Wkh let frppdqg lv dydlodeoh lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz dqg lv txlwh frqyhqlhqw1
Wkh iroorzlqj frppdqgv pdnh wklv dvvljqphqw dqg wkhq zh fkhfn/ xvlqj wkh
print frppdqg/ wkdw zh kdyh hqwhuhg wkh frqvwdqwv fruuhfwo|1
Minitab for Data Management 54

MTB Alet k1=.5

MTB Alet k2=.25
MTB Alet k3=.25
MTB Aprint k1-k3
K1 0.500000
K2 0.250000
K3 0.250000
Dovr/ zh fdq dvvljq frqvwdqwv wh{w ydoxhv1 Iru h{dpsoh/
MTB Alet k4=’’result’’
dvvljqv N7 wkh ydoxh result1 Qrwh wkh xvh ri grxeoh txrwhv1

7.5 Naming Variables and Constants

Lw riwhq pdnhv vhqvh wr jlyh wkh froxpqv dqg frqvwdqwv qdphv udwkhu wkdq mxvw
uhihuulqj wr wkhp dv F4/ F5/ 111/ N4/ N5/ hwf1 Wklv lv hvshfldoo| wuxh zkhq wkhuh
duh pdq| yduldeohv dqg frqvwdqwv/ dv lw zrxog eh hdv| wr vols dqg xvh wkh zurqj
froxpq lq dq dqdo|vlv dqg wkhq zlqg xs pdnlqj d plvwdnh1 Wr dvvljq d qdph wr
d yduldeoh vlpso| jr wr wkh eodqn fhoo dw wkh wrs ri wkh froxpq lq wkh zrunvkhhw
fruuhvsrqglqj wr wkh yduldeoh dqg w|sh lq dq dssursuldwh qdph1 Iru h{dpsoh/
zh kdyh xvhg studid, statistics, calculus, physics, dqg gender iru wkh
qdphv ri F4/ F5/ F6/ F7/ dqg F8/ uhvshfwlyho|/ dqg wkhvh qdphv dsshdu lq
Glvsod| L1481

Glvsod| L148= Zrunvkhhw pdunv zlwk qdphg yduldeohv1

55 Minitab for Data Management

Lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz/ wkh name frppdqg lv dydlodeoh iru qdplqj yduldeohv
dqg frqvwdqwv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ wkh frppdqgv
MTB Aname c1 ’studid’ c2 ’stats’ c3 ’calculus’ &
CONTAc4 ’physics’ c5 ’gender’ &
CONTAk1 ’weight1’ k2 ’weight2’ k3 ’weight3’
jlyh wkh qdphv studid wr F4/ stats wr F5/ calculus wr F6/ physics wr F7/
gender wr F8/ weight1 wr N4/ weight2 wr N5/ dqg weight3 wr N61 Qrwlfh wkdw
zh kdyh pdgh xvh ri wkh frqwlqxdwlrq fkdudfwhu ) iru frqyhqlhqfh lq w|slqj lq
wkh ixoo lqsxw wr name1 Zkhq xvlqj wkh yduldeohv dv dujxphqwv mxvw hqforvh wkh
qdphv lq vlqjoh txrwhv1 Iru h{dpsoh/
MTB Aprint ’studid’ ’calculus’
sulqwv rxw wkh frqwhqwv ri wkhvh yduldeohv lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1
Yduldeoh dqg frqvwdqw qdphv fdq eh dw prvw 64 fkdudfwhuv lq ohqjwk/ fdqqrw
lqfoxgh wkh fkdudfwhuv & dqg * dqg fdqqrw vwduw zlwk d ohdglqj eodqn ru -1 Uhfdoo
wkdw Plqlwde lv qrw fdvh vhqvlwlyh/ vr lw grhv qrw pdwwhu li zh xvh orzhu ru xsshu
fdvh ohwwhuv zkhq vshfli|lqj wkh qdphv1

7.6 Information about a Worksheet

Zh fdq jhw lqirupdwlrq rq wkh gdwd zh kdyh hqwhuhg lqwr wkh zrunvkhhw e| xvlqj
wkh info frppdqg lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Iru h{dpsoh/ zh jhw wkh iroorzlqj
uhvxowv edvhg rq zkdw zh kdyh hqwhuhg lqwr wkh marks zrunvkhhw vr idu1

MTB Ainfo
Column Name Count Missing
A C1 studid 10 0
C2 stats 10 0
C3 calculus 10 0
C4 physics 10 1
A C5 gender 10 0
Constant Name Value
K1 weight1 0.500000
K2 weight2 0.250000
K3 weight3 0.250000
Qrwlfh wkdw wkh info frppdqg whoov xv krz pdq| plvvlqj ydoxhv wkhuh duh dqg
lq zkdw froxpqv wkh| rffxu dqg dovr wkh ydoxhv ri wkh frqvwdqwv1
Wklv lqirupdwlrq fdq dovr eh dffhvvhg gluhfwo| iurp wkh Surmhfw Pdqdjhu
zlqgrz yld Zlqgrz I Surmhfw Pdqdjhu1

Minitab for Data Management 56

7.7 Editing a Worksheet

Lw riwhq kdsshqv wkdw diwhu gdwd hqwu| zh qrwlfh wkdw zh kdyh pdgh vrph plv0
wdnhv ru zh rewdlq vrph dgglwlrqdo lqirupdwlrq/ vxfk dv pruh revhuydwlrqv1 Vr
idu/ wkh rqo| zd| zh frxog fkdqjh dq| hqwulhv lq wkh zrunvkhhw ru dgg vrph
urzv lv wr uhhqwhu wkh zkroh zrunvkhhw$
Hglwlqj wkh zrunvkhhw lv vwudljkwiruzdug ehfdxvh zh vlpso| fkdqjh dq| fhoov
e| uhw|slqj wkhlu hqwulhv dqg klwwlqj wkh Hqwhu nh|1 Zh fdq dgg urzv dqg
froxpqv dw wkh hqg ri wkh zrunvkhhw e| vlpso| w|slqj qhz gdwd hqwulhv lq wkh
uhohydqw fhoov1 Wr lqvhuw d urz ehiruh d sduwlfxodu urz/ vlpso| folfn rq dq| hqwu|
lq wkdw urz dqg wkhq wkh phqx frppdqg Hglwru I Lqvhuw Urzv1 Iloo lq wkh
 
eodqn hqwulhv lq wkh qhz urz1 Wr lqvhuw d froxpq ehiruh d sduwlfxodu froxpq/
vlpso| folfn rq dq| hqwu| lq wkdw froxpq dqg wkhq wkh phqx frppdqg Hglwru

I Lqvhuw Froxpqv1 Iloo lq wkh eodqn hqwulhv lq wkh qhz froxpq1 Wr lqvhuw d

fhoo ehiruh d sduwlfxodu fhoo/ vlpso| folfn rq dq| hqwu| lq wkdw fhoo dqg wkh phqx
frppdqg Hglwru I Lqvhuw Fhoov1 Iloo lq wkh eodqn hqwu| lq wkh qhz fhoo wkdw
 
dsshduv lq sodfh ri wkh ruljlqdo zlwk doo rwkhu fhoov lq wkdw froxpq  dqg rqo|
wkdw froxpq  sxvkhg grzq1
Li |rx zlvk wr fohdu d qxpehu ri fhoov lq d eorfn/ folfn lq wkh fhoo dw wkh
vwduw ri wkh eorfn/ dqg kroglqj wkh prxvh nh| grzq/ gudj wkh fxuvru wkurxjk
wkh eorfn vr wkdw lw lv kljkoljkwhg lq eodfn1 Folfn rq wkh Fxw Fhoov lfrq rq wkh
Plqlwde wdvnedu / dqg doo wkh hqwulhv zloo eh ghohwhg1 Fhoov lpphgldwho| ehorz wkh
eorfn pryh xs wr oo lq wkh ydfdwhg sodfhv1 D frqyhqlhqw phwkrg iru fohdulqj
doo wkh gdwd hqwulhv lq d zrunvkhhw/ zlwk wkh uhohydqw Gdwd zlqgrz dfwlyh/ lv
wr xvh wkh frppdqg Hglw I Vhohfw Doo Fhoov/ zklfk fdxvhv doo wkh fhoov wr eh
 
kljkoljkwhg/ dqg folfn rq wkh Fxw Fhoov lfrq1 Dozd|v vdyh wkh frqwhqwv ri wkh
fxuuhqw zrunvkhhw ehiruh grlqj wklv xqohvv |rx duh devroxwho| vxuh |rx grq*w
qhhg wkh gdwd djdlq1 Zh glvfxvv krz wr vdyh wkh frqwhqwv ri d zrunvkhhw lq
L1;141
Wr frs| d eorfn ri fhoov/ folfn lq wkh fhoo dw wkh vwduw ri wkh eorfn dqg/ kroglqj
wkh prxvh nh| grzq/ gudj wkh fxuvru wkurxjk wkh eorfn vr wkdw lw lv kljkoljkwhg
lq eodfn/ exw/ lqvwhdg ri klwwlqj wkh edfnvsdfh nh|/ xvh wkh frppdqg Hglw I

Frs| Fhoov ru folfn rq wkh Frs| Fhoov lfrq rq wkh Plqlwde wdvnedu1 Wkh eorfn

ri fhoov lv qrz frslhg wr |rxu folserdug1 Li |rx qrw rqo| zdqw wr frs| d eorfn ri
fhoov wr |rxu folserdug exw uhpryh wkhp iurp wkh zrunvkhhw/ xvh wkh frppdqg
Hglw I Fxw Fhoov ru wkh Fxw Fhoov lfrq rq wkh Plqlwde wdvnedu lqvwhdg1 Qrwh
  
wkdw dq| fhoov ehorz wkh uhpryhg eorfn zloo pryh xs wr uhsodfh wkhvh hqwulhv1
Wr sdvwh wkh eorfn ri fhoov lqwr wkh zrunvkhhw/ folfn rq wkh fhoo ehiruh zklfk |rx
zdqw wkh eorfn wr dsshdu ru wkdw lv dw wkh vwduw ri wkh eorfn ri fhoov |rx zlvk wr
uhsodfh dqg lvvxh wkh frppdqg Hglw I Sdvwh Fhoov/ ru xvh wkh Sdvwh Fhoov lfrq
 
rq wkh Plqlwde wdvnedu1 D gldorj er{ dsshduv dv lq Glvsod| L149/ zkhuh |rx duh
surpswhg dv wr zkdw |rx zdqw wr gr zlwk wkh frslhg eorfn ri fhoov1 Li |rx ihho
wkdw d fxwwlqj ru sdvwlqj zdv lq huuru/ |rx fdq xqgr wklv rshudwlrq e| xvlqj
Hglw I Xqgr Fxw ru Hglw I Xqgr Sdvwh/ uhvshfwlyho|/ ru xvh wkh Xqgr lfrq rq
   
wkh Plqlwde wdvnedu1
57 Minitab for Data Management

Glvsod| L149= Gldorj er{ wkdw ghwhuplqhv krz d eorfn ri frslhg fhoov lv xvhg/ zkhwkhu
ehlqj lqvhuwhg lqwr d zrunvkhhw ru uhsodflqj d eorfn ri fhoo ri wkh vdph vl}h1

Dq dowhuqdwlyh dssurdfk lv dydlodeoh iru frs|lqj rshudwlrqv xvlqj Pdqls I


Frs| Froxpqv dqg oolqj lq wkh gldorj er{ dssursuldwho|1 Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh

zh zdqw wr frs| doo wkh hqwulhv lq wkh marks zrunvkhhw lq urzv 8 dqg ; ri froxpqv
F5 dqg F7 dqg sodfh wkhvh lq froxpqv F: dqg F;1 Wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq lq
Glvsod| L14: zrxog uhvxow lq doo wkh hqwulhv lq froxpqv F5 dqg F7 ehlqj frslhg
wr F: dqg F;1 Wr suhyhqw wklv/ zh folfn rq wkh Xvh Urzv exwwrq/ zklfk eulqjv

xs wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| L14;1 Folfnlqj rq wkh Xvh urzv udglr exwwrq

dqg oolqj lq wkh dvvrfldwhg er{ zlwk wkh hqwulhv 8 dqg ; vshflhv wkdw rqo|
hqwulhv lq wkh iwk dqg hljkwk urzv zloo eh frslhg1 Folfnlqj rq wkh RN exwwrqv

lq wkhvh gldorj er{hv wkhq frpsohwhv wkh rshudwlrq1

Glvsod| L14:= Gldorj er{ iru frs|lqj hqwulhv lq froxpqv dqg sdvwlqj wkhp1
Minitab for Data Management 58

Glvsod| L14;= Gldorj er{ wr vhohfw urzv iurp froxpqv wr eh frslhg1

Rqh fdq dovr ghohwh vhohfwhg urzv iurp vshflhg froxpqv xvlqj Pdqls I Ghohwh
 
Urzv dqg oolqj lq wkh gldorj er{ dssursuldwho|1 Qrwlfh/ krzhyhu/ wkdw zkhqhyhu
zh ghohwh d fhoo/ wkh frqwhqwv ri wkh fhoov ehqhdwk wkh ghohwhg rqh lq wkdw froxpq
vlpso| pryh xs wr oo wkh fhoo1 Wkh fhoo hqwu| grhv qrw ehfrph plvvlqj> udwkhu/
fhoov dw wkh erwwrp ri wkh froxpq ehfrph xqghqhg$ Li |rx ghohwh dq hqwluh urz/
wklv lv qrw d sureohp ehfdxvh wkh urzv ehorz mxvw vkliw xs1 Iru h{dpsoh/ li zh
ghohwh wkh wklug urz wkhq lq wkh qhz zrunvkhhw/ diwhu wkh ghohwlrq/ wkh wklug urz
lv qrz rffxslhg e| zkdw zdv iruphuo| wkh irxuwk urz1 Wkhuhiruh/ |rx vkrxog eh
yhu| fduhixo/ zkhq |rx duh qrw ghohwlqj zkroh urzv/ wr hqvxuh wkdw |rx jhw wkh
uhvxow |rx lqwhqghg1
Qrwh wkdw li |rx vkrxog ghohwh doo wkh hqwulhv iurp d froxpq/ wklv yduldeoh
lv vwloo lq wkh zrunvkhhw/ exw lw lv hpsw| qrz1 Li |rx zlvk wr ghohwh d yduldeoh
dqg doo lwv hqwulhv/ wklv fdq eh dffrpsolvkhg iurp Pdqls I Hudvh Yduldeohv dqg
 
oolqj lq wkh gldorj er{ dssursuldwho|1 Wklv lv d jrrg lghd li |rx kdyh d orw ri
yduldeohv dqg qr orqjhu qhhg vrph ri wkhp1
Wkhuh duh ydulrxv frppdqgv lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz dydlodeoh iru fduu|lqj
rxw wkhvh hglwlqj rshudwlrqv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ wkh restart frppdqg lq wkh Vhvvlrq
zlqgrz fdq eh xvhg wr uhpryh doo hqwulhv iurp d zrunvkhhw1 Wkh let frppdqg
doorzv |rx wr uhsodfh lqglylgxdo hqwulhv1 Iru h{dpsoh/
MTB A let c2(2)=3
dvvljqv wkh ydoxh 6 wr wkh vhfrqg hqwu| lq wkh froxpq F51 Wkh copy frppdqg
fdq eh xvhg wr frs| d eorfn ri fhoo iurp rqh sodfh wr dqrwkhu1 Wkh insert
frppdqg doorzv |rx wr lqvhuw urzv ru revhuydwlrqv dq|zkhuh lq wkh zrunvkhhw1
Wkh delete frppdqg doorzv |rx wr ghohwh urzv1 Wkh erase frppdqg lv dydlo0
deoh iru wkh ghohwlrq ri froxpqv ru yduldeohv iurp wkh zrunvkhhw1 Dv lw lv pruh
frqyhqlhqw wr hglw d zrunvkhhw e| gluhfwo| zrunlqj rq wkh zrunvkhhw dqg xvlqj
wkh phqx frppdqgv/ zh gr qrw glvfxvv wkhvh frppdqgv ixuwkhu khuh1
59 Minitab for Data Management

8 Saving, Retrieving, and Printing

Txlwh riwhq/ |rx zloo zdqw wr vdyh wkh uhvxowv ri doo |rxu zrun lq fuhdwlqj d zrun0
vkhhw1 Li |rx h{lw Plqlwde ehiruh |rx vdyh |rxu zrun/ |rx zloo kdyh wr uhhqwhu
hyhu|wklqj1 Vr zh uhfrpphqg wkdw |rx dozd|v vdyh1 Wr xvh wkh frppdqgv ri
wklv vhfwlrq pdnh vxuh wkdw wkh Zrunvkhhw zlqgrz ri wkh zrunvkhhw lq txhvwlrq
lv dfwlyh1
Xvh Iloh I Vdyh Fxuuhqw Zrunvkhhw wr vdyh wkh zrunvkhhw zlwk lwv fxuuhqw
 
qdph/ ru wkh ghidxow qdph li lw grhvq*w kdyh rqh1 Li |rx zdqw wr surylgh d qdph
ru vwruh wkh zrunvkhhw lq d qhz orfdwlrq/ wkhq xvh Iloh I Vdyh Fxuuhqw Zrunvkhhw
 
Dv dqg oo lq wkh gldorj er{ ghslfwhg lq Glvsod| L14< dssursuldwho|1 Wkh Vdyh
lq er{ dw wkh wrs frqwdlqv wkh qdph ri wkh iroghu lq zklfk wkh zrunvkhhw zloo

eh vdyhg rqfh |rx folfn rq wkh Vdyh exwwrq1 Khuh wkh iroghu lv fdoohg data/ dqg

|rx fdq qdyljdwh wr d qhz iroghu xvlqj wkh Xs Rqh Ohyho exwwrq lpphgldwho|
wr wkh uljkw ri wklv er{1 Wkh qh{w exwwrq wdnhv |rx wr wkh Ghvnwrs dqg wkh
wklug exwwrq doorzv |rx wr fuhdwh d vxeiroghu zlwklq wkh fxuuhqw iroghu1 Wkh er{
lpphgldwho| ehorz frqwdlqv d olvw ri doo ohv ri w|sh .mtw lq wkh fxuuhqw iroghu1
\rx fdq vhohfw wkh w|sh ri oh wr glvsod| e| folfnlqj rq wkh duurz lq wkh Vdyh
dv w|sh er{/ zklfk zh kdyh grqh khuh/ dqg folfn rq wkh w|sh ri oh |rx zdqw

wr glvsod| wkdw dsshduv lq wkh gurs0grzq olvw1 Wkhuh duh vhyhudo srvvlelolwlhv
lqfoxglqj vdylqj wkh zrunvkhhw lq rwkhu irupdwv/ vxfk dv H{fho1 Fxuuhqwo|/ wkhuh
lv rqo| rqh .mtw oh lq wkh iroghu data dqg lw lv fdoohg marks.mtw1 Li |rx zdqw
wr vdyh wkh zrunvkhhw zlwk d glhuhqw qdph/ w|sh wklv qdph lq wkh Iloh qdph

er{ dqg folfn rq wkh Vdyh exwwrq1


Glvsod| L14<= Gldorj er{ iru vdylqj d zrunvkhhw1

Wr uhwulhyh d zrunvkhhw/ xvh Iloh I Rshq Zrunvkhhw dqg oo lq wkh gldorj
 
er{ dv ghslfwhg lq Glvsod| L153 dssursuldwho|1 Wkh ydulrxv zlqgrzv dqg exwwrqv
Minitab for Data Management 5:

lq wklv gldorj er{ zrun dv ghvfulehg iru wkh Iloh I Vdyh Fxuuhqw Zrunvkhhw Dv
 
frppdqg/ zlwk wkh h{fhswlrq wkdw zh qrz w|sh wkh qdph ri wkh oh zh zdqw wr
rshq lq wkh Iloh qdph er{ dqg folfn rq wkh Rshq exwwrq1
 

Glvsod| L153= Gldorj er{ iru uhwulhylqj d zrunvkhhw1

Wr sulqw d zrunvkhhw/ xvh wkh frppdqg Iloh I Sulqw Zrunvkhhw1 Wkh gldorj
 
er{ wkdw vxevhtxhqwo| srsv xs doorzv |rx wr frqwuro wkh rxwsxw lq d qxpehu ri
zd|v1
Lw pd| eh wkdw |rx zrxog suhihu wr zulwh rxw wkh frqwhqwv ri d zrunvkhhw wr
dq h{whuqdo oh wkdw fdq eh hglwhg e| dq hglwru ru shukdsv xvhg e| vrph rwkhu
surjudp1 Wklv zloo qrw eh wkh fdvh li zh vdyh wkh zrunvkhhw dv dq .mtw oh dv
rqo| Plqlwde fdq uhdg wkhvh1 Wr gr wklv/ xvh wkh frppdqg Iloh I Rwkhu Ilohv
 
I H{sruw Vshfldo Wh{w/ oolqj lq wkh gldorj er{ dqg vshfli|lqj wkh ghvwlqdwlrq

oh zkhq surpswhg1 Iru h{dpsoh/ li zh zdqw wr vdyh wkh frqwhqwv ri wkh marks
zrunvkhhw/ wklv frppdqg uhvxowv lq wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| L154 dsshdulqj1
Zh kdyh hqwhuhg doo yh froxpqv lqwr wkh Froxpqv wr h{sruw er{ dqg kdyh qrw

vshflhg d irupdw vr wkh froxpqv zloo eh vwruhg lq wkh oh zlwk vlqjoh eodqnv
vhsdudwlqj wkh froxpqv1 Folfnlqj wkh RN exwwrq uhvxowv lq wkh gldorj er{ ri

Glvsod| L155 dsshdulqj1 Khuh/ zh kdyh w|shg lq wkh qdph [Link] wr krog wkh
frqwhqwv1 Qrwh wkdw zkloh zh kdyh fkrvhq d .dat w|sh oh/ zh dovr frxog kdyh
fkrvhq d .txt w|sh oh1 Folfnlqj rq wkh Vdyh exwwrq uhvxowv lq d oh [Link]
ehlqj fuhdwhg lq wkh iroghu data zlwk frqwhqwv dv glvsod|hg lq Glvsod| L1561
5; Minitab for Data Management

Glvsod| L154= Gldorj er{ iru vdylqj wkh frqwhqwv ri d zrunvkhhw wr dq h{whuqdo
+qrq0Plqlwde, oh1

Glvsod| L155= Gldorj er{ iru vhohfwlqj h{whuqdo oh wr krog frqwhqwv ri d zrunvkhhw1

Glvsod| L156= Frqwhqwv ri wkh oh pdunv1gdw1

Lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz/ wkh frppdqgv save dqg retrieve duh dydlodeoh iru
vdylqj dqg uhwulhylqj d zrunvkhhw lq wkh .mtw irupdw dqg wkh frppdqg write
lv dydlodeoh iru vdylqj d zrunvkhhw lq dq h{whuqdo oh1 Zh uhihu wkh uhdghu wr
help iru d ghvfulswlrq ri krz wkhvh frppdqgv zrun1
Minitab for Data Management 5<

9 Recording and Printing Sessions

Vrphwlphv/ lw lv xvhixo  h1j1/ zkhq |rx kdyh wr kdqg lq dq dvvljqphqw 
wr pdlqwdlq d uhfrug ri doo wkh frppdqgv |rx xvhg/ wkh rxwsxw |rx rewdlqhg/
dqg dq| frpphqwv |rx zdqw wr pdnh rq zkdw |rx duh grlqj lq d Plqlwde
vhvvlrq1 Qrwh wkdw diwhu h{hfxwlqj d phqx frppdqg wkh uhohydqw Vhvvlrq zlqgrz
frppdqgv duh dxwrpdwlfdoo| w|shg lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1
Wr xvh wkh frppdqgv iru vdylqj ru sulqwlqj wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz uvw pdnh
vxuh wkdw wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz lv dfwlyh1 Li |rx lvvxh wkh phqx frppdqg Hglwru

I Rxwsxw Hglwdeoh uvw/ |rx fdq hglw wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz frqwhqwv ehiruh vdylqj

ru sulqwlqj lwv frqwhqwv vlpso| e| w|slqj ru hudvlqj wh{w lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1
\rx fdq wxuq wklv ihdwxuh r xvlqj wkh vdph frppdqg1 Wr vdyh wkh frqwhqwv ri
d Vhvvlrq zlqgrz xvh Iloh I Vdyh Vhvvlrq Zlqgrz Dv dqg oo lq wkh gldorj er{
 
dssursuldwho|1 Qrwh wkdw wkh vdyhg oh lv lq wkh .txt irupdw xqohvv |rx pdnh
d glhuhqw fkrlfh lq wkh Vdyh dv w|sh er{1 Wr sulqw wkh frqwhqwv ri wkh Vhvvlrq

zlqgrz xvh Iloh I Sulqw Vhvvlrq Zlqgrz1
 
Lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz/ wkh outfile frppdqg lv dydlodeoh iru uhfruglqj wkh
ixoo ru sduwldo frqwhqwv ri d Plqlwde vhvvlrq1 Zh uhihu wkh uhdghu wr help iru d
ghvfulswlrq ri krz wklv frppdqg zrunv1

10 Mathematical Operations
Zkhq fduu|lqj rxw d gdwd dqdo|vlv d vwdwlvwlfldq lv riwhq fdoohg xsrq wr wudqvirup
wkh gdwd lq vrph zd|1 Wklv pd| lqyroyh dsso|lqj vrph vlpsoh wudqvirupdwlrq wr
d yduldeoh wr fuhdwh d qhz yduldeoh  h1j1/ wdnh wkh qdwxudo orjdulwkp ri hyhu|
judgh lq wkh marks zrunvkhhw  wr frpelqlqj vhyhudo yduldeohv wrjhwkhu wr irup
d qhz yduldeoh  h1j1/ fdofxodwh wkh dyhudjh judgh iru hdfk vwxghqw lq wkh marks
zrunvkhhw1 Lq wklv vhfwlrq/ zh suhvhqw vrph ri wkh zd|v ri grlqj wklv1

10.1 Arithmetical Operations

Vlpsoh dulwkphwlf fdq eh fduulhg rxw rq wkh froxpqv ri d zrunvkhhw xvlqj wkh
dulwkphwlfdo rshudwlrqv ri dgglwlrq ./ vxewudfwlrq / pxowlsolfdwlrq -/ glylvlrq
2/ dqg h{srqhqwldwlrq -- yld wkh Fdof I Fdofxodwru frppdqg1 Zkhq froxpqv
 
duh dgghg wrjhwkhu/ vxewudfwhg rqh iurp wkh rwkhu/ pxowlsolhg wrjhwkhu/ glylghg
rqh e| wkh rwkhu +pdnh vxuh wkhuh duh qr }hurv lq wkh ghqrplqdwru froxpq,/
ru rqh froxpq h{srqhqwldwhv dqrwkhu/ wkhvh rshudwlrqv duh dozd|v shuiruphg
frpsrqhqw0zlvh1 Iru h{dpsoh/ F4-F5 phdqv wkdw wkh lwk hqwu| ri F4 lv pxowl0
solhg e| wkh lwk hqwu| ri F5> hwf1 Dovr/ pdnh vxuh wkdw wkh froxpqv rq zklfk |rx
duh jrlqj wr shuirup wkhvh rshudwlrqv fruuhvsrqg wr qxphulf yduldeohv$ Zkloh
wkhvh rshudwlrqv kdyh wkh rughu ri suhfhghqfh --/ -2/ +/ sduhqwkhvhv + , fdq
dqg vkrxog eh xvhg wr hqvxuh dq xqdpeljxrxv uhvxow1 Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh lq
wkh marks zrunvkhhw zh zdqw wr fuhdwh d qhz yduldeoh e| wdnlqj wkh dyhudjh ri
wkh Vwdwlvwlfv dqg Fdofxoxv judghv dqg wkhq vxewudfwlqj wklv iurp wkh Sk|vlfv
63 Minitab for Data Management

judgh dqg sodflqj wkh uhvxow lq F91 Iloolqj lq wkh gldorj er{/ fruuhvsrqglqj wr
Fdof I Fdofxodwru/ dv vkrzq lq Glvsod| L157 dffrpsolvkhv wklv zkhq zh folfn rq
 
wkh RN exwwrq1


Glvsod| L157= Gldorj er{ iru fduu|lqj rxw pdwkhpdwlfdo fdofxodwlrqv1

Qrwh wkdw zh fdq hlwkhu w|sh wkh uhohydqw h{suhvvlrq lqwr wkh H{suhvvlrq er{ ru

xvh wkh exwwrqv dqg grxeoh folfnlqj rq wkh uhohydqw froxpqv1 Ixuwkhu/ zh w|sh
wkh froxpq zkhuh zh zlvk wr vwruh wkh uhvxowv ri rxu fdofxodwlrq lq wkh Vwruh

uhvxow lq yduldeoh er{1 Wkhvh rshudwlrqv duh grqh rq wkh fruuhvsrqglqj hqwulhv lq
hdfk froxpq> fruuhvsrqglqj hqwulhv lq wkh froxpqv duh rshudwhg rq dffruglqj wr
wkh irupxod zh kdyh vshflhg/ dqg d qhz froxpq ri wkh vdph ohqjwk frqwdlqlqj
doo wkh rxwfrphv lv fuhdwhg1 Qrwh wkdw wkh vl{wk hqwu| lq F9 zloo eh -  plvvlqj
 ehfdxvh wklv hqwu| zdv plvvlqj iru F71
Wkhvh nlqgv ri rshudwlrqv fdq dovr eh fduulhg rxw gluhfwo| lq wkh Vhvvlrq
zlqgrz xvlqj wkh let frppdqg/ dqg lq vrph zd|v wklv lv d vlpsohu dssurdfk1
Iru h{dpsoh/ wkh vhvvlrq frppdqg

MTB Alet c6=c4-(c2+c3)/2

dffrpsolvkhv wklv1
Zh fdq dovr xvh wkhvh dulwkphwlfdo rshudwlrqv rq wkh frqvwdqwv N4/ N5/
hwf1/ dqg qxpehuv wr fuhdwh qhz frqvwdqwv ru xvh wkh frqvwdqwv dv vfdoduv lq
rshudwlrqv zlwk froxpqv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh wkdw zh zdqw wr frpsxwh wkh
zhljkwhg dyhudjh ri wkh Vwdwlvwlfv/ Fdofxoxv/ dqg Sk|vlfv judghv zkhuh Vwdwlvwlfv
jhwv wzlfh wkh zhljkw ri wkh rwkhu judghv1 Uhfdoo wkdw zh fuhdwhg/ dv sduw ri wkh
marks zrunvkhhw/ wkh frqvwdqwv weight1 @ 18/ weight2 @ 158/ dqg weight3 @
158 lq N4/ N5/ dqg N6/ uhvshfwlyho|1 Vr wklv zhljkwhg dyhudjh lv frpsxwhg yld
wkh frppdqg

MTB Alet c7=’weight1’*’stats’+’weight2’*’calculus’&

CONTA+’weight3’*’physics’
Minitab for Data Management 64

dqg wkh uhvxow lv sodfhg lq F:1 Zh kdyh xvhg wkh frqwlqxdwlrq fkdudfwhu ) iru
frqyhqlhqfh lq wklv frpsxwdwlrq1 Dowhuqdwlyho|/ zh frxog kdyh xvhg wkh Fdof I

Fdofxodwru frppdqg dv deryh iru wklv1


10.2 Mathematical Functions

Ydulrxv pdwkhpdwlfdo ixqfwlrqv duh dydlodeoh lq Plqlwde1 Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh
zh zdqw wr frpsxwh wkh qdwxudo orjdulwkp ri wkh Vwdwlvwlfv pdun iru hdfk vwx0
ghqw1 Xvlqj wkh Fdof I Fdofxodwru frppdqg zlwk wkh gldorj er{ dv lq Glvsod|
 
L158 dffrpsolvkhv wklv1

Glvsod| L158= Gldorj er{ iru pdwkhpdwlfdo fdofxodwlrqv looxvwudwlqj wkh xvh ri wkh
qdwxudo orjdulwkp ixqfwlrq1

D frpsohwh olvw ri vxfk ixqfwlrqv lv jlyhq lq wkh Ixqfwlrqv zlqgrz zkhq Doo
ixqfwlrqv lv lq wkh zlqgrz gluhfwo| deryh wkh olvw1
Wkh vdph uhvxow fdq eh rewdlqhg xvlqj wkh vhvvlrq frppdqg let dqg wkh
qdwxudo orjdulwkp ixqfwlrq loge1 Iru h{dpsoh/
MTB Alet c8=loge(c2)
fdofxodwhv wkh qdwxudo orj ri hyhu| hqwu| lq f5 dqg sodfhv wkh uhvxowv lq F;1 Wkhuh
duh d qxpehu ri vxfk ixqfwlrqv dqg d frpsohwh olvw lv surylghg lq Dsshqgl{ E141
Wkhvh ixqfwlrqv fdq eh dssolhg wr qxpehuv dv zhoo dv frqvwdqwv1 Li |rx zdqw wr
nqrz wkh vlqh ri wkh qxpehu 617/ wkhq
MTB Alet k4=sin(3.4)
MTB Aprint k4
K4 -0.255541
jlyhv wkh ydoxh1
65 Minitab for Data Management

10.3 Column and Row Statistics

Wkhuh duh ydulrxv froxpq vwdwlvwlfv wkdw frpsxwh d vlqjoh qxpehu iurp d froxpq
e| rshudwlqj rq doo ri wkh hohphqwv lq d froxpq1 Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh wkdw zh
zdqw wkh phdq ri doo wkh Vwdwlvwlfv pdunv/ l1h1/ wkh phdq ri doo wkh hqwulhv lq F51
Wkh frppdqg Fdof I Froxpq Vwdwlvwlfv surgxfhv wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| L159
 
zkhuh zh kdyh vhohfwhg Phdq dv wkh sduwlfxodu vwdwlvwlf wr frpsxwh dqg F5 dv
wkh froxpq wr xvh1 Folfnlqj RN fdxvhv wkh phdq ri froxpq F5 wr eh sulqwhg lq
wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 

Glvsod| L159= Gldorj er{ iru frpsxwlqj froxpq vwdwlvwlfv1

Li zh zdqw wr/ zh fdq vwruh wklv uhvxow lq d frqvwdqw ru froxpq e| pdnlqj dq

dssursuldwh hqwu| lq wkh Vwruh uhvxow lq er{1 Zh vhh iurp wkh gldorj er{ wkdw

wkhuh duh d qxpehu ri srvvleoh vwdwlvwlfv wkdw fdq eh frpsxwhg1
Zh fdq dovr frpsxwh vwdwlvwlfv urz0zlvh1 Rqh glhuhqfh zlwk froxpq vwdwlv0
wlfv lv wkdw wkhvh pxvw eh vwruhg1 Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh zh zdqw wr frpsxwh
wkh dyhudjh ri wkh Vwdwlvwlfv/ Fdofxoxv/ dqg Sk|vlfv pdunv1 Wkh frppdqg Fdof

I Urz Vwdwlvwlfv surgxfhv wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| L15: zkhuh zh kdyh

sodfhg F5/ F6/ dqg F7 lqwr wkh Lqsxw yduldeohv er{ dqg f9 lqwr wkh Vwruh uhvxow
 
lq er{1

Glvsod| L15:= Gldorj er{ iru frpsxwlqj urz vwdwlvwlfv1

Minitab for Data Management 66

Lw lv dovr srvvleoh wr frpsxwh froxpq vwdwlvwlfv xvlqj vhvvlrq frppdqgv1 Iru

h{dpsoh/
MTB Amean(c2)
MEAN = 69.900
frpsxwhv wkh phdq ri f51 Li zh zdqw wr vdyh wkh ydoxh iru vxevhtxhqw xvh/ wkhq
wkh frppdqg
MTB Alet k1=mean(c2)
grhv wklv1 Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ iru froxpq vwdwlvwlf frppdqgv lv
column statistic name+H1 ,
zkhuh wkh rshudwlrq lv fduulhg rxw rq wkh hqwulhv lq froxpq H1 / dqg rxwsxw lv
zulwwhq wr wkh vfuhhq xqohvv lw lv dvvljqhg wr d frqvwdqw xvlqj wkh let frppdqg1
Vhh Dsshqgl{ E15 iru d olvw ri doo wkh froxpq vwdwlvwlfv dydlodeoh1
Dovr/ iru prvw froxpq vwdwlvwlfv wkhuh duh yhuvlrqv wkdw frpsxwh urz vwdwlv0
wlfv/ dqg wkhvh duh rewdlqhg e| sodflqj r lq iurqw ri wkh froxpq vwdwlvwlf qdph1
Iru h{dpsoh/
MTB Armean(c2 c3 c4 c6)
frpsxwhv wkh phdq ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj hqwulhv lq F5/ F6/ dqg F7 dqg sodfhv
wkh uhvxow lq F91 Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ iru urz vwdwlvwlf frppdqgv lv
row statistic name+H1 = = = Hp Hp+1 ,
zkhuh wkh rshudwlrqv duh fduulhg rxw rq wkh urzv lq froxpqv H1 / = = = > Hp > dqg
wkh rxwsxw lv sodfhg lq froxpq Hp+1 = Vhh Dsshqgl{ E16 iru d olvw ri doo wkh urz
vwdwlvwlfv dydlodeoh1

10.4 Comparisons and Logical Operations

Plqlwde dovr frqwdlqv wkh iroorzlqj frpsdulvrq dqg orjlfdo rshudwruv1

Comparison Operators Logical Operators

htxdo wr @/ eq )/ and
qrw htxdo wr ?A/ ne q/ or
ohvv wkdq ?/ lt / not
juhdwhu wkdq A/ gt
ohvv wkdq ru htxdo wr ?@/ le
juhdwhu wkdq ru htxdo wr A@/ ge

Qrwlfh wkdw wkhuh duh wzr fkrlfhv iru wkhvh rshudwruv> iru h{dpsoh/ xvh hlwkhu
wkh v|pero A@ ru wkh pqhprqlf ge.
Wkh frpsdulvrq dqg orjlfdo rshudwruv duh xvhixo zkhq zh kdyh vlpsoh txhv0
wlrqv derxw wkh zrunvkhhw wkdw zrxog eh whglrxv wr dqvzhu e| lqvshfwlrq1 Wklv
67 Minitab for Data Management

ihdwxuh lv sduwlfxoduo| xvhixo zkhq zh duh ghdolqj zlwk odujh gdwd vhwv1 Iru h{0
dpsoh/ vxssrvh wkdw zh zdqw wr frxqw wkh qxpehu ri wlphv wkh Vwdwlvwlfv judgh
zdv juhdwhu wkdq wkh fruuhvsrqglqj Fdofxoxv judgh lq wkh marks zrunvkhhw1 Wkh
frppdqg Fdof I Fdofxodwru jlyhv wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| L15; zkhuh zh
 
kdyh sxw c6 lq wkh Vwruh uhvxow lq yduldeoh er{ dqg c2 A c3 lq wkh H{suhvvlrq
 
er{1 Folfnlqj rq wkh RN exwwrq uhvxowv lq wkh lwk hqwu| lq F9 frqwdlqlqj d4

li wkh lwk hqwu| lq F5 lv juhdwhu wkdq wkh lwk hqwu| lq F6/ l1h1/ wkh frpsdulvrq
lv wuxh/ dqg d 3 rwkhuzlvh1 Lq wklv fdvh/ F9 frqwdlqv wkh hqwulhv= 3/ 4/ 3/ 4/ 3/
4/ 3/ 3/ 4/ 3/ zklfk wkh zrunvkhhw lq Glvsod| L17 yhulhv dv dssursuldwh1 Li zh
xvh Fdof I Fdofxodwru wr fdofxodwh wkh vxp ri wkh hqwulhv lq F9/ zh zloo kdyh
 
frpsxwhg wkh qxpehu ri wlphv wkh Vwdwlvwlfv judgh lv juhdwhu wkdq wkh Fdofxoxv
judgh1
Wkhvh rshudwlrqv fdq dovr eh vlpso| fduulhg rxw xvlqj vhvvlrq frppdqgv1
Iru h{dpsoh/
MTB Alet c6=c2Ac3
MTB Alet k4=sum(c6)
MTB Aprint k4
K4 4.00000
dffrpsolvkhv wklv1

Glvsod| L15;= Gldorj er{ iru frpsdulvrqv1

Wkh orjlfdo rshudwruv frpelqh zlwk wkh frpsdulvrq rshudwruv wr doorz pruh
frpsolfdwhg txhvwlrqv wr eh dvnhg1 Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh zh zdqwhg wr fdofxodwh
wkh qxpehu ri vwxghqwv zkrvh Vwdwlvwlfv pdun zdv juhdwhu wkdq wkhlu Fdofxoxv
pdun dqg ohvv wkdq ru htxdo wr wkhlu Sk|vlfv pdun1 Wkh frppdqgv
MTB Alet c6=c2Ac3 and c2?=c4
MTB Alet k4=sum(c6)
MTB Aprint k4
K4 1.00000
Minitab for Data Management 68

dffrpsolvk wklv1 Lq wklv fdvh/ erwk frqglwlrqv c2Ac3 dqg c2?=c4 kdyh wr eh
wuxh iru d 4 wr eh uhfrughg lq F91 Qrwh wkdw wkh revhuydwlrq zlwk wkh plvvlqj
Sk|vlfv pdun lv h{foxghg1 Ri frxuvh/ zh fdq dovr lpsohphqw wklv xvlqj Fdof I

Fdofxodwru dqg oolqj lq wkh gldorj er{ dssursuldwho|1

Wh{w yduldeohv fdq eh xvhg lq frpsdulvrqv zkhuh wkh rughulqj lv doskdehwlfdo1
Iru h{dpsoh/
MTB Alet c6=c5?’’m’’
sxwv d 4 lq F9 zkhqhyhu wkh fruuhvsrqglqj hqwu| lq F8 lv doskdehwlfdoo| vpdoohu
wkdq m1

11 Some More Minitab Commands

Lq wklv vhfwlrq zh glvfxvv vrph frppdqgv wkdw fdq eh yhu| khosixo lq fhuwdlq
dssolfdwlrqv1 Zh zloo pdnh uhihuhqfh wr wkhvh frppdqgv dw dssursuldwh sodfhv
wkurxjkrxw wkh pdqxdo1 Lw lv suredeo| ehvw wr zdlw wr uhdg wkhvh ghvfulswlrqv
xqwlo vxfk d frqwh{w dulvhv1

11.1 Coding
Wkh Pdqls I Frgh frppdqg lv xvhg wr uhfrgh froxpqv1 E| wklv zh phdq wkdw
 
gdwd hqwulhv lq froxpqv duh uhsodfhg e| qhz ydoxhv dffruglqj wr d frglqj vfkhph
wkdw zh pxvw vshfli|1 \rx fdq uhfrgh qxphulf lqwr qxphulf/ qxphulf lqwr wh{w/
wh{w lqwr qxphulf/ ru wh{w lqwr wh{w e| fkrrvlqj dq dssursuldwh vxefrppdqg1
Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh lq wkh marks zrunvkhhw zh zdqw wr uhfrgh wkh judghv lq
F5/ F6/ dqg F7 vr wkdw dq| pdun lq wkh udqjh 36< ehfrphv dq I/ hyhu| pdun
lq wkh udqjh 737< ehfrphv dq H/ hyhu| pdun lq wkh udqjh 838< ehfrphv d
G/ hyhu| pdun lq wkh udqjh 939< ehfrphv d F/ hyhu| pdun lq wkh udqjh :3:<
ehfrphv d E/ hyhu| pdun lq wkh udqjh ;3433 ehfrphv dq D/ dqg wkh uhvxowv duh
sodfhg lq froxpqv F9/ F:/ dqg F;/ uhvshfwlyho|1 Wkhq wkh frppdqg Pdqls I

Frgh I Qxphulf wr Wh{w eulqjv xs wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| L15<1 Wkh
 
udqjhv iru wkh qxphulf ydoxhv wr eh uhfrghg wr d frpprq wh{w ydoxh duh w|shg
lq wkh Ruljlqdo ydoxhv er{/ dqg wkh qhz ydoxhv duh w|shg lq wkh Qhz er{1 Qrwh
 
wkdw zh kdyh xvhg d vkruwkdqg iru ghvfulelqj d udqjh ri gdwd ydoxhv dv glvfxvvhg
lq vhfwlrq :151 Ehfdxvh wkh vl{wk hqwu| ri F7 lv -/ l1h1/ lw lv plvvlqj/ wklv ydoxh
lv vlpso| uhfrghg dv d eodqn1 \rx fdq dovr uhfrgh plvvlqj ydoxhv e| lqfoxglqj
- lq rqh ri wkh Ruljlqdo ydoxhv er{hv1 Li d ydoxh lq d froxpq lv qrw fryhuhg e|

rqh ri wkh ydoxhv lq wkh Ruljlqdo ydoxhv er{hv/ wkhq lw lv vlpso| ohiw wkh vdph lq

wkh qhz froxpq1
69 Minitab for Data Management

Glvsod| L15<= Gldorj er{ iru uhfrglqj qxphulf ydoxhv wr wh{w ydoxhv1

Qrwh wkdw wklv phqx frppdqg uhvwulfwv wkh qxpehu ri qhz frgh ydoxhv wr ;1
Wkh vhvvlrq frppdqg code doorzv xs wr 83 qhz frghv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh
lq wkh marks zrunvkhhw zh zdqw wr uhfrgh wkh judghv lq F5/ F6/ dqg F7 vr wkdw
dq| pdun lq wkh udqjh 3< ehfrphv d 3/ hyhu| pdun lq wkh udqjh 434< ehfrphv
43/ hwf1/ dqg wkh uhvxowv duh sodfhg lq froxpqv F9/ F:/ dqg F;1 Wkh iroorzlqj
frppdqg

MTB Acode(0:9) to 0 (10:19) to 10 (20:29) to 20 (30:39) to 30 &

CONTA(40:49) to 40 (50:59) to 50 (60:69) to 60 (70:79) to 70 &
CONTA(80:89) to 80 (90:99) to 90 for C2-C4 put in C6-C8

dffrpsolvkhv wklv1 Qrwh wkh xvh ri wkh frqwlqxdwlrq v|pero )/ dv wklv lv d orqj
frppdqg1 Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ iru wkh code frppdqg lv

code +Y1 , wr frgh1 111 +Yq , wr frghq iru H1 111 Hp sxw lq Hp+1 111 H2p

zkhuh Yl ghqrwhv d vhw ri srvvleoh ydoxhv dqg udqjhv iru wkh ydoxhv lq froxpqv
H1 111 Hp wkdw duh doo frghg dv wkh qxpehu frghl > dqg wkh uhvxowv ri wklv frglqj
duh sodfhg lq wkh froxpqv Hp+1 111 H2p / l1h1/ wkh uhfrghg H1 lv sodfhg lq Hp+1 /
hwf1

11.2 Concatenating Columns

Wkh Pdqls I Frqfdwhqdwh frpelqhv wzr ru pruh wh{w froxpqv lqwr d vlqjoh wh{w
 
froxpq1 Iru h{dpsoh/ li F9 frqwdlqv m/ m/ m/ f/ f/ uhdglqj uvw wr odvw hqwu|/ dqg
F: frqwdlqv to/ ta/ ti/ to/ ta/ wkhq wkh hqwulhv lq wkh Pdqls I Frqfdwhqdwh
 
gldorj er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| L163 uhvxow lq d qhz wh{w froxpq F; frqwdlqlqj wkh
hqwulhv mto/ mta/ mti/ fto/ fta1
Minitab for Data Management 6:

Glvsod| L163= Gldorj er{ iru frqfdwhqdwlqj wh{w froxpqv1

Lq wkh vhvvlrq hqylurqphqw/ wkh concatenate frppdqg lv dydlodeoh iru wklv

rshudwlrq1 Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh concatenate frppdqg lv

concatenate H1 111 Hp lq Hp+1

zkhuh H1 / 111/ Hp > duh wh{w froxpqv/ dqg Hp+1 lv wkh wdujhw wh{w froxpq1

11.3 Converting Data Types

Wkh Pdqls I Frgh I Xvh Frqyhuvlrq Wdeoh frppdqg lv xvhg wr fkdqjh wh{w
  
gdwd lqwr qxphulf gdwd dqg ylfh yhuvd1 Dv ghdolqj zlwk wh{w gdwd lv d elw pruh
gl!fxow lq Plqlwde/ zh uhfrpphqg hlwkhu frqyhuwlqj wh{w gdwd wr qxphulf ehiruh
lqsxw ru xvlqj wklv frppdqg diwhu lqsxw wr gr wklv1
Iru h{dpsoh/ lq wkh zrunvkhhw marks vxssrvh zh zdqw wr fkdqjh wkh jhqghu
yduldeoh iurp wh{w/ zlwk pdoh dqg ihpdoh ghqrwhg e| m dqg f/ uhvshfwlyho|/ wr d
qxphulfdo yduldeoh zlwk pdoh ghqrwhg e| 3 dqg ihpdoh e| 41 Wr gr wklv/ zh pxvw
uvw vhw xs d frqyhuvlrq wdeoh1 Wkh frqyhuvlrq wdeoh frpsulvhv wzr froxpqv lq
wkh zrunvkhhw/ zkhuh rqh froxpq lv wh{w dqg frqwdlqv wkh wh{w ydoxhv xvhg lq
wkh wh{w froxpq/ dqg wkh vhfrqg froxpq lv qxphulf dqg frqwdlqv wkh qxphulfdo
ydoxhv wkdw |rx zdqw wkhvh fkdqjhg lqwr1 Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh zh kdyh hqwhuhg
froxpqv F9 dqg F: lq wkh marks zrunvkhhw/ dv vkrzq lq Glvsod| L1641 Wkh
Pdqls I Frgh I Xvh Frqyhuvlrq Wdeoh frppdqg surgxfhv wkh gldorj er{
  
vkrzq lq Glvsod| L165/ zkhuh zh kdyh lqglfdwhg wkdw zh zdqw wr frqyhuw wkh
wh{w froxpq F8 lqwr d qxphulf froxpq dqg wkdw hdfk m vkrxog ehfrph d 3 dqg
hdfk f vkrxog ehfrph d 41
6; Minitab for Data Management

Glvsod| L164= Froxpqv f9 dqg f: lq wkh pdunv zrunvkhhw dv d frqyhuvlrq wdeoh1

Glvsod| L165= Gldorj er{ iru frqyhuwlqj wh{w froxpq f8 ri wkh pdunv zrunvkhhw lqwr d
qxphulf froxpq zlwk wkh frqyhuvlrq wdeoh jlyhq lq froxpqv f9 dqg f:1

Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ iru wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg convert lv

convert H1 H2 H3 H4
zkhuh H1 > H2 duh wkh froxpqv frqwdlqlqj wkh frqyhuvlrq wdeoh/ H3 lv wkh froxpq
wr eh frqyhuwhg dqg H4 lv wkh froxpq frqwdlqlqj wkh frqyhuwhg froxpq1

11.4 History
Plqlwde nhhsv d uhfrug ri wkh frppdqgv |rx kdyh xvhg dqg wkh gdwd |rx kdyh
lqsxw lq d vhvvlrq1 Wklv lqirupdwlrq fdq eh rewdlqhg lq wkh Klvwru| iroghu ri wkh
Surmhfw Pdqdjhu zlqgrz1 Wkh frppdqgv fdq eh frslhg iurp zkhuhyhu wkh| duh
olvwhg dqg sdvwhg lqwr wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz wr eh uhh{hfxwhg/ vr wkdw d qxpehu
ri frppdqgv fdq eh h{hfxwhg dw rqfh zlwkrxw uhw|slqj1 Wkhvh frppdqgv fdq
eh hglwhg ehiruh ehlqj h{hfxwhg djdlq1 Wklv lv yhu| khosixo zkhq |rx kdyh
lpsohphqwhg d orqj vhtxhqfh ri frppdqgv dqg uhdol}h wkdw |rx pdgh dq huuru
hduo| rq1 Qrwh wkdw hyhq li |rx xvh wkh phqx frppdqgv/ d uhfrug lv nhsw rqo|
ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqgv1
Wkh journal frppdqg lv dydlodeoh lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz li |rx zdqw wr
nhhs d uhfrug ri wkh frppdqgv lq dq h{whuqdo oh1 Iru h{dpsoh/
Minitab for Data Management 6<

MTB Ajournal ’comm1’

Collecting keyboard input(commands and data)in file:
[Link]
MTB Aread c1 c2 c3
DATAA1 2 3
DATAAend
1 rows read.
MTB Anojournal
sxwv
read c1 c2 c3
1 2 3
end
nojournal
lqwr wkh oh comm1.mtj1 Wkh klvwru| lv wxuqhg r dv vrrq dv wkh nojournal
frppdqg lv w|shg1

11.5 Computing Ranks

Vrphwlphv/ zh zdqw wr frpsxwh wkh udqnv ri wkh qxphulf ydoxhv lq d froxpq1
Wkh udqn ul ri wkh lwk ydoxh lq d froxpq lv d ydoxh wkdw uh hfwv lwv uhodwlyh vl}h
lq wkh froxpq1 Iru h{dpsoh/ li wkh lwk ydoxh lv wkh vpdoohvw ydoxh wkhq ul = 1>
li lw lv wkh wklug vpdoohvw wkhq ul = 3> hwf1 Li ydoxhv duh wkh vdph/ l1h1/ wlhg/ wkhq
hdfk ydoxh uhfhlyhv wkh dyhudjh udqn1 Wr fdofxodwh wkh udqnv ri wkh hqwulhv lq
d froxpq zh xvh wkh Pdqls I Udqn frppdqg1 Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh wkdw F9
 
frqwdlqv wkh ydoxhv 9/ 7 / 6/ 5/ 6/ 41 Wkhq wkh Pdqls I Udqn frppdqg eulqjv
 
xs wkh gldorj er{ lq Glvsod| L166/ zklfk lv oohg lq vr wkdw wkh udqnv ri wkh
hqwulhv lq F9 duh sodfhg lq F:1 Lq wklv fdvh/ wkh udqnv duh 913/ 813/ 618/ 513/ 618/
dqg 413/ uhvshfwlyho|1

Glvsod| L166= Gldorj er{ iru frpsxwlqj udqnv1

Wkh v|qwd{ ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg rank lv

73 Minitab for Data Management

rank H1 H2
zkhuh H1 lv wkh froxpq zkrvh udqnv zh zdqw wr frpsxwh/ dqg H2 lv wkh froxpq
wkdw zloo krog wkh frpsxwhg udqnv1

11.6 Sorting Data

Lw riwhq rffxuv dv sduw ri d gdwd dqdo|vlv wkdw zh zdqw wr vruw d froxpq vr wkdw
lwv ydoxhv dvfhqg iurp vpdoohvw wr odujhvw ru ghvfhqg iurp odujhvw wr vpdoohvw1
Qrwh wkdw rughulqj khuh frxog uhihu wr qxphulfdo rughu ru doskdehwlfdo rughu/
vr zh dovr frqvlghu rughulqj wh{w froxpqv1 Dovr/ zh pd| zdqw wr vruw doo wkh
urzv frqwdlqhg lq vrph vxevhw ri wkh froxpqv lq wkh zrunvkhhw e| d sduwlfxodu
froxpq1 Wkh Pdqls I Vruw frppdqg doorzv xv wr fduu| rxw wkhvh wdvnv1
 
Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh wkdw zh zdqw wr vruw wkh hqwulhv lq F5 lq wkh marks
zrunvkhhw  wkh Vwdwlvwlfv judghv  iurp vpdoohvw wr odujhvw dqg sodfh wkh
vruwhg ydoxhv lq F91 Wkhq wkh Pdqls I Vruw frppdqg eulqjv xs wkh gldorj
 
er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| L167/ zkhuh wkh Vruw froxpq+v, er{ frqwdlqv wkh froxpq

F5 wr eh vruwhg/ wkh Vwruh vruwhg froxpq+v, Lq er{ frqwdlqv F9/ zkhuh zh zloo
vwruh wkh vruwhg froxpq/ dqg F5 lv dovr sodfhg lq wkh Vruw e| froxpq er{1 Wklv

frppdqg uhvxowv lq F9 frqwdlqlqj 56/ 96/ 9:/ :4/ :7/ :8/ ::/ ;4/ ;4/ ;:1 Li zh
kdg folfnhg wkh Ghvfhqglqj er{/ wkh rughu ri dsshdudqfh ri wkhvh ydoxhv lq F9
zrxog kdyh ehhquhyhuvhg1
Li zh kdg sodfhg dqrwkhu froxpq lq wkh Vruw e| froxpq er{/ vd| F8/ wkhq F8

zrxog kdyh ehhq vruwhg zlwk wkh ydoxhv lq F5 fduulhg dorqj dqg sodfhg lq F9/
l1h1/ wkh ydoxhv lq F5 zrxog eh vruwhg e| wkh ydoxhv lq F81 Vr doo wkh Vwdwlvwlfv
pdunv ri ihpdohv/ lq wkh rughu wkh| dsshdu lq F5 zloo dsshdu lq F9 uvw dqg
wkhq wkh Vwdwlvwlfv pdunv ri pdohv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ uhsodflqj F5 e| F8 lq wklv er{
zrxog uhvxow lq wkh ydoxhv lq F9 ehfrplqj ::/ :4/ ;:/ ;4/ :7/ ;4/ :8/ 96/ 56/ 9:1
Li zh oo lq wkh qh{w Vruw e| froxpq er{ zlwk dqrwkhu froxpq/ vd| F6/ wkhq wkh

ydoxhv lq F5 duh vruwhg uvw e| jhqghu dqg wkhq zlwklq jhqghu e| wkh ydoxhv lq
F61

Glvsod| L167= Gldorj er{ iru vruwlqj1

Minitab for Data Management 74

Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg sort lv

sort H1 H2 = = =Hp Hp+1 = = =H2p
zkhuh H1 lv wkh froxpq wr eh vruwhg/ dqg H2 / 111/ Hp duh fduulhg dorqj zlwk
wkh uhvxowv sodfhg lq froxpqv Hp+1 / 111/ H2p = Qrwh wkdw wklv vruw fdq dovr eh
dffrpsolvkhg xvlqj wkh by vxefrppdqg/ zkhuh wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ lv
sort H1 H2 = = =Hp Hp+1 = = =H2p ;
by H2p+1 = = =Hq =
zkhuh qrz zh vruw e| froxpqv H2p+1 / 111/ Hq / vruwlqj uvw e| H2p+1> wkhq
H2p+2 > hwf1/ fduu|lqj dorqj H1 / 111/ Hp dqg sodflqj wkh uhvxow lq Hp+1 / 111/
H2p = Wkh descending vxefrppdqg fdq dovr eh xvhg wr lqglfdwh zklfk vruwlqj
yduldeohv zh zdqw wr xvh lq ghvfhqglqj rughu udwkhu wkdq dvfhqglqj rughu1

11.7 Stacking and Unstacking Columns

Wkh Pdqls I Vwdfn frppdqg lv xvhg wr olwhudoo| vwdfn froxpqv rqh rq wrs ri
 
wkh rwkhu ru xqvwdfn d froxpq lqwr vhsdudwh froxpqv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ lq wkh marks
zrunvkhhw wkh Pdqls I Vwdfn I Vwdfn Froxpqv frppdqg eulqjv xs wkh gldorj
  
er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| L168/ zklfk kdv ehhq oohg lq wr vwdfn froxpqv F5/ F6/
dqg F7 lqwr F9 zlwk wkh ydoxhv lq F5 uvw/ iroorzhg e| wkh ydoxhv lq F6 dqg wkhq
wkh ydoxhv lq F71 Lq F: zh kdyh vwruhg dq lqgh{ zklfk lqglfdwhv wkdw froxpq
hdfk ydoxh lq F9 fdph iurp zlwk d 4 hyhu| wlph d ydoxh fdph iurp F5/ d 5 hyhu|
wlph d ydoxh fdph iurp F6/ dqg d 6 hyhu| wlph d ydoxh fdph iurp F71 Lw lv qrw
qhfhvvdu| wr fuhdwh vxfk dq lqgh{1

Glvsod| L168= Gldorj er{ iru vwdfnlqj froxpqv1

Lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz/ wklv vdph uhvxow fdq eh rewdlqhg xvlqj wkh stack
frppdqg1 Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ iru wkh stack frppdqg lv jlyhq e|
stack H1 H2 = = =Hp lqwr Hp+1
zkhuh H1 / H2 / 111/ Hp ghqrwh wkh froxpqv ru frqvwdqwv wr eh vwdfnhg rqh rq wrs
ri wkh rwkhu/ vwduwlqj zlwk H1 / dqg zlwk wkh uhvxow sodfhg lq froxpq Hp+1 = Li zh
75 Minitab for Data Management

zdqw wr nhhs dq lqgh{ ri zkhuh wkh ydoxhv fdph iurp/ wkhq xvh wkh vxefrppdqg

subscripts Hp+2
zklfk uhvxowv lq lqgh{ ydoxhv ehlqj vwruhg lq froxpq Hp+2 =
Wr xqvwdfn ydoxhv lq d froxpq e| wkh ydoxhv lq dq lqgh{ froxpq zh xvh wkh
Pdqls I Xqvwdfn frppdqg1 Iru h{dpsoh/ jlyhq wkh froxpqv F9 dqg F: ri

wkh marks zrunvkhhw dv ghvfulehg deryh/ wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| L169
xqvwdfnv F9 lqwr wkuhh froxpqv e| wkh ydoxhv lq F:1 Wkh wkuhh froxpqv duh
F;/ F</ dqg F431 Qrwh wkdw wkh| duh lghqwlfdo wr froxpqv F5/ F6/ dqg F7/
uhvshfwlyho|1 Zh pxvw dozd|v vshfli| d froxpq frqwdlqlqj wkh vxevfulswv zkhq
xqvwdfnlqj d froxpq1

Glvsod| L169= Gldorj er{ iru xqvwdfnlqj froxpqv1

Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ iru wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg unstack lv

unstack H1 lqwr H2 = = =Hp ;
subscripts Hp+1 =
zkhuh H1 lv wkh froxpq wr eh xqvwdfnhg/ H2 / 111/ Hp duh wkh froxpqv dqg frq0
vwdqwv wr frqwdlq wkh xqvwdfnhg froxpq/ dqg Hp+1 jlyhv wkh vxevfulswv 4/ 5/ 111
wkdw lqglfdwh krz H1 lv wr eh xqvwdfnhg1
Qrwh wkdw lw lv dovr srvvleoh wr vlpxowdqhrxvo| xqvwdfn eorfnv ri froxpqv1
Zh uhihu wkh uhdghu wr help ru Khos iru lqirupdwlrq rq wklv1

Minitab for Data Management 76

12 Exercises

41 Wkh iroorzlqj gdwd jlyh wkh Kl dqg Orz wudglqj sulfhv lq Fdqdgldq grooduv
iru ydulrxv vwrfnv rq d jlyhq gd| rq wkh Wrurqwr Vwrfn H{fkdqjh1 Fuhdwh
d zrunvkhhw/ jlylqj wkh froxpqv wkh vdph yduldeoh qdphv/ xvlqj dq| ri
wkh phwkrgv glvfxvvhg lq L1:1 Eh fduhixo wr hqvxuh wkdw wkh ydoxh ri wkh
yduldeoh stock vwduwv zlwk d ohwwhu1 Sulqw wkh zrunvkhhw wr fkhfn wkdw
|rx kdyh vxffhvvixoo| hqwhuhg lw1 Vdyh wkh zrunvkhhw jlylqj lw wkh qdph
stocks1

Stock Hi Low
DFU :1<8 :1;3
PJL 71:8 7133
EOG 445158 43<1:8
FIS <198 <158
PDO ;158 ;143
FP 781<3 78163
D]F 41<< 41<6
FPZ 53133 4<133
DP] 51:3 5163
JDF 85133 83158

5 Uhwulhyh wkh zrunvkhhw stocks fuhdwhg lq H{huflvh 41 Fkdqjh wkh Low

ydoxh lq wkh vwrfn PJL wr 61<81 Fdofxodwh wkh dyhudjh ri wkh Hi dqg
Low sulfhv iru doo wkh vwrfnv/ dqg vdyh wklv lq d froxpq fdoohg average1
Fdofxodwh wkh dyhudjh ri doo wkh Hi sulfhv/ dqg vdyh wklv lq d frqvwdqw
fdoohg avhi1 Vlploduo|/ gr wklv iru doo wkh Low sulfhv/ dqg vdyh wklv lq d
frqvwdqw fdoohg avlo1 Vdyh wkh zrunvkhhw xvlqj wkh vdph qdph1 Zulwh doo
wkh froxpqv rxw wr d oh fdoohg stocks.dat1 Sulqw wkh oh [Link] rq
|rxu v|vwhp sulqwhu1

6 Uhwulhyh wkh zrunvkhhw fuhdwhg lq H{huflvh 51 Xvlqj wkh Plqlwde frp0

pdqgv glvfxvvhg lq L143/ fdofxodwh wkh qxpehu ri vwrfnv lq wkh zrunvkhhw
zkrvh average lv juhdwhu wkdq '8133 dqg ohvv wkdq ru htxdo wr '781331

7 Xvlqj wkh zrunvkhhw fuhdwhg lq H{huflvh 5/ lqvhuw wkh iroorzlqj vwrfnv dw

wkh ehjlqqlqj ri wkh zrunvkhhw1

Stock Hi Low
FOY 41;8 41:;
VLO 67133 67133
DF 47178 47138

Ghohwh wkh yduldeoh average1 Vdyh wkh zrunvkhhw1

77 Minitab for Data Management

8 Xvlqj wkh zrunvkhhw fuhdwhg lq H{huflvh 7/ vruw wkh vwrfnv lqwr doskdehwlfdo
rughu1 Fdofxodwh wkh udqnv ri wkh lqglylgxdo vwrfnv edvhg rq wkhlu Hi sulfh/
dqg vdyh wkh udqnlqj lq d qhz froxpq1 Vdyh wkh zrunvkhhw1
9 Xvlqj wkh zrunvkhhw fuhdwhg lq H{huflvh 8/ fdofxodwh wkh dyhudjh Hi sulfh
ri doo wkh vwrfnv ehjlqqlqj lq D1
: Xvlqj wkh zrunvkhhw fuhdwhg lq H{huflvh 8/ uhfrgh doo wkh Low sulfhv lq wkh
udqjh '3<1<< dv 4/ lq wkh udqjh '436<1<< dv 5/ dqg juhdwhu wkdq ru htxdo
wr '73 dv 6/ dqg vdyh wkh uhfrghg yduldeoh lq d qhz froxpq1
; Xvlqj sdwwhuqhg gdwd lqsxw/ sodfh wkh ydoxhv iurp 10 wr 43 lq lqfuhphqwv
ri 14 lq F41 Iru hdfk ri wkh ydoxhv lq F4/ fdofxodwh wkh ydoxh ri wkh
txdgudwlf sro|qrpldo 2{2 + 4{  3 +l1h1/ vxevwlwxwh wkh ydoxh lq hdfk hqwu|
lq F4 lqwr wklv h{suhvvlrq, dqg sodfh wkhvh ydoxhv lq F51 Xvlqj Plqlwde
frppdqgv dqg wkh ydoxhv lq F4 dqg F5/ hvwlpdwh wkh srlqw lq wkh udqjh
iurp 10 wr 43 zkhuh wklv sro|qrpldo wdnhv lwv vpdoohvw ydoxh dqg zkdw
wklv vpdoohvw ydoxh lv1 Xvlqj Plqlwde frppdqgv dqg wkh ydoxhv lq F4 dqg
F5 hvwlpdwh wkh srlqwv lq wkh udqjh iurp 10 wr 10> zkhuh wklv sro|qrpldo
lv forvhvw wr 31
< Xvlqj sdwwhuqhg gdwd lqsxw/ sodfh ydoxhv lq wkh udqjh iurp 3 wr 8 xvlqj dq
lqfuhphqw ri 134 lq F41 Fdofxodwh wkh ydoxh ri 1  h{ iru hdfk ydoxh lq
F4/ dqg sodfh wkh uhvxow lq F51 Xvlqj Plqlwde frppdqgv/ qg wkh odujhvw
ydoxh lq F4 zkhuh wkh fruuhvsrqglqj hqwu| lq F5 lv ohvv wkdq ru htxdo wr 181
Qrwh wkdw h{ fruuhvsrqgv wr wkh exponentiate frppdqg +vhh Dsshqgl{
E14, hydoxdwhg dw {1
43 Xvlqj sdwwhuqhg gdwd lqsxw/ sodfh ydoxhv lq wkh udqjh iurp 4 wr 7 xvlqj
dq lqfuhphqw ri 134 lq F41 Fdofxodwh wkh ydoxh ri
1 2
s h{ @2
2
iru hdfk ydoxh lq F4/ dqg sodfh wkh uhvxow lq F5/ zkhuh  = 3=14159271
Xvlqj parsums +vhh Dsshqgl{ E14,/ fdofxodwh wkh sduwldo vxpv iru F5/
dqg sodfh wkh uhvxow lq F61 Pxowlso| F6 wlphv 1341 Ilqg wkh odujhvw ydoxh
lq F4 vxfk wkdw wkh fruuhvsrqglqj hqwu| lq F6 lv ohvv wkdq ru htxdo wr 1581
 Part II

Minitab for Data Analysis

78
Chapter 1

Looking at
Data–Distributions

New Minitab commands discussed in this chapter

Fdof I Suredelolw| Glvwulexwlrqv I Qrupdo
  
Iloh I Rshq Judsk
 
Iloh I Vdyh Judsk Dv
 
Judsk I Er{sorw
 
Judsk I Fkduw
 
Judsk I Grwsorw
 
Judsk I Klvwrjudp
 
Judsk I Slh Fkduw
 
Judsk I Suredelolw| Sorw
 
Judsk I Vwhp0dqg0Ohdi
 
Judsk I Wlph Vhulhv Sorw
 
Pdqls I Frgh
Vwdw I Edvlf
 Vwdwlvwlfv I Glvsod| Ghvfulswlyh Vwdwlvwlfv
  
Vwdw I Edvlf Vwdwlvwlfv I Vwruh Ghvfulswlyh Vwdwlvwlfv
  
Vwdw I Wdeohv I Wdoo|
  

Wklv fkdswhu ri LSV lv frqfhuqhg zlwk wkh ydulrxv zd|v ri suhvhqwlqj dqg vxp0
pdul}lqj d gdwd vhw1 E| suhvhqwlqj gdwd/ zh phdq frqyhqlhqw dqg lqirupdwlyh
phwkrgv ri frqyh|lqj wkh lqirupdwlrq frqwdlqhg lq d gdwd vhw1 Wkhuh duh wzr
edvlf phwkrgv iru suhvhqwlqj gdwd/ qdpho| judsklfdoo| dqg wkurxjk wdexodwlrqv1
Vwloo/ lw fdq eh kdug wr vxppdul}h h{dfwo| zkdw wkhvh suhvhqwdwlrqv duh vd|lqj
derxw wkh gdwd1 Vr wkh fkdswhu dovr lqwurgxfhv ydulrxv vxppdu| vwdwlvwlfv wkdw
duh frpprqo| xvhg wr frqyh| phdqlqjixo lqirupdwlrq lq d frqflvh zd|1
Doo ri wkhvh wrslfv fdq lqyroyh pxfk whglrxv/ huuru surqh fdofxodwlrq/ li zh
zhuh wr lqvlvw rq grlqj wkhp e| kdqg1 Dq lpsruwdqw srlqw lv wkdw |rx vkrxog

7:
7; Chapter 1

doprvw qhyhu uho| rq kdqg fdofxodwlrq lq fduu|lqj rxw d gdwd dqdo|vlv1 Qrw rqo|
duh wkhuh pdq| idu pruh lpsruwdqw wklqjv iru |rx wr eh wklqnlqj derxw/ dv wkh
wh{w glvfxvvhv/ exw |rx duh dovr olnho| wr pdnh dq huuru1 Rq wkh rwkhu kdqg/
qhyhu eolqgo| wuxvw wkh frpsxwhu$ Fkhfn |rxu uhvxowv dqg pdnh vxuh wkdw wkh|
pdnh vhqvh lq oljkw ri wkh dssolfdwlrq1 Iru wklv/ d ihz vlpsoh kdqg fdofxodwlrqv
fdq suryh ydoxdeoh1 Lq zrunlqj wkurxjk wkh sureohpv lq LSV/ |rx vkrxog wu| wr
xvh Plqlwde dv pxfk dv srvvleoh/ dv wklv zloo lqfuhdvh |rxu vnloo zlwk wkh sdfndjh
dqg lqhylwdeo| pdnh |rxu gdwd dqdo|vhv hdvlhu dqg pruh hhfwlyh1

1.1 Tabulating and Summarizing Data

Li d yduldeoh lv fdwhjrulfdo/ zh frqvwuxfw d wdeoh xvlqj wkh ydoxhv ri wkh yduldeoh
dqg uhfrug wkh iuhtxhqf| +frxqw, ri hdfk ydoxh lq wkh gdwd dqg shukdsv wkh
uhodwlyh iuhtxhqf| +sursruwlrq, ri hdfk ydoxh lq wkh gdwd dv zhoo1 Wkhvh uhodwlyh
iuhtxhqflhv wkhq vhuyh dv d frqyhqlhqw vxppdul}dwlrq ri wkh gdwd1
Li wkh yduldeoh lv txdqwlwdwlyh/ zh w|slfdoo| jurxs wkh gdwd lq vrph zd|/
l1h1/ glylgh wkh udqjh ri wkh gdwd lqwr qrqryhuodsslqj lqwhuydov dqg uhfrug wkh
iuhtxhqf| dqg sursruwlrq ri ydoxhv lq hdfk lqwhuydo1 Jurxslqj lv dffrpsolvkhg
xvlqj wkh Pdqls I Frgh frppdqg glvfxvvhg lq L144141
 
Li wkh ydoxhv ri d yduldeoh duh rughuhg/ zh fdq uhfrug wkh fxpxodwlyh glv0
wulexwlrq/ qdpho| wkh sursruwlrq ri ydoxhv ohvv wkdq ru htxdo wr hdfk ydoxh1
Txdqwlwdwlyh yduldeohv duh dozd|v rughuhg exw vrphwlphv fdwhjrulfdo yduldeohv
duh dv zhoo/ h1j1/ zkhq d fdwhjrulfdo yduldeoh dulvhv iurp jurxslqj d txdqwlwdwlyh
yduldeoh1
Riwhq/ lw lv frqyhqlhqw zlwk txdqwlwdwlyh yduldeohv wr uhfrug wkh hpslulfdo
glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq/ zklfk iru gdwd ydoxhv {1 > = = = > {q dqg dw d ydoxh { lv jlyhq
e|
# ri {l  {
Î ({) =
q
l1h1/ Î ({) lv wkh sursruwlrq ri gdwd ydoxhv ohvv wkdq ru htxdo wr {= Zh fdq
vxppdul}h vxfk d suhvhqwdwlrq yld wkh fdofxodwlrq ri d ihz txdqwlwlhv vxfk dv
wkh uvw txduwloh/ wkh phgldq/ dqg wkh wklug txduwloh ru suhvhqw wkh phdq dqg
wkh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq1
Zh lqwurgxfh vrph qhz frppdqgv wr fduu| rxw wkh qhfhvvdu| frpsxwdwlrqv
xvlqj wkh gdwd vkrzq lq Wdeoh 4141 Wklv lv gdwd froohfwhg e| D1D1 Plfkhovrq
dqg Vlprq Qhzfrpe lq 4;;5 frqfhuqlqj wkh vshhg ri oljkw1 Zh zloo uhihu wr wklv
khuhdiwhu dv Qhzfrpe*v gdwd dqg sodfh wkhvh lq wkh froxpq F4 zlwk wkh qdph
time lq wkh zrunvkhhw fdoohg newcomb1
Looking At Data–Distributions 7<

5; 55 69 59 5; 5;
59 57 65 63 5: 57
66 54 69 65 64 58
57 58 5; 69 5: 65
67 63 58 59 59 58
077 56 54 63 66 5<
5: 5< 5; 55 59 5:
49 64 5< 69 65 5;
73 4< 6: 56 65 5<
05 57 58 5: 57 49
5< 53 5; 5: 6< 56

Wdeoh 414= Qhzfrpe*v gdwd11

1.1.1 Tallying Data

Wkh Vwdw I Wdeohv I Wdoo| frppdqg wdexodwhv fdwhjrulfdo gdwd1 Frqvlghu Qhz0
  
frpe*v phdvxuhphqwv lq Wdeoh 4141 Wkhvh gdwd udqjh iurp 44 wr 73 +xvh plq0
lpxp dqg pd{lpxp lq Fdof I Fdofxodwru wr fdofxodwh wkhvh ydoxhv,1 Vxssrvh
 
zh ghflgh wr jurxs wkhvh lqwr wkh lqwhuydov (50> 0]/ (0> 20]/ (20> 25]/ (25> 30]/
(30> 35]/ 3(35> 40]1 Qh{w zh zdqw wr uhfrug wkh iuhtxhqflhv/ uhodwlyh iuhtxhqflhv/
fxpxodwlyh iuhtxhqflhv/ dqg fxpxodwlyh glvwulexwlrq ri wklv jurxshg yduldeoh1
Iluvw/ zh xvhg wkh Pdqls I Frgh I Qxphulf wr Qxphulf frppdqg/ dv gh0
  
vfulehg lq L14414/ wr uhfrgh wkh gdwd vr wkdw hyhu| ydoxh lq (50> 0] lv jlyhq wkh
ydoxh 4/ hyhu| ydoxh lq (0> 20] lv jlyhq wkh ydoxh 5/ hwf1/ dqg wkhvh ydoxhv duh
sodfhg lq F51 Wkh gldorj er{ iru grlqj wklv lv vkrzq lq Glvsod| 4141

Glvsod| 414= Gldorj er{ iru uhfrglqj Qhzfrpe*v gdwd1

83 Chapter 1

Qh{w zh xvhg wkh Vwdw I Wdeohv I Wdoo| frppdqg/ zlwk wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq
  
lq Glvsod| 415/

Glvsod| 415= Gldorj er{ iru wdoo|lqj wkh yduldeoh F5 lq wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw1

wr surgxfh wkh rxwsxw

C2 Count Percent CumCnt CumPct
1 2 3.03 2 3.03
2 4 6.06 6 9.09
3 17 25.76 23 34.85
4 26 39.39 49 74.24
5 10 15.15 59 89.39
6 7 10.61 66 100.00
N= 66
lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1
Zh fdq dovr xvh wkh Vwdw I Wdeohv I Wdoo| frppdqg wr frpsxwh wkh hpslu0
  
lfdo glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq ri F4 lq wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw1 Iluvw/ zh pxvw vruw
wkh ydoxhv lq F4/ iurp vpdoohvw wr odujhvw/ xvlqj wkh Pdqls I Vruw frppdqg
 
ghvfulehg lq L14419/ dqg wkhq zh dsso| wkh Vwdw I Wdeohv I Wdoo| frppdqg wr
  
wklv vruwhg yduldeoh1
Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg tally lv
tally H1 = = =Hp
zkhuh H1 / 111/ Hp duh froxpqv ri fdwhjrulfdo yduldeohv/ dqg wkh frppdqg lv
dssolhg wr hdfk froxpq1 Li qr vxefrppdqgv duh jlyhq/ wkhq rqo| iuhtxhqflhv
duh frpsxwhg/ zkloh wkh vxefrppdqgv percents frpsxwhv uhodwlyh iuhtxhqflhv/
cumcnts frpsxwhv wkh fxpxodwlyh iuhtxhqf| ixqfwlrq/ dqg cumpcts frpsxwhv
wkh fxpxodwlyh glvwulexwlrq ri F51 Dq| ri wkh vxefrppdqgv fdq eh gursshg1
Iru h{dpsoh/ wkh frppdqgv
MTB Asort c1 c3
MTB Atally c3;
SUBCAcumpcnts;
SUBCAstore c4 c5.
Looking At Data–Distributions 84

uvw xvh wkh sort frppdqg wr vruw wkh gdwd lq F4 iurp vpdoohvw wr odujhvw dqg
sodfh wkh uhvxowv lq F61 Wkh fxpxodwlyh glvwulexwlrq lv frpsxwhg iru wkh ydoxhv
lq F6 zlwk wkh xqltxh ydoxhv lq F6 vwruhg lq F7 dqg wkh fxpxodwlyh glvwulexwlrq
dw hdfk ri wkh xqltxh ydoxhv vwruhg lq F8 yld wkh store vxefrppdqg wr tally.

1.1.2 Describing Data

Wkh Vwdw I Edvlf Vwdwlvwlfv I Glvsod| Ghvfulswlyh Vwdwlvwlfv frppdqg lv xvhg
  
zlwk txdqwlwdwlyh yduldeohv wr suhvhqw d qxphulfdo vxppdu| ri wkh yduldeoh ydo0
xhv1 Wkhvh ydoxhv duh lq d vhqvh d vxppdul}dwlrq ri wkh hpslulfdo glvwulexwlrq
ri wkh yduldeoh1 Iru h{dpsoh/ lq wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq
lq Glvsod| 416 ohdgv wr wkh rxwsxw
Variable N Mean Median TrMean StDev SE Mean
time 66 26.21 27.00 27.40 10.75 1.32
Variable Minimum Maximum Q1 Q3
time -44.00 40.00 24.00 31.00
lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Wklv surylghv wkh frxqw Q/ wkh phdq/ phgldq/ wulpphg
phdq TrMean +uhpryhv orzhu 8( dqg xsshu 8( ri wkh gdwd dqg dyhudjhv wkh
uhvw,/ vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq/ vwdqgdug huuru ri wkh phdq/ plqlpxp/ pd{lpxp/ uvw
txduwloh Q1/ dqg wklug txduwloh Q3 ri wkh yduldeoh F41 Li zh zdqw vxfk d vxppdu|
ri d yduldeoh e| wkh ydoxhv ri dqrwkhu yduldeoh/ zh fkhfn wkh E| yduldeoh er{

dqg lqglfdwh wkh e| yduldeoh lq wkh er{ wr wkh uljkw ri wklv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ zh
pljkw zdqw vxfk d vxppdu| iru hdfk ri wkh jurxsv zh fuhdwhg lq LL1414/ dqg vr
zh zrxog sodfh F5 lq wklv er{1 Qrwh wkdw d qxpehu ri vxppdu| vwdwlvwlfv fdq
dovr eh frpsxwhg xvlqj wkh Froxpq Vwdwlvwlfv glvfxvvhg lq L143161

Glvsod| 416= Gldorj er{ iru frpsxwlqj edvlf ghvfulswlyh vwdwlvwlfv ri d txdqwlwdwlyh
yduldeoh1

Li zh zlvk wr frpsxwh vrph edvlf vwdwlvwlfv dqg vwruh wkhvh ydoxhv iru odwhu
xvh/ wkhq wkh Vwdw I Edvlf Vwdwlvwlfv I Vwruh Ghvfulswlyh Vwdwlvwlfv frppdqg lv
  
dydlodeoh iru wklv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ zlwk wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw wklv frppdqg ohdgv
85 Chapter 1

wr wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| 4171 Folfnlqj rq wkh Vwdwlvwlfv exwwrq uhvxowv

lq wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| 418 zkhuh zh kdyh fkhfnhg Iluvw txduwloh/ Phgldq/
 
Wklug txduwloh/ Lqwhutxduwloh udqjh/ dqg Q qrqplvvlqj dv wkh vwdwlvwlfv zh zdqw
  
wr frpsxwh1 Wkh uhvxow ri wkhvh fkrlfhv lv wkdw wkh qh{w dydlodeoh yduldeohv lq
wkh zrunvkhhw frqwdlq wkhvh ydoxhv1 Vr lq wklv fdvh/ wkh ydoxhv ri F6F: duh dv
ghslfwhg lq Glvsod| 4191 Qrwh wkdw wkhvh yduldeohv duh qrz qdphg dv zhoo1 Qrwh
wkdw pdq| pruh vwdwlvwlfv duh dydlodeoh xvlqj wklv frppdqg1

Glvsod| 417= Gldorj er{ iru frpsxwlqj dqg vwrulqj ydulrxv ghvfulswlyh vwdwlvwlfv1

Glvsod| 418= Gldorj er{ iru fkrrvlqj wkh ghvfulswlyh vwdwlvwlfv wr frpsxwh dqg vwruh1

Glvsod| 419= Ydoxhv rewdlqhg iru ghvfulswlyh vwdwlvwlfv xvlqj gldorj er{hv lq Iljxuhv
417 dqg 4181

Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh Vhvvlrq frppdqg describe, fruuhvsrqglqj wr Vwdw


I Edvlf Vwdwlvwlfv I Glvsod| Ghvfulswlyh Vwdwlvwlfv/ lv
 
Looking At Data–Distributions 86

describe H1 = = =Hp
zkhuh H1 / 111/ Hp duh froxpqv ri txdqwlwdwlyh yduldeohv dqg wkh frppdqg lv
dssolhg wr hdfk froxpq1 D by vxefrppdqg fdq dovr eh xvhg1 Wkh stats
frppdqg lv dydlodeoh lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz li zh zdqw wr vwruh wkh ydoxhv ri
vwdwlvwlfv1 Zh uhihu wkh uhdghu wr help iru d ghvfulswlrq ri wklv frppdqg1

1.2 Plotting Data in a Graph Window

Rqh ri wkh prvw lqirupdwlyh zd|v ri suhvhqwlqj gdwd lv yld d sorw1 Wkhuh duh
pdq| glhuhqw w|shv ri sorwv zlwklq Plqlwde/ dqg zklfk rqh wr xvh ghshqgv rq
wkh w|sh ri yduldeoh |rx kdyh dqg zkdw |rx duh wu|lqj wr ohduq1 Lq wklv vhfwlrq
zh ghvfuleh krz wr xvh wkh sorwwlqj ihdwxuhv lq Plqlwde1 Wkhuh duh/ krzhyhu/
pdq| ihdwxuhv ri sorwwlqj wkdw zh zloo qrw ghvfuleh1 Iru h{dpsoh/ wkhuh duh
pdq| judsklfdo hglwlqj fdsdelolwlhv wkdw doorz |rx wr dgg ihdwxuhv/ vxfk dv wlwohv
ru ohjhqgv1 Vrph ri wkhvh ihdwxuhv duh dffhvvhg yld Judsk I Od|rxw1 Zh uhihu
 
wkh uhdghu wr Khos iru pruh ghwdlov rq wkhvh ihdwxuhv1

Hdfk sorw lq Plqlwde lv pdgh lq d Judsk zlqgrz1 \rx fdq pdnh pxowlsoh
sorwv dqg uhwdlq hdfk Judsk zlqgrz xqwlo |rx zdqw wr ghohwh lw vlpso| e| folfnlqj
wkh  v|pero lq wkh xsshu uljkw0kdqg fruqhu1 \rx pdnh dq| sduwlfxodu Judsk
zlqgrz dfwlyh e| folfnlqj lq lw ru e| xvlqj wkh Zlqgrz frppdqg1 D sorw fdq

eh vdyhg lq dq h{whuqdo oh lq d ydulhw| ri irupdwv/ vxfk dv Plqlwde judsk .mgf/
elwpds .bmp/ MSHJ .jpg/ hwf1/ xvlqj wkh Iloh I Vdyh Judsk Dv frppdqg1 Li
 
d judsk kdv ehhq vdyhg lq wkh .mgf irupdw/ lw fdq eh uhrshqhg xvlqj wkh Iloh I

Rshq Judsk frppdqg1


1.2.1 Dotplots
Wkh Judsk I Grwsorw frppdqg lv xvhg zlwk txdqwlwdwlyh yduldeohv dqg surgxfhv
 
d sorw ri hdfk gdwd ydoxh dv d grw dorqj wkh {0d{lv vr wkdw |rx jhw d jhqhudo
lghd ri wkh orfdwlrq ri wkh gdwd dqg krz pxfk vfdwwhu wkhuh lv1 Dfwxdoo|/ wkh
gdwd lv jurxshg ehiruh sorwwlqj dqg pxowlsoh revhuydwlrqv lq d jurxs duh vwdfnhg
ryhu wkh {0d{lv1 Wkh lqwhuydo ehwzhhq vxffhvvlyh wlfn +., pdunv rq wkh {0d{lv
lv glylghg lqwr 43 htxdo0ohqjwk vxelqwhuydov iru wkh jurxslqj1 W|slfdoo|/ rqh
dovr orrnv iru srlqwv wkdw duh idu iurp wkh pdlq vfdwwhu ri srlqwv dv wkhvh pd|
eh lghqwlhg dv rxwolhuv dqg/ dv vxfk/ ghohwhg iurp wkh gdwd vhw iru vxevhtxhqw
dqdo|vlv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ iru wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw gldorj er{ lq Glvsod| 41:
uhvxowv lq wkh sorw ri Glvsod| 41;1
Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj Vhvvlrq frppdqg dotplot lv
dotplot H1 = = =Hp
zkhuh H1 / 111/ Hp duh froxpqv/ dqg d grwsorw lv surgxfhg iru hdfk1 Wkhuh duh d
qxpehu ri vxefrppdqgv dydlodeoh1 Wkh same vxefrppdqg hqvxuhv wkh vfdohv
ri wkh grwsorwv duh wkh vdph iru hdfk froxpq1 Wkh by vxefrppdqg doorzv
sorwwlqj ri d yduldeoh e| wkh ydoxhv ri dqrwkhu yduldeoh zlwk doo sorwv kdylqj
wkh vdph vfdoh1 Wkh increment vxefrppdqg doorzv iru frqwuro ri wkh glvwdqfh
87 Chapter 1

ehwzhhq wkh wlfn pdunv dqg start dqg end doorz |rx wr vshfli| zkhuh wkh
grwsorw vkrxog ehjlq dqg hqg1 Iru h{dpsoh/
MTB Adotplot c1;
SUBCAincrement=5;
SUBCAstart=20 end=35.
sxwv wkh wlfn pdunv 8 xqlwv dsduw/ vwduwv wkh sorw dw 53/ dqg hqgv lw dw 68/ vr
vrph srlqwv duh qrw sorwwhg lq wklv fdvh1

Glvsod| 41:= Gldorj er{ iru surgxflqj d grwsorw1

Glvsod| 41;= Grwsorw ri wkh Qhzfrpe gdwd1

1.2.2 Stem-and-Leaf Plots

Vwhp0dqg0ohdi sorwv duh vlplodu wr klvwrjudpv dqg duh surgxfhg e| wkh Judsk

I Vwhp0dqg0Ohdi frppdqg1 Wkhvh sorwv duh dovr uhihuuhg wr dv vwhpsorwv dv lq

LSV1 Iru h{dpsoh/ xvlqj wklv frppdqg zlwk wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw surgxfhv
wkh rxwsxw lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz
Looking At Data–Distributions 88

Stem-and-leaf of time N = 66
Leaf Unit = 1.0
1 -4 4
1 -3
1 -2
1 -1
2 -0 2
2 0
5 1 669
(41) 2 01122333444445555566666777777888888899999
20 3 0001122222334666679
1 4 0
zklfk lv d vwhp0dqg0ohdi sorw ri wkh ydoxhv lq time1 Wkh uvw froxpq jlyhv wkh
ghswkv iru d jlyhq vwhp/ l1h1/ wkh qxpehu ri revhuydwlrqv rq wkdw olqh dqg ehorz
lw ru deryh lw/ ghshqglqj rq zkhwkhu ru qrw wkh revhuydwlrq lv ehorz ru deryh
wkh phgldq1 Wkh urz frqwdlqlqj wkh phgldq lv hqforvhg lq sduhqwkhvhv + ,/ dqg
wkh ghswk lv rqo| wkh revhuydwlrqv rq wkdw olqh1 Li wkh qxpehu ri revhuydwlrqv lv
hyhq dqg wkh phgldq lv wkh dyhudjh ri ydoxhv rq glhuhqw urzv/ wkhq sduhqwkhvhv
gr qrw dsshdu1 Wkh vhfrqg froxpq jlyhv wkh vwhpv/ dv ghwhuplqhg e| Plqlwde/
dqg wkh uhpdlqlqj froxpqv jlyh wkh rughuhg ohdyhv/ zkhuh hdfk gljlw uhsuhvhqwv
rqh revhuydwlrq1 Wkh Ohdi Xqlw ghwhuplqhv zkhuh wkh ghflpdo sodfh jrhv diwhu
hdfk ohdi1 Vr lq wklv h{dpsoh/ wkh uvw revhuydwlrq lv 44=0> zkloh lw zrxog eh
4=4 li wkh Ohdi Xqlw zhuh 141 Pxowlsoh vwhp0dqg0ohdi sorwv fdq eh fduulhg rxw
iru d qxpehu ri froxpqv vlpxowdqhrxvo| dqg dovr iru d vlqjoh yduldeoh e| wkh
ydoxhv ri dqrwkhu yduldeoh1

1.2.3 Histograms
D klvwrjudp lv d sorw zkhuh wkh gdwd duh jurxshg lqwr lqwhuydov/ dqg ryhu hdfk
vxfk lqwhuydo d edu lv gudzq ri khljkw htxdo wr wkh iuhtxhqf| ri gdwd ydoxhv lq
wkdw lqwhuydo ru ri khljkw htxdo wr wkh uhodwlyh iuhtxhqf| +sursruwlrq, ri gdwd
ydoxhv lq wkdw lqwhuydo ru ri khljkw htxdo wr wkh ghqvlw| ri srlqwv lq wkdw lqwhuydo/
l1h1/ wkh sursruwlrq ri srlqwv lq wkh lqwhuydo glylghg e| wkh ohqjwk ri wkh lqwhuydo1
Wkh Judsk I Klvwrjudp frppdqg lv xvhg wr rewdlq wkhvh sorwv1
 
Iru h{dpsoh/ xvlqj wklv frppdqg zlwk wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw/ surgxfhv
wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| 41<1 Zh kdyh sodfhg wkh yduldeoh time lq wkh
uvw x er{ wr lqglfdwh zh zdqw d klvwrjudp ri wklv yduldeoh1 Zh fdq surgxfh
pxowlsoh klvwrjudpv e| sodflqj pruh yduldeohv lq wkh x er{hv1 Wr vhohfw wkh w|sh
ri klvwrjudp wr sorw/ zh qh{w folfn rq wkh R swlrqv exwwrq/ zklfk surgxfhv wkh

gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| 41431 Khuh/ zh kdyh vhohfwhg d ghqvlw| klvwrjudp dqg kdyh
vshflhg wkh lqwhuydov wr xvh iru jurxslqj wkh gdwd e| vshfli|lqj wkh fxwsrlqwv
45> 30> 15> 0> 15> 30> 45> zklfk suhvfuleh wkh lqwhuydov [45> 30)> [30> 15)>
hwf1/ iru wkh jurxslqj1 Dowhuqdwlyho|/ zh frxog kdyh vshflhg wkh plgsrlqwv ri
wkh jurxslqj lqwhuydov1 Wkh dgydqwdjh zlwk fxwsrlqwv lv wkdw vxelqwhuydov ri
xqhtxdo ohqjwkv fdq eh vshflhg1 Folfnlqj rq wkh RN exwwrqv lq wkhvh er{hv

89 Chapter 1

surgxfhv wkh klvwrjudp vkrzq lq Glvsod| 41441 Dv fdq eh vhhq iurp wkh gldorj
er{ ri Glvsod| 41</ wkhuh duh d ydulhw| ri phwkrgv iru frqwuroolqj wkh dsshdudqfh
ri wkh klvwrjudp surgxfhg/ dqg zh uhihu wkh uhdghu wr wkh Khos exwwrq iru d
ghvfulswlrq ri wkhvh1

Glvsod| 41<= Gldorj er{ iru fuhdwlqj d klvwrjudp ri wkh wlph yduldeoh lq wkh newcomb
zrunvkhhw1

Glvsod| 4143= Gldorj er{ iru vhohfwlqj wkh w|sh ri klvwrjudp wr sorw1
Looking At Data–Distributions 8:

Glvsod| 4144= Ghqvlw| klvwrjudp ri wkh wlph yduldeoh lq wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw1

Dq lpsruwdqw frqvlghudwlrq zkhq sorwwlqj pxowlsoh klvwrjudpv lv wr hqvxuh

wkdw doo wkh klvwrjudpv kdyh wkh vdph { dqg | vfdohv vr wkdw wkh sorwv duh ylvxdoo|
frpsdudeoh1 Wklv fdq eh dffrpsolvkhg iurp wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod|
41< e| Iudph I Pxowlsoh Judskv dqg wkhq vhohfwlqj Vdph [ dqg vdph \1
  
Wkh vhvvlrq frppdqg histogram lv dovr dydlodeoh1 Wklv kdv wkh jhqhudo
v|qwd{
histogram H1 = = =Hp
zkhuh H1 / 111/ Hp fruuhvsrqg wr froxpqv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ wkh frppdqgv
MTB Ahistogram c1;
SUBCAcutpoints -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45;
SUBCAdensity.
surgxfh wkh klvwrjudp lq Glvsod| 4144 xvlqj wkh cutpoints dqg density vxe0
frppdqgv1 Wkhuh duh dovr vxefrppdqgv midpoints, nintervals, zklfk vshf0
li| wkh qxpehu ri vxelqwhuydov/ dqg frequency ru percent, zklfk uhvshfwlyho|
hqvxuh wkdw wkh khljkwv ri wkh edu olqhv htxdo wkh iuhtxhqf| dqg uhodwlyh iuh0
txhqf| ri wkh gdwd ydoxhv lq wkh lqwhuydo1 Dovr/ wkh cumulative vxefrppdqg
lv dydlodeoh vr wkdw wkh eduv uhsuhvhqw doo wkh ydoxhv ohvv wkdq ru htxdo wr wkh hqg0
srlqw ri dq lqwhuydo1 Wkh vxefrppdqg same hqvxuhv wkdw pxowlsoh klvwrjudpv
doo kdyh wkh vdph vfdoh1

1.2.4 Boxplots
Er{sorwv duh xvhixo vxppdulhv ri d txdqwlwdwlyh yduldeoh dqg duh rewdlqhg xvlqj
wkh Judsk I Er{sorw frppdqg1 Er{sorwv duh xvhg wr surylgh d judsklfdo
 
qrwlrq ri wkh orfdwlrq ri wkh gdwd dqg lwv vfdwwhu lq d frqflvh dqg hyrfdwlyh zd|1
Iru h{dpsoh/ lq wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw wklv frppdqg surgxfhv wkh gldorj er{
vkrzq lq Glvsod| 4145 dqg wkh sorw lq Glvsod| 41461 Wkh olqh lq wkh fhqwhu ri wkh
8; Chapter 1

er{ lv wkh phgldq1 Wkh olqh ehorz wkh phgldq lv wkh uvw txduwloh/ dovr fdoohg wkh
orzhu klqjh/ dqg wkh olqh deryh lv wklug txduwloh/ dovr fdoohg wkh xsshu klqjh1
Wkh glhuhqfh ehwzhhq wkh wklug dqg uvw txduwloh/ lv fdoohg wkh lqwhutxduwloh
udqjh ru LTU1 Wkh yhuwlfdo olqhv iurp wkh klqjhv duh fdoohg zklvnhuv/ dqg wkhvh
uxq iurp wkh klqjhv wr wkh dgmdfhqw ydoxhv1 Wkh dgmdfhqw ydoxhv duh jlyhq e| wkh
juhdwhvw ydoxh ohvv wkdq ru htxdo wr wkh xsshu olplw +wkh wklug txduwloh soxv 418
wlphv wkh LTU, dqg e| wkh ohdvw ydoxh juhdwhu wkdq ru htxdo wr wkh orzhu olplw
+wkh uvw txduwloh plqxv 418 wlphv wkh LTU,1 Wkh xsshu dqg orzhu olplwv duh
dovr uhihuuhg wr dv wkh lqqhu ihqfhv1 Wkh rxwhu ihqfhv duh ghqhg e| uhsodflqj
wkh pxowlsoh 418 lq wkh ghqlwlrq ri wkh lqqhu ihqfhv e| 6131 Ydoxhv eh|rqg wkh
rxwhu ihqfhv duh sorwwhg zlwk d * dqg duh fdoohg rxwolhuv1 Dv zlwk wkh sorwwlqj
ri klvwrjudpv/ pxowlsoh er{sorwv fdq eh sorwwhg iru frpsdulvrq sxusrvhv/ dqg
djdlq/ lw lv lpsruwdqw wr pdnh vxuh wkdw wkh| doo kdyh wkh vdph vfdoh1

Glvsod| 4145= Gldorj er{ iru surgxflqj d er{sorw ri wkh wlph yduldeoh lq wkh newcomb
zrunvkhhw1

Glvsod| 4146= Er{sorw ri wkh wlph yduldeoh lq wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw1

Wkhuh lv d fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg fdoohg boxplot1 Zh uhihu wkh

uhdghu wr help iru pruh glvfxvvlrq ri wklv frppdqg1
Looking At Data–Distributions 8<

1.2.5 Time Series Plots

Riwhq/ gdwd duh froohfwhg vhtxhqwldoo| lq wlph1 Lq vxfk d frqwh{w/ lw lv lqvwuxfwlyh
wr sorw wkh ydoxhv ri txdqwlwdwlyh yduldeohv djdlqvw wlph lq d wlph vhulhv sorw1
Iru wklv zh xvh wkh Judsk I Wlph Vhulhv Sorw frppdqg1 Li zh vxssrvh wkdw
 
wkh gdwd ydoxhv lq time ri wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw zhuh rewdlqhg lq wkh rughu
wkh| duh olvwhg/ wkhq dsso|lqj wklv frppdqg wr wkdw gdwd zlwk wkh gldorj er{
dv lq Glvsod| 4147 surgxfhv wkh wlph sorw vkrzq lq Glvsod| 41481 Qrwlfh wkdw lq
wkh Gdwd glvsod| er{ zh kdyh vshflhg wkdw wkh judsk vkrxog sorw d v|pero iru

hdfk srlqw dqg wkdw wkh v|perov sorwwhg vkrxog frqqhfw yld olqhv1 Iru h{dpsoh/
li zh kdg ohiw rxw frqqhfw/ rqo| wkh srlqwv zrxog kdyh ehhq sorwwhg1 Wkh olqhv
khos wr ylvxdol}h wkh irup ri wkh judsk1 Wkh v|pero sorwwhg lv d vrolg flufoh exw
rwkhu fkrlfhv frxog kdyh ehhq pdgh xvlqj wkh Hglw Dwwulexwhv exwwrq1 Dovr/

iru wkh Wlph Vfdoh zh kdyh fkrvhq Lqgh{/ zklfk lv mxvw wkh rughu lq zklfk
wkh revhuydwlrqv duh olvwhg1 Li wkhvh revhuydwlrqv zhuh pdgh dw shulrglf wlph
lqwhuydov/ wkhuh duh rwkhu srvvleoh fkrlfhv wkdw frxog eh pruh phdqlqjixo1

Glvsod| 4147= Gldorj er{ iru d wlph vhulhv sorw ri wkh yduldeoh wlph iurp wkh newcomb
zrunvkhhw1

Glvsod| 4148= Wlph vhulhv sorw ri wkh yduldeoh wlph iurp wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw1

Wkhuh lv dovr d fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg tsplot1 Zh uhihu wkh uhdghu

wr help iru pruh glvfxvvlrq ri wklv1
93 Chapter 1

1.2.6 Bar Charts

Lw lv dovr srvvleoh wr surgxfh ydulrxv fkduwv xvlqj wkh Judsk I Fkduw frppdqg1
 
Iru h{dpsoh/ wkh gldorj er{ vkrzq lq Glvsod| 4149 sorwv d edu fkduw ri wkh
yduldeoh F5 lq wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw1 Hdfk glvwlqfw ydoxh ri F4 lv sorwwhg
dorqj wkh {0d{lv vlpso| dv d fdwhjrulfdo ydoxh/ qrw dv d txdqwlwdwlyh ydoxh/ dqg
d edu ri khljkw htxdo wr wkh qxpehu ri wlphv wkdw ydoxh rffxuv lq wkh yduldeoh lv
gudzq1 D edu fkduw lv d jrrg zd| wr sorw fdwhjrulfdo yduldeohv1 Wkhuh duh pdq|
srvvlelolwlhv iru wkh w|shv ri edu fkduwv gudzq/ dqg zh uhihu wkh uhdghu wr wkh
Khos exwwrq iru d glvfxvvlrq ri wkhvh1

Glvsod| 4149= Gldorj er{ iru sorwwlqj edu fkduwv1

Wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg lv

chart H1
zklfk surgxfhv d edu fkduw iru wkh ydoxhv lq froxpq H1 =

1.2.7 Pie Charts

D slh fkduw lv d glvn glylghg xs lqwr zhgjhv zkhuh hdfk zhgjh fruuhvsrqgv wr
d xqltxh ydoxh ri d yduldeoh/ dqg wkh duhd ri wkh zhgjh lv sursruwlrqdo wr wkh
uhodwlyh iuhtxhqf| ri wkh ydoxh zlwk zklfk lw fruuhvsrqgv1 Slh fkduwv fdq eh
rewdlqhg yld Judsk I Slh Fkduw/ dqg wkhuh duh ydulrxv ihdwxuhv dydlodeoh lq wkh
 
gldorj er{ wkdw fdq eh xvhg wr hqkdqfh wkhvh sorwv1 Slh fkduwv duh d frpprq
phwkrg iru sorwwlqj fdwhjrulfdo yduldeohv1

1.3 The Normal Distribution

Lw lv lpsruwdqw lq vwdwlvwlfv wr eh deoh wr gr frpsxwdwlrqv zlwk wkh qrupdo
glvwulexwlrq1 Wkh htxdwlrq ri wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh iru wkh qrupdo glvwulexwlrq zlwk
phdq  dqg vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq  lv jlyhq e|

1 1 } 2
s h 2 (  )
2
Looking At Data–Distributions 94

zkhuh } lv d qxpehu1 Zh uhihu wr wklv dv wkh Q (> ) ghqvlw| fxuyh1 Dovr ri

lqwhuhvw lv wkh duhd xqghu wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh iurp 4 wr d qxpehu {/ l1h1/ wkh
duhd ehwzhhq wkh judsk ri wkh Q (> ) ghqvlw| fxuyh dqg wkh lqwhuydo (4> {]=
Dv qrwhg lq LSV/ wklv lv d ydoxh ehwzhhq 3 dqg 41 Vrphwlphv/ zh vshfli| d ydoxh
s ehwzhhq 3 dqg 4 dqg wkhq zdqw wr qg wkh srlqw {s / vxfk wkdw s ri wkh duhd
xqghu wkh Q (> ) ghqvlw| fxuyh olhv ryhu (4> {s ]= Wkh srlqw {s lv fdoohg wkh
swk shufhqwloh ri wkh Q (> ) ghqvlw| fxuyh1
Riwhq/ zh duh jlyhq d phdq  dqg d vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq  dqg dvnhg wr
vwdqgdugl}h d yduldeoh { zkrvh ydoxhv duh lq vrph froxpq/ l1h1/ surgxfh wkh qhz
yduldeoh } = { = Wkhvh dulwkphwlfdo rshudwlrqv fdq eh fduulhg rxw xvlqj wkh
let frppdqg dv ghvfulehg lq L143141

1.3.1 Calculating the Density

Vxssrvh wkdw zh zdqw wr hydoxdwh wkh Q (> ) ghqvlw| fxuyh dw d ydoxh {= Iru
wklv/ zh xvh wkh Fdof I Suredelolw| Glvwulexwlrqv I Qrupdo frppdqg1 Iru
  
h{dpsoh/ wkh gldorj er{ lq Glvsod| 414: lqglfdwhv wkdw zh zdqw wr hydoxdwh wkh
Q(10> 1) ghqvlw| fxuyh dw wkh ydoxh { = 11=0=

Glvsod| 414:= Gldorj er{ iru qrupdo suredelolw| fdofxodwlrqv1

Diwhu folfnlqj rq wkh RN exwwrq wkh rxwsxw


Normal with mean = 10.0000 and standard deviation = 1.00000
x f( x )
11.0000 0.2420
lv sulqwhg lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz/ zklfk jlyhv wkh ydoxh dv 157531 Vrphwlphv/ zh
zloo zdqw wr hydoxdwh wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh dw hyhu| ydoxh lq d froxpq ri ydoxhv/ h1j1/
zkhq zh duh sorwwlqj wklv fxuyh1 Iru wklv zh vlpso| folfn rq wkh udglr exwwrq
Lqsxw froxpq dqg w|sh wkh uhohydqw froxpq lq wkh dvvrfldwhg er{1

Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg pdf zlwk wkh
normal vxefrppdqg lv
pdf H1 = = =Hp lqwr Hp+1 = = =H2p ;
normal mu @ Y1 vljpd @ Y2 =
95 Chapter 1

zkhuh H1 > 111/ Hp duh froxpqv ru frqvwdqwv frqwdlqlqj qxpehuv dqg Hp+1 / 111/
H2p duh wkh froxpqv ru frqvwdqwv wkdw vwruh wkh ydoxhv ri wkh Q (> ) ghqvlw|
fxuyh dw wkhvh qxpehuv dqg Y1 @  dqg Y2 @ = Li qr vwrudjh lv vshflhg/ wkhq
wkh ydoxhv duh sulqwhg1 Iru h{dpsoh/ li zh zdqw wr frpsxwh wkh Q (=5> 1=2) ghq0
vlw| fxuyh dw hyhu| ydoxh ehwzhhq 3 dqg 3 lq lqfuhphqwv ri =01> wkh frppdqgv
MTB Aset c1
DATAA-3:3/.01
DATAAend
MTB Apdf c1 c2;
SUBCAnormal mu=-.5 sigma=1.2.
sxw wkh ydoxhv ehwzhhq 3 dqg 3 lq lqfuhphqwv ri =01 lq F4 xvlqj wkh set
frppdqg1 Wkh pdf frppdqg zlwk wkh normal vxefrppdqg fdofxodwhv wkh
Q (=5> 1=2) ghqvlw| fxuyh dw hdfk ri wkhvh ydoxhv dqg sxwv wkh rxwfrphv lq wkh
fruuhvsrqglqj hqwulhv ri F51 Li zh sorw F5 djdlqvw F4/ zh zloo kdyh d sorw ri
wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh ri wklv glvwulexwlrq1 Iru wklv/ zh xvh wkh vfdwwhusorw idflolwlhv
lq Plqlwde dv glvfxvvhg lq LL161 Qrwh wkdw zlwk wkh normal vxefrppdqg zh
pxvw dovr vshfli| wkh phdq dqg wkh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq yld mu dqg sigma1

1.3.2 Calculating the Distribution Function

Vxssrvh wkdw zh zdqw wr hydoxdwh wkh duhd xqghu Q(> ) ghqvlw| fxuyh ryhu wkh
lqwhuydo (4> {]= Wklv lv wkh ydoxh ri wkh fxpxodwlyh glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq ri
wkh Q (> ) glvwulexwlrq dw wkh ydoxh {= Iru wklv/ zh xvh wkh Fdof I Suredelolw|

Glvwulexwlrqv I Qrupdo dv zhoo/ exw lq wklv fdvh lq wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod|
 
414: zh vhohfw Fxpxodwlyh suredelolw| lqvwhdg1 Pdnlqj wklv fkdqjh lq wkh gldorj

er{ ri Glvsod| 414:/ zh jhw wkh rxwsxw
x P( X ?= x )
11.0000 0.8413
lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Djdlq/ zh fdq hydoxdwh wklv ixqfwlrq dw d vlqjoh srlqw
ru dw hyhu| ydoxh lq d yduldeoh1
Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj Vhvvlrq frppdqg cdf frppdqg
zlwk wkh normal vxefrppdqg lv
cdf H1 = = =Hp lqwr Hp+1 = = =H2p ;
normal mu @ Y1 vljpd @ Y2 =
zkhuh H1 > 111/ Hp duh froxpqv ru frqvwdqwv frqwdlqlqj qxpehuv dqg Hp+1 / 111/
H2p duh wkh froxpqv ru frqvwdqwv wkdw vwruh wkh ydoxhv ri wkh duhd xqghu Q (> )
ghqvlw| fxuyh ryhu wkh lqwhuydo iurp 4 wr wkhvh qxpehuv dqg Y1 @  dqg Y2
@ = Li qr vwrudjh lv vshflhg/ wkh ydoxhv duh sulqwhg1

1.3.3 Calculating the Inverse Distribution Function

Vxssrvh wkdw zh zdqw wr hydoxdwh shufhqwlohv iru wkh Q (> ) ghqvlw| fxuyh=
Djdlq/ zh xvh wkh Fdof I Suredelolw| Glvwulexwlrqv I Qrupdo frppdqg/ exw
  
Looking At Data–Distributions 96

lq wklv fdvh/ lq wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| 414: zh vhohfw Lqyhuvh fxpxodwlyh

suredelolw| lqvwhdg1 Pdnlqj wklv fkdqjh lq wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| 414: dqg
uhsodflqj 44 e| 1:8  uhfdoo wkdw wkh dujxphqw wr wklv ixqfwlrq pxvw eh ehwzhhq
3 dqg 4  zh jhw wkh rxwsxw
P( X ?= x ) x
0.7500 10.6745
lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Wklv lqglfdwhv wkdw wkh duhd wr wkh ohiw ri 4319:78 xq0
ghuqhdwk wkh Q(=5> 1=2) ghqvlw| fxuyh lv 1:81
Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg invcdf zlwk wkh
normal vxefrppdqg lv
invcdf H1 = = =Hp lqwr Hp+1 = = =H2p ;
normal mu @ Y1 vljpd @ Y2 =
zkhuh H1 > 111/ Hp duh froxpqv ru frqvwdqwv frqwdlqlqj qxpehuv ehwzhhq 3 dqg
4 dqg Hp+1 / 111/ H2p duh wkh froxpqv ru frqvwdqwv wkdw vwruh wkh ydoxhv ri wkh
shufhqwlohv ri wkh Q (> ) ghqvlw| fxuyh dw wkhvh qxpehuv dqg zkhuh Y1 @ 
dqg Y2 @ = Li qr vwrudjh lv vshflhg/ wkhq wkh ydoxhv duh sulqwhg1

1.3.4 Normal Probability Plots

Vrph vwdwlvwlfdo surfhgxuhv uhtxluh wkdw zh dvvxph wkdw ydoxhv iru vrph yduldeohv
duh d vdpsoh iurp d qrupdo glvwulexwlrq1 D qrupdo suredelolw| sorw lv d gldjqrvwlf
wkdw fkhfnv iru wkh uhdvrqdeohqhvv ri wklv dvvxpswlrq1 Wr fuhdwh vxfk d sorw/ zh
xvh wkh Judsk I Suredelolw| Sorw frppdqg1 Iru h{dpsoh/ xvlqj wklv frppdqg
  jhw wkh gldorj er{ lq Glvsod| 414; zkhuh zh kdyh
rq wkh newcomb zrunvkhhw zh
sodfhg time lq wkh Yduldeohv er{1 Folfnlqj rq wkh RN exwwrq surgxfhv wkh sorw
 
lq Glvsod| 414<1 Wkh qrupdo suredelolw| sorw lv jlyhq e| wkh gdun grwwhg fxuyh1
Wkh sorw dovr frqwdlqv rwkhu lqirupdwlrq dqg ixuwkhu rxwsxw lv sulqwhg lq wkh
Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Ri frxuvh/ wkh sorw vkrxog eh olnh d vwudljkw olqh dqg lw lv qrw
lq wklv fdvh1

Glvsod| 414;= Gldorj er{ iru surgxflqj qrupdo suredelolw| sorwv1

97 Chapter 1

Glvsod| 414<= Qrupdo suredelolw| sorw ri wkh wlph yduldeoh lq wkh qhzfrpe zrunvkhhw1

Wkh vhvvlrq frppdqgv

MTB Anscores c1 c3
MTB Aplot c3*c1
surgxfh d qrupdo suredelolw| sorw olnh wkdw vkrzq lq Glvsod| 5161 Wkh plot
frppdqg zloo eh glvfxvvhg pxfk pruh h{whqvlyho| lq LL161 Wkh nscores +qrupdo
vfruhv, frppdqg uholhv rq vrph frqfhswv wkdw duh eh|rqg wkh ohyho ri wklv frxuvh
vr zh gr qrw glvfxvv wklv ixuwkhu1

1.4 Exercises
Zkhq wkh gdwd iru dq h{huflvh frph iurp dq h{huflvh lq LSV/ wkh LSV h{huflvh
qxpehu lv jlyhq lq sduhqwkhvhv + ,1 Doo frpsxwdwlrqv lq wkhvh h{huflvhv duh
wr eh fduulhg rxw xvlqj Plqlwde/ dqg wkh h{huflvhv duh ghvljqhg wr hqvxuh wkdw
|rx kdyh d uhdvrqdeoh xqghuvwdqglqj ri wkh Plqlwde pdwhuldo lq wklv fkdswhu1
Jhqhudoo|/ |rx vkrxog eh xvlqj Plqlwde wr gr doo wkh frpsxwdwlrqv dqg sorwwlqj
uhtxluhg iru wkh sureohpv lq LSV1

41 Xvlqj Qhzfrpe*v phdvxuhphqwv lq Wdeoh 414/ fuhdwh d qhz yduldeoh e|

jurxslqj wkhvh ydoxhv lqwr wkuhh vxelqwhuydov ^50/ 3,/ ^3/ 53,/ ^53/ 83,1
Fdofxodwh wkh iuhtxhqf| glvwulexwlrq/ wkh uhodwlyh iuhtxhqf| glvwulexwlrq/
dqg wkh fxpxodwlyh glvwulexwlrq ri wklv rughuhg fdwhjrulfdo yduldeoh1
51 +4154, Xvh Plqlwde wr sulqw wkh hpslulfdo glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq1 Iurp wklv/
ghwhuplqh wkh uvw txduwloh/ phgldq/ dqg wklug txduwloh1 Dovr/ xvh wkh
hpslulfdo glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq wr frpsxwh wkh 43wk dqg <3wk shufhqwlohv1
61 Xvh Plqlwde wr surgxfh wkh vwhpsorw ri H{dpsoh 417 ri LSV1
71 Xvh Plqlwde wr surgxfh wkh wlph sorw ri H{dpsoh 418 ri LSV1
Looking At Data–Distributions 98

81 +415<, Xvh Plqlwde frppdqgv iru wkh vwhpsorw dqg wkh wlph sorw1 Xvh
Plqlwde frppdqgv wr frpsxwh d qxphulfdo vxppdu| ri wklv gdwd/ dqg
mxvwli| |rxu fkrlfhv1
91 +4163, Wudqvirup wkh gdwd lq wklv sureohp e| vxewudfwlqj 8 iurp hdfk ydoxh
dqg pxowlso|lqj e| 431 Fdofxodwh wkh phdqv dqg vwdqgdug ghyldwlrqv/
xvlqj dq| Plqlwde frppdqgv/ ri erwk wkh ruljlqdo dqg wudqviruphg gdwd1
Frpsxwh wkh udwlr ri wkh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq ri wkh wudqviruphg gdwd wr
wkh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq ri wkh ruljlqdo gdwd1 Frpphqw rq wklv ydoxh1
:1 +4163, Wudqvirup wklv gdwd e| pxowlso|lqj hdfk ydoxh e| 61 Frpsxwh
wkh udwlr ri wkh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq wr wkh phdq +fdoohg wkh frh!flhqw ri
yduldwlrq, iru wkh ruljlqdo gdwd dqg iru wkh wudqviruphg gdwd1 Mxvwli| wkh
rxwfrph1
;1 Iru wkh Q (6> 1=1) ghqvlw| fxuyh/ frpsxwh wkh duhd ehwzhhq wkh lqwhuydo
(3> 5) dqg wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh1 Zkdw qxpehu kdv 86( ri wkh duhd wr wkh ohiw
ri lw iru wklv ghqvlw| fxuyhB
<1 Xvh Plqlwde frppdqgv wr yhuli| wkh 9;0<80<<1: uxoh iru wkh Q (2> 3) ghqvlw|
fxuyh1
431 Fdofxodwh dqg vwruh wkh ydoxhv ri wkh Q (0> 1) ghqvlw| fxuyh dw hdfk ydoxh
lq [3> 3] xvlqj dq lqfuhphqw ri 1341 Sxw wkh ydoxhv lq wkh lqwhuydo [3> 3]
lq F4 dqg wkh ydoxhv ri wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh lq F51 Xvlqj wkh frppdqg plot
C2*C1/ sorw wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh1 Frpphqw rq wkh vkdsh ri wklv fxuyh1
441 Xvh Plqlwde frppdqgv wr pdnh wkh qrupdo txdqwloh sorwv suhvhqwhg lq
Iljxuhv 4164 dqg 4165 ri LSV1
99 Chapter 1
Chapter 2

Looking at
Data–Relationships

New Minitab commands discussed in this chapter

Judsk I Sorw
 
Vwdw I Edvlf Vwdwlvwlfv I Fruuhodwlrq
  
Vwdw I Uhjuhvvlrq I Ilwwhg Olqh Sorw
  
Vwdw I Uhjuhvvlrq I Uhjuhvvlrq
  

Lq wklv fkdswhu/ Plqlwde frppdqgv duh ghvfulehg wkdw shuplw wkh dqdo|vlv ri
uhodwlrqvklsv dprqj wzr yduldeohv1 Wkh phwkrgv duh glhuhqw ghshqglqj rq
zkhwkhu ru qrw erwk yduldeohv duh txdqwlwdwlyh/ erwk yduldeohv duh fdwhjrulfdo/
ru rqh lv txdqwlwdwlyh dqg wkh rwkhu lv fdwhjrulfdo1 Wklv fkdswhu frqvlghuv uhod0
wlrqvklsv ehwzhhq wzr txdqwlwdwlyh yduldeohv zlwk wkh uhpdlqlqj fdvhv glvfxvvhg
lq odwhu fkdswhuv1 Judsklfdo phwkrgv duh yhu| xvhixo lq orrnlqj iru uhodwlrqvklsv
dprqj yduldeohv/ dqg zh h{dplqh ydulrxv sorwv iru wklv1

2.1 Scatterplots
D vfdwwhusorw ri wzr txdqwlwdwlyh yduldeohv lv d xvhixo whfkqltxh zkhq orrnlqj
iru d uhodwlrqvkls ehwzhhq wzr yduldeohv1 E| d vfdwwhusorw zh phdq d sorw ri
rqh yduldeoh rq wkh |0d{lv djdlqvw wkh rwkhu yduldeoh rq wkh {0d{lv1 Iru h{dp0
soh/ frqvlghu H{dpsoh 517 lq LSV/ zkhuh zh duh frqfhuqhg zlwk wkh uhodwlrqvkls
ehwzhhq wkh ohqjwk ri wkh ihpxu dqg wkh ohqjwk ri wkh kxphuxv lq dq h{wlqfw
vshflhv1 Vxssrvh wkdw zh kdyh lqsxw wkh gdwd vr wkdw ohqjwk ri wkh ihpxu
phdvxuhphqwv duh lq F4/ zklfk kdv ehhq qdphg femur/ dqg wkh ohqjwk ri wkh
kxphuxv phdvxuhphqwv duh lq F5/ zklfk kdv ehhq qdphg humerus/ ri wkh zrun0
vkhhw archaeopteryx1 Wkh frppdqg Judsk I Sorw surgxfhv wkh gldorj er{ ri
 lqwr wkh
Glvsod| 514/ zkhuh zh kdyh sodfhg femur  uvw er{ iru wkh | yduldeoh

9:
9; Chapter 2

dqg humerus lq wkh uvw er{ iru wkh { yduldeoh1 Wklv surgxfhv wkh sorw vkrzq lq
Glvsod| 5151 Qrwh wkdw zh frxog dowhu wkh sorwwlqj v|pero xvlqj wkh gldorj er{
wkdw dsshduv zkhq zh folfn rq wkh Hglw Dwwulexwhv er{1 Xvlqj wkh gldorj er{

wkdw dsshduv zkhq |rx folfn rq wkh Dqqrwdwlrq exwwrq/ lw lv srvvleoh wr jlyh wkh

sorw d wlwoh/ odeho sorwwhg srlqwv/ hwf1 Xvlqj wkh gldorj er{ wkdw dsshduv zkhq
|rx folfn rq wkh Iudph exwwrq/ |rx fdq fkdqjh wkh odehov rq wkh d{hv1 Udwkhu

wkdq mxvw sorwwlqj wkh srlqwv lq d vfdwwhusorw/ |rx fdq dgg frqqhfwlrq olqhv +mrlq
wkh srlqwv zlwk olqhv,/ dgg surmhfwlrq olqhv +gurs d olqh iurp hdfk srlqw wr wkh
{0d{lv,/ dqg dgg duhdv +oo lq wkh duhd xqghu d sro|jrq mrlqlqj wkh srlqwv,1
Dovr/ |rx fdq hpsor| wkh vfdwwhusorw vprrwkhu orzhvv wr sorw d slhfhzlvh olqhdu
frqwlqxrxv fxuyh wkurxjk wkh vfdwwhu ri srlqwv1 Wkhvh ihdwxuhv duh dydlodeoh yld
Judsk I Sorw I Glvsod|1 Wkhuh duh d qxpehu ri rwkhu ihdwxuhv wkdw doorz |rx
 
wr frqwuro wkh dsshdudqfh ri wkh sorw1

Glvsod| 514= Gldorj er{ iru surgxflqj d vfdwwhusorw1

70

60
femur

50

40

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
humerus

Glvsod| 515= Vfdwwhu sorw ri ihpxu ohqjwk +F4, yhuvxv kxphuxv ohqjwk +F5, ri
H{dpsoh 517 lq LSV1
Looking At Data–Relationships 9<

Lw lv dovr srvvleoh wr kdyh pxowlsoh vfdwwhusorwv rq wkh vdph sorw1 Iru h{dp0
soh/ vxssrvh wkdw F6 lq wkh archaeopteryx zrunvkhhw frqwdlqv wkh qdwxudo orj
ri wkh femur yduldeoh1 Zh rewdlqhg wkh sorw ri Glvsod| 516 e| dgglqj dqrwkhu
sdlu ri yduldeohv wr wkh vhfrqg Judsk yduldeohv er{ dv lq Glvsod| 514 zlwk F6

dv wkh | yduldeoh dqg humerus dv wkh { yduldeoh1 Wr sxw wkhvh vfdwwhusorwv rq
wkh vdph sorw xvh Iudph I Pxowlsoh Judskv dqg folfn rq wkh Ryhuod| judskv
  
rq wkh vdph sdjh udglr exwwrq1

75

65

55
femur

45

35

25

15
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
humerus

Glvsod| 516= Pxowlsoh vfdwwhusorwv lq wkh vdph sorw1

Wkh whfkqltxh ri euxvklqj lv dydlodeoh diwhu rewdlqlqj wkh sorw wr vhh zklfk
revhuydwlrqv +urzv, wkh srlqwv fruuhvsrqg wr1 Wklv lv khosixo lq lghqwli|lqj wkh
srlqwv wkdw fruuhvsrqg wr rxwolhuv1 Euxvklqj lv dffhvvhg iurp wkh wrroedu mxvw
ehorz wkh phqx edu e| folfnlqj rq wkh euxvk zkhq wkh Judsk zlqgrz lv dfwlyh1
Wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg lv plot. Iru h{dpsoh/
MTB A plot femur*humerus
surgxfhv wkh sorw ri Glvsod| 5151 Qrwh wkdw wkh uvw yduldeoh lv sorwwhg dorqj wkh
|0d{lv/ dqg wkh vhfrqg yduldeoh lv sorwwhg dorqj wkh {0d{lv1 Wkhuh duh ydulrxv
vxefrppdqgv wkdw fdq eh xvhg zlwk plot, dqg zh uhihu wkh uhdghu wr Khos iru

d ghvfulswlrq ri wkhvh.
Wkhuh duh d qxpehu ri dgglwlrqdo sorwv dydlodeoh lq Plqlwde wkdw duh uhodwhg
wr wkh vfdwwhusorw1 Iru h{dpsoh/ d pdujlqdo sorw ri wzr yduldeohv lv d vfdwwhusorw
ri rqh yduldeoh djdlqvw wkh rwkhu zkhuh lq dgglwlrq klvwrjudpv/ grwsorwv ru
er{sorwv duh sorwwhg dorqj wkh vlghv ri wkh vfdwwhusorw iru hdfk yduldeoh1 Wkhvh
duh dydlodeoh yld wkh phqx frppdqg Judsk I Pdujlqdo Sorw1 Gudiwvpdq sorwv
 
doorz |rx wr surgxfh d qxpehu ri vfdwwhusorwv lq d uhfwdqjxodu duud| vr wkdw
wkh| fdq eh frpsduhg1 Iru h{dpsoh/ |rx pd| zdqw wr sorw F4 djdlqvw F6/ F5
djdlqvw F6/ F4 djdlqvw F7/ dqg F5 djdlqvw F7 dqg vhh doo ri wkhvh lq d frpprq
sorw1 Wklv fdsdelolw| lv dydlodeoh yld wkh phqx frppdqg Judsk I Gudiwvpdq

Sorw dqg oolqj lq wkh gldorj er{1 Pdwul{ sorwv surylgh d phfkdqlvp iru sodflqj
d qxpehu ri vfdwwhusorwv lq d uhfwdqjxodu duud| ru pdwul{ vr wkdw wkh| fdq eh
gluhfwo| frpsduhg ru h{dplqhg iru uhodwlrqvklsv1 Pdwul{ sorwv duh dydlodeoh yld
:3 Chapter 2

wkh frppdqg Judsk I Pdwul{ Sorw1 Dovr wkuhh0glphqvlrqdo vfdwwhusorwv duh

 
dydlodeoh yld Judsk I 6G Sorw dqg frqwrxu sorwv yld Judsk I Frqwrxu Sorw1
   

2.2 Correlations
Zkloh d vfdwwhusorw lv d frqyhqlhqw judsklfdo phwkrg iru dvvhvvlqj zkhwkhu ru
qrw wkhuh lv dq| uhodwlrqvkls ehwzhhq wzr yduldeohv/ zh zrxog dovr olnh wr dvvhvv
wklv qxphulfdoo|1 Wkh fruuhodwlrq frh!flhqw surylghv d qxphulfdo vxppdul}d0
wlrq ri wkh ghjuhh wr zklfk d olqhdu uhodwlrqvkls h{lvwv ehwzhhq wzr txdqwlwd0
wlyh yduldeohv/ dqg wklv fdq eh fdofxodwhg xvlqj wkh Vwdw I Edvlf Vwdwlvwlfv I
 
Fruuhodwlrq frppdqg1 Iru h{dpsoh/ dsso|lqj wklv frppdqg wr wkh femur dqg

humerus yduldeohv ri wkh zrunvkhhw archaeopteryx/ l1h1/ wkh gdwd ri H{dpsoh
517 lq LSV dqg ghslfwhg lq Glvsod| 515/ zh rewdlq wkh rxwsxw
Pearson correlation of femur and humerus = 0.994
P-Value = 0.001
lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Iru qrz/ zh ljqruh wkh qxpehu uhfrughg dv P-Value.
Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg correlate lv jlyhq
e|
correlate H1 = = = Hp
zkhuh H1 / 111/ Hp duh froxpqv fruuhvsrqglqj wr qxphulfdo yduldeohv/ dqg d fru0
uhodwlrq frh!flhqw lv frpsxwhg ehwzhhq hdfk sdlu1 Wklv jlyhv p(p  1)@2
fruuhodwlrq frh!flhqwv1 Wkh vxefrppdqg nopvalues lv dydlodeoh li |rx zdqw
wr vxssuhvv wkh sulqwlqj ri S 0ydoxhv1

2.3 Regression
Uhjuhvvlrq lv dqrwkhu whfkqltxh iru dvvhvvlqj wkh vwuhqjwk ri d olqhdu uhodwlrqvkls
h{lvwlqj ehwzhhq wzr yduldeohv dqg lw lv forvho| uhodwhg wr fruuhodwlrq1 Iru wklv/
zh xvh wkh Vwdw I Uhjuhvvlrq frppdqg1
 
Dv qrwhg lq LSV/ wkh uhjuhvvlrq dqdo|vlv ri wzr txdqwlwdwlyh yduldeohv lqyroyhv
frpsxwlqj wkh ohdvw0vtxduhv olqh | = d + e{/ zkhuh rqh yduldeoh lv wdnhq wr eh
wkh uhvsrqvh yduldeoh | dqg wkh rwkhu lv wdnhq wr eh wkh h{sodqdwru| yduldeoh
{1 Qrwh wkdw wkh ohdvw vtxduhv olqh lv glhuhqw ghshqglqj xsrq zklfk fkrlfh lv
pdgh1 Iru h{dpsoh/ iru wkh gdwd ri H{dpsoh 517 lq LSV dqg sorwwhg lq Glvsod|
515 ohwwlqj femur eh wkh uhvsrqvh dqg humerus eh wkh suhglfwru ru h{sodqdwru|
yduldeoh/ wkh Vwdw I Uhjuhvvlrq I Uhjuhvvlrq frppdqg ohdgv wr wkh gldorj er{
  
ri Glvsod| 517/ zkhuh zh kdyh pdgh wkh dssursuldwh hqwulhv lq wkh Uhvsrqvh dqg

Suhglfwruv er{hv1 Folfnlqj rq wkh RN exwwrq ohdgv wr wkh rxwsxw ri Glvsod|
 
518 ehlqj sulqwhg lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Wklv jlyhv wkh ohdvw0vtxduhv olqh dv
| = 3=70 + =826{> l1h1/ d = 3=70 dqg e = =826/ zklfk zh dovr vhh xqghu wkh Coef
froxpq lq wkh uvw wdeoh1 Lq dgglwlrq/ zh rewdlq wkh ydoxh ri wkh vtxduh ri wkh
fruuhodwlrq frh!flhqw/ dovr nqrzq dv wkh frh!flhqw ri ghwhuplqdwlrq/ dv R-Sq
= 98.8%1 Zh zloo glvfxvv wkh uhpdlqlqj rxwsxw iurp wklv frppdqg lq LL1431
Looking At Data–Relationships :4

Glvsod| 517= Gldorj er{ iru d uhjuhvvlrq dqdo|vlv1

Glvsod| 518= Rxwsxw iurp wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| 5171

Lw lv yhu| frqyhqlhqw wr kdyh d vfdwwhusorw ri wkh srlqwv wrjhwkhu zlwk wkh

ohdvw0vtxduhv olqh1 Wklv fdq eh dffrpsolvkhg xvlqj wkh Vwdw I Uhjuhvvlrq I
 
Ilwwhg Olqh Sorw frppdqg= Iloolqj lq wkh gldorj er{ iru wklv frppdqg dv lq

Glvsod| 517 surgxfhv wkh rxwsxw lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz ri Glvsod| 518 wrjhwkhu
zlwk wkh sorw ri Glvsod| 5191
Wkhuh duh vrph dgglwlrqdo txdqwlwlhv wkdw duh riwhq ri lqwhuhvw lq d uhjuhvvlrq
dqdo|vlv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ |rx pd| zlvk wr kdyh wkh wwhg ydoxhv |ˆ = d +e{ dw hdfk
{ ydoxh sulqwhg dv zhoo dv wkh uhvlgxdov |  |ˆ1 Folfnlqj rq wkh Uhvxowv exwwrq lq

wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| 517 dqg oolqj lq wkh hqvxlqj gldorj er{ dv lq Glvsod|
51: uhvxowv lq wkhvh txdqwlwlhv ehlqj sulqwhg lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz dv zhoo dv wkh
rxwsxw ri Glvsod| 5181
:5 Chapter 2

Glvsod| 519= Vfdwwhusorw ri ihpxu yhuvxv kxphuxv lq wkh dufkdhrswhu|{ zrunvkhhw

wrjhwkhu zlwk wkh ohdvw0vtxduhv olqh1

Glvsod| 51:= Gldorj er{ iru frqwuroolqj rxwsxw iru d uhjuhvvlrq dqdo|vlv1

\rx zloo suredeo| zdqw wr nhhs wkhvh ydoxhv iru odwhu zrun1 Lq wklv fdvh/ folfnlqj
rq wkh Vwrudjh exwwrq ri Glvsod| 517 dqg oolqj lq wkh hqvxlqj gldorj er{ dv
lq Glvsod| 51; uhvxowv lq wkhvh txdqwlwlhv ehlqj vdyhg lq wkh qh{w wzr dydlodeoh
froxpqv  lq wklv fdvh/ F6 dqg F7  zlwk wkh qdphv resl1 dqg fits1 iru wkh
uhvlgxdov dqg wv/ uhvshfwlyho|1

Glvsod| 51;= Gldorj er{ iru vwrulqj ydulrxv txdqwlwlhv frpsxwhg dv sduw ri d
uhjuhvvlrq dqdo|vlv1

Hyhq pruh olnho| lv wkdw |rx zloo zdqw wr sorw wkh uhvlgxdov dv sduw ri dvvhvvlqj
zkhwkhu ru qrw wkh dvvxpswlrqv wkdw xqghuolh d uhjuhvvlrq dqdo|vlv pdnh vhqvh
Looking At Data–Relationships :6

lq wkh sduwlfxodu dssolfdwlrq1 Iru wklv/ folfn rq wkh Judskv exwwrq lq wkh gldorj
er{ ri Glvsod| 5171 Wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| 51< ehfrphv dydlodeoh1 Qrwlfh wkdw
zh kdyh uhtxhvwhg wkdw wkh vwdqgdugl}hg uhvlgxdov  hdfk uhvlgxdo glylghg e|
lwv vwdqgdug huuru  eh sorwwhg/ dqg wklv sorw dsshduv lq Glvsod| 51431 Doo wkh
vwdqgdugl}hg uhvlgxdov vkrxog eh lq wkh lqwhuydo (3> 3) > dqg qr sdwwhuq vkrxog
eh glvfhuqleoh1 Lq wklv fdvh/ wklv uhvlgxdo sorw orrnv qh1 Iurp wkh gldorj er{ ri
Glvsod| 51</ zh vhh wkdw wkhuh duh pdq| rwkhu srvvlelolwlhv iru uhvlgxdo sorwv1

Glvsod| 51<= Gldorj er{ iru vhohfwlqj ydulrxv uhvlgxdo sorwv dv sduw ri d uhjuhvvlrq
dqdo|vlv1

Glvsod| 5143= Sorw ri wkh vwdqgdugl}hg uhvlgxdov yhuvxv kxphuxv diwhu uhjuhvvlqj
ihpxu djdlqvw kxphuxv lq wkh dufkdhrswhu|{ zrunvkhhw1

Wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg lv jlyhq e| regress, dqg e| xvlqj wkh

vxefrppdqgv pfits, residual, dqg sresidual zh fdq fdofxodwh dqg vwruh wwhg
ydoxhv/ uhvlgxdov/ dqg vwdqgdugl}hg uhvlgxdov/ uhvshfwlyho|1 Iru h{dpsoh/
:7 Chapter 2

MTB A regress c1 1 c2;

SUBCA fits c3;
SUBCA residuals c4;
SUBCA sresiduals c5.
jlyhv wkh rxwsxw ri Glvsod| 518 dqg dovr vwruhv wkh wwhg ydoxhv lq F6/ vwruhv wkh
uhvlgxdov |  |ˆ lq F7/ dqg vwruhv wkh vwdqgdugl}hg uhvlgxdov lq F81 Qrwh wkdw wkh
4 lq regress c1 1 c2 uhihuv wr wkh qxpehu ri suhglfwruv zh duh xvlqj wr suhglfw
wkh uhvsrqvh yduldeoh1 Wr sorw wkh vwdqgdugl}hg uhvlgxdov djdlqvw humerus, zh
xvh
MTB A plot c5*c2
zklfk uhvxowv lq d sorw olnh Glvsod| 5143 exw zlwk glhuhqw odehov rq wkh { d{lv1

2.4 Transformations
Vrphwlphv/ wudqvirupdwlrqv ri wkh yduldeohv duh dssursuldwh ehiruh zh fduu|
rxw d uhjuhvvlrq dqdo|vlv1 Wklv lv dffrpsolvkhg lq Plqlwde xvlqj wkh Fdof I

Fdofxodwru frppdqg dqg wkh dulwkphwlfdo dqg pdwkhpdwlfdo rshudwlrqv glv0

fxvvhg lq L14314 dqg L143151 Lq sduwlfxodu/ zkhq d uhvlgxdo sorw orrnv edg/ vrph0
wlphv wklv fdq eh {hg e| wudqviruplqj rqh ru pruh ri wkh yduldeohv xvlqj d
vlpsoh wudqvirupdwlrq/ vxfk dv uhsodflqj wkh uhvsrqvh yduldeoh e| lwv orjdulwkp
ru vrphwklqj hovh1 Iru h{dpsoh/ li zh zdqw wr fdofxodwh wkh fxeh urrw  l1h1/ {1@3
 ri hyhu| ydoxh lq F4 dqg sodfh wkhvh lq F5/ zh xvh wkh Fdof I Fdofxodwru
 
frppdqg dqg wkh gldorj er{ dv ghslfwhg lq Glvsod| 51441 Dowhuqdwlyho|/ zh
frxog xvh wkh vhvvlrq frppdqg let dv lq
MTB A let c2=c1**(1/3)
zklfk surgxfhv wkh vdph uhvxow1

Glvsod| 5144= Gldorj er{ iru fdofxodwlqj wudqvirupdwlrqv ri yduldeohv1

Looking At Data–Relationships :8

2.5 Exercises
Zkhq wkh gdwd iru dq h{huflvh frph iurp dq h{huflvh lq LSV/ wkh LSV h{huflvh
qxpehu lv jlyhq lq sduhqwkhvhv + ,1 Doo frpsxwdwlrqv lq wkhvh h{huflvhv duh
wr eh fduulhg rxw xvlqj Plqlwde/ dqg wkh h{huflvhv duh ghvljqhg wr hqvxuh wkdw
|rx kdyh d uhdvrqdeoh xqghuvwdqglqj ri wkh Plqlwde pdwhuldo lq wklv fkdswhu1
Jhqhudoo|/ |rx vkrxog eh xvlqj Plqlwde wr gr doo wkh frpsxwdwlrqv dqg sorwwlqj
uhtxluhg iru wkh sureohpv lq LSV1

41 +5143, Fdofxodwh wkh ohdvw0vtxduhv olqh dqg pdnh d vfdwwhusorw ri Ixho xvhg
djdlqvw Vshhg wrjhwkhu zlwk wkh ohdvw0vtxduhv olqh1 Sorw wkh vwdqgdug0
l}hg uhvlgxdov djdlqvw Vshhg1 Zkdw lv wkh vtxduhg fruuhodwlrq frh!flhqw
ehwzhhq wkhvh yduldeohvB
51 +5144, Pdnh d vfdwwhusorw ri Udwh djdlqvw Pdvv zkhuh wkh srlqwv iru gli0
ihuhqw Vh{hv duh odehohg glhuhqwo| +xvh Plqlwde iru wkh odeholqj/ wrr, dqg
zlwk wkh ohdvw0vtxduhv olqh rq lw1 Klqw= Pdnh xvh ri wkh vwdfn frppdqg
glvfxvvhg lq L1441:1
61 Sodfh wkh ydoxhv 4 wkurxjk 433 zlwk dq lqfuhphqw ri 14 lq F4 dqg wkh
vtxduh ri wkhvh ydoxhv lq F51 Fdofxodwh wkh fruuhodwlrq frh!flhqw ehwzhhq
F4 dqg F51 Pxowlso| hdfk ydoxh lq F4 e| 43/ dgg 8/ dqg sodfh wkh uhvxowv
lq F61 Fdofxodwh wkh fruuhodwlrq frh!flhqw ehwzhhq F5 dqg F61 Zk| duh
wkhvh fruuhodwlrq frh!flhqwv wkh vdphB
71 Sodfh wkh ydoxhv 4 wkurxjk 433 zlwk dq lqfuhphqw ri 14 lq F4 dqg wkh
vtxduh ri wkhvh ydoxhv lq F51 Fdofxodwh wkh ohdvw0vtxduhv olqh zlwk F5 dv
uhvsrqvh dqg F4 dv h{sodqdwru| yduldeoh1 Sorw wkh vwdqgdugl}hg uhvlgxdov1
Li |rx vhh vxfk d sdwwhuq ri uhvlgxdov zkdw wudqvirupdwlrq/ pljkw |rx xvh
wr uhphg| wkh sureohpB
81 +5187, Iru wkh gdwd lq wklv sureohp/ qxphulfdoo| yhuli| wkh dojheudlf uh0
odwlrqvkls wkdw h{lvwv ehwzhhq wkh fruuhodwlrq frh!flhqw dqg wkh vorsh ri
wkh ohdvw0vtxduhv olqh1
91 Iru H{dpsoh 514: lq LSV/ fdofxodwh wkh ohdvw0vtxduhv olqh dqg uhsurgxfh
Glvsod| 51541 Fdofxodwh wkh vxp ri wkh uhvlgxdov dqg wkh vxp ri wkh
vtxduhg uhvlgxdov dqg glylgh wklv e| wkh qxpehu ri gdwd srlqwv plqxv 51
Lv wkhuh dq|wklqj |rx fdq vd| derxw zkdw wkhvh txdqwlwlhv duh htxdo wr lq
jhqhudoB
:1 +5195, Xvh Plqlwde wr gr doo wkh fdofxodwlrqv lq wklv sureohp1
;1 Sodfh wkh ydoxhv 4 wkurxjk 43 zlwk dq lqfuhphqw ri 14 lq F4/ dqg sodfh
exp (1 + 2{) ri wkhvh ydoxhv lq F51 Fdofxodwh wkh ohdvw0vtxduhv olqh xvlqj
F5 dv wkh uhvsrqvh yduldeoh/ dqg sorw wkh vwdqgdugl}hg uhvlgxdov djdlqvw
F41 Zkdw wudqvirupdwlrq zrxog |rx xvh wr uhphg| wklv uhvlgxdo sorwB
Zkdw lv wkh ohdvw0vtxduhv olqh zkhq |rx fduu| rxw wklv wudqvirupdwlrqB
:9 Chapter 2
Chapter 3

Producing Data

New Minitab commands discussed in this chapter

Fdof I Vhw Edvh
 
Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd
 

Wklv fkdswhu lv frqfhuqhg zlwk wkh froohfwlrq ri gdwd/ shukdsv wkh prvw lpsru0
wdqw vwhs lq d vwdwlvwlfdo sureohp/ dv wklv ghwhuplqhv wkh txdolw| ri zkdwhyhu
frqfoxvlrqv duh vxevhtxhqwo| gudzq1 D srru dqdo|vlv fdq eh {hg li wkh gdwd
froohfwhg duh jrrg e| vlpso| uhgrlqj wkh dqdo|vlv1 Exw li wkh gdwd kdyh qrw ehhq
dssursuldwho| froohfwhg/ wkhq qr dprxqw ri dqdo|vlv fdq uhvfxh wkh vwxg|1 Zh
glvfxvv Plqlwde frppdqgv wkdw hqdeoh |rx wr jhqhudwh vdpsohv iurp srsxod0
wlrqv dqg dovr wr udqgrpo| doorfdwh wuhdwphqwv wr h{shulphqwdo xqlwv1
Plqlwde xvhv frpsxwhu dojrulwkpv wr plplf udqgrpqhvv1 Vwloo/ wkh uhvxowv
duh qrw wuxo| udqgrp1 Lq idfw/ dq| vlpxodwlrq lq Plqlwde fdq eh uhshdwhg/ zlwk
h{dfwo| wkh vdph uhvxowv ehlqj rewdlqhg/ xvlqj wkh Fdof I Vhw Edvh frppdqg1
Iru h{dpsoh/ lq wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| 614 zh kdyh vshflhg wkh
 edvh/ ru vhhg/
udqgrp qxpehu dv 44443;<1 Wkh edvh fdq eh dq| lqwhjhu1 Zkhq |rx zdqw wr
uhshdw wkh vlpxodwlrq/ |rx jlyh wklv frppdqg/ zlwk wkh vdph lqwhjhu1 Surylghg
|rx xvh wkh vdph vlpxodwlrq frppdqgv/ |rx zloo jhw wkh vdph uhvxowv1 Wklv fdq
dovr eh dffrpsolvkhg xvlqj wkh vhvvlrq frppdqg base V/ zkhuh V lv dq lqwhjhu1

Glvsod| 614= Gldorj er{ iru vhwwlqj edvh ru vhhg udqgrp qxpehu1

::
:; Chapter 3

3.1 Generating a Random Sample

Vxssrvh wkdw zh kdyh d odujh srsxodwlrq ri vl}h Q dqg zh zdqw wr vhohfw d
vdpsoh ri q ? Q iurp wkh srsxodwlrq1 Ixuwkhu/ zh vxssrvh wkdw wkh hohphqwv
ri wkh srsxodwlrq duh rughuhg/ l1h1/ zh kdyh ehhq deoh wr dvvljq d xqltxh qxpehu
1> = = = > Q wr hdfk hohphqw ri wkh srsxodwlrq1 Wr dyrlg vhohfwlrq eldvhv/ zh zdqw
wklv wr eh d udqgrp vdpsoh/ l1h1/ hyhu| vxevhw ri vl}h q iurp wkh srsxodwlrq kdv
wkh vdph fkdqfh ri ehlqj vhohfwhg1 Dv glvfxvvhg lq LSV/ wklv lpsolhv wkdw zh
jhqhudwh rxu vdpsoh vr wkdw hyhu| vxevhw ri vl}h q lq wkh srsxodwlrq kdv wkh vdph
fkdqfh ri ehlqj fkrvhq1 Zh fdq gr wklv sk|vlfdoo| e| xvlqj vrph vlpsoh udqgrp
v|vwhp/ vxfk dv fklsv lq d erzo ru frlq wrvvlqj1 Zh frxog dovr xvh d wdeoh ri
udqgrp qxpehuv/ ru/ pruh frqyhqlhqwo|/ zh fdq xvh frpsxwhu dojrulwkpv wkdw
plplf wkh ehkdylru ri udqgrp v|vwhpv1
Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh wkhuh duh 4333 hohphqwv lq d srsxodwlrq/ dqg zh zdqw
wr jhqhudwh d vdpsoh ri 83 iurp wklv srsxodwlrq zlwkrxw uhsodfhphqw1 Zh fdq
xvh wkh Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I Vdpsoh iurp Froxpqv frppdqg wr gr wklv1
  
Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh zh kdyh odehohg hdfk hohphqw ri wkh srsxodwlrq zlwk d
xqltxh qxpehu lq 1> 2> = = = > 1000> dqg/ ixuwkhu/ zh kdyh sxw wkhvh qxpehuv lq F4
ri d zrunvkhhw1 Wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| 615 uhvxowv lq d udqgrp vdpsoh ri 83
ehlqj jhqhudwhg zlwkrxw uhsodfhphqw iurp F4 dqg vwruhg lq F51

Glvsod| 615= Gldorj er{ iru jhqhudwlqj d udqgrp vdpsoh zlwkrxw uhsodfhphqw1
Sulqwlqj wklv vdpsoh jlyhv wkh rxwsxw
MTB A print c2
C2
441 956 87 736 185 515 883 957 690
438 205 760 246 16 321 371 493 393
538 348 70 54 362 492 182 841 287
277 112 610 890 503 332 413 886 798
764 584 566 495 547 488 206 557 263
414 613 618 685 864
lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Vr qrz zh jr wr wkh srsxodwlrq dqg vhohfw wkh hohphqwv
odehohg 774/ <89/ ;:/ hwf1 Wkh dojrulwkp wkdw xqghuolhv wklv frppdqg lv vxfk
wkdw zh fdq eh frqghqw wkdw wklv vdpsoh ri 83 lv olnh d udqgrp vdpsoh1
Producing Data :<

Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg sample lv

sample Y H1 = = = Hp sxw lqwr Hp+1 = = = H2p
zkhuh Y lv wkh vdpsoh vl}h q dqg Y urzv duh vdpsohg iurp wkh froxpqv H1 /
111/ Hp dqg vwruhg lq froxpqv Hp+1 / 111/ H2p = Li zh zdqwhg wr vdpsoh zlwk
uhsodfhphqw  l1h1/ diwhu d xqlw lv vdpsohg/ lw lv sodfhg edfn lq wkh srsxodwlrq
vr wkdw lw fdq srvvleo| eh vdpsohg djdlq  zh xvh wkh replace vxefrppdqg1 Ri
frxuvh/ iru vlpsoh udqgrp vdpsolqj/ zh gr qrw xvh wkh replace vxefrppdqg1
Qrwh wkdw wkh froxpqv fdq eh qxphulf ru wh{w1
Vrphwlphv zh zdqw wr jhqhudwh udqgrp shupxwdwlrqv/ l1h1/ q = Q / dqg zh
duh vlpso| uhrughulqj wkh hohphqwv ri wkh srsxodwlrq1 Iru h{dpsoh/ lq h{shu0
lphqwdo ghvljq/ vxssrvh zh kdyh Q = q1 +    + qn h{shulphqwdo xqlwv dqg
n wuhdwphqwv/ dqg zh zdqw wr doorfdwh ql dssolfdwlrqv ri wuhdwphqw l= Vxssrvh
ixuwkhu wkdw zh zdqw doo srvvleoh vxfk dssolfdwlrqv wr eh htxdoo| olnho|1 Wkhq zh
jhqhudwh d udqgrp shupxwdwlrq (o1 > = = = > oQ ) ri (1> = = = > Q) dqg doorfdwh wuhdwphqw
4 wr wkrvh h{shulphqwdo xqlwv odehohg o1 > = = = > oq1 > doorfdwh wuhdwphqw 5 wr wkrvh
h{shulphqwdo xqlwv odehohg oq1 +1 > = = = > oq1 +q2 > hwf1 Iru h{dpsoh/ li zh kdyh 63
h{shulphqwdo xqlwv dqg 6 wuhdwphqwv dqg zh zdqw wr doorfdwh 43 h{shulphqwdo
xqlwv wr hdfk wuhdwphqw/ sodflqj wkh qxpehuv 1> 2> = = = > 30 lq F4 dqg xvlqj wkh
Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I Vdpsoh iurp Froxpqv frppdqg dv lq wkh gldorj er{
  
ri Glvsod| 615/ exw zlwk 63 lq wkh Vdpsoh er{/ jhqhudwhv d udqgrp shupxwdwlrq
 wklv jlyhv xv wkh udqgrp shupxwdwlrq
ri 1> 2> = = = > 30 lq F51 Lpsohphqwlqj
MTB A print c2
C2
13 7 26 8 22 23 28 17 3 25
9 2 14 29 15 18 6 11 16 5
12 27 4 30 20 24 1 19 21 10
dqg iru wkh wuhdwphqw doorfdwlrq |rx fdq uhdg wkh qxpehuv urz0zlvh ru froxpq0
zlvh/ dv orqj dv |rx duh frqvlvwhqw1 Urz0zlvh lv suredeo| ehvw/ dv wklv lv krz wkh
qxpehuv duh vwruhg lq F5/ dqg vr |rx fdq dozd|v uhihu edfn wr F5 +suhvxplqj
|rx vdyh |rxu zrunvkhhw, li |rx jhw pl{hg xs1
Wkh deryh h{dpsohv vkrz krz wr gluhfwo| jhqhudwh d vdpsoh iurp d srsx0
odwlrq ri prghvw vl}h1 Exw zkdw kdsshqv li wkh srsxodwlrq lv kxjh ru lw lv qrw
frqyhqlhqw wr odeho hdfk xqlw zlwk d qxpehuB Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh zh kdyh
d srsxodwlrq ri vl}h 433/333 iru zklfk zh kdyh dq rughuhg olvw dqg zh zdqw d
vdpsoh ri vl}h 4331 Lq wklv fdvh pruh vrsklvwlfdwhg whfkqltxhv qhhg wr eh xvhg/
exw vlpsoh udqgrp vdpsolqj fdq vwloo w|slfdoo| eh dffrpsolvkhg +vhh H{huflvh
616 iru d vlpsoh phwkrg wkdw zrunv lq vrph frqwh{wv,1
Vlpsoh udqgrp vdpsolqj fruuhvsrqgv wr vdpsolqj zlwkrxw uhsodfhphqw/ l1h1/
diwhu zh udqgrpo| vhohfw dq hohphqw iurp wkh srsxodwlrq/ zh gr qrw uhwxuq
lw wr wkh srsxodwlrq ehiruh vhohfwlqj wkh qh{w vdpsoh hohphqw1 Vdpsolqj zlwk
uhsodfhphqw fruuhvsrqgv wr uhsodflqj hdfk vdpsoh hohphqw lq wkh srsxodwlrq
diwhu vhohfwlqj lw dqg uhfruglqj rqo| wkh hohphqw wkdw zdv rewdlqhg1 Vr dw hdfk
vhohfwlrq/ hyhu| hohphqw kdv wkh vdph fkdqfh ri ehlqj vhohfwhg/ dqg dq hohphqw
pd| dsshdu pruh wkdq rqfh lq wkh vdpsoh1 Qrwlfh wkdw zh fdq dovr vdpsoh zlwk
;3 Chapter 3

uhsodfhphqw li zh fkhfn wkh Vdpsoh zlwk uhsodfhphqw er{ lq wkh gldorj er{ ri

Glvsod| 6151

3.2 Sampling from Distributions

Rqfh zh kdyh jhqhudwhg d vdpsoh iurp d srsxodwlrq/ zh phdvxuh ydulrxv dw0
wulexwhv ri wkh vdpsohg hohphqwv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ li zh zhuh vdpsolqj iurp d srs0
xodwlrq ri kxpdqv/ zh pljkw phdvxuh hdfk vdpsohg xqlw*v khljkw1 Wkh khljkw iru
wkh vdpsoh xqlw lv qrz d udqgrp yduldeoh wkdw iroorzv wkh khljkw glvwulexwlrq lq
wkh srsxodwlrq iurp zklfk zh duh vdpsolqj1 Iru h{dpsoh/ li ;3( ri wkh shrsoh
lq wkh srsxodwlrq duh ehwzhhq 718 ihhw dqg 9 ihhw/ wkhq xqghu uhshdwhg vdpsolqj
ri dq hohphqw iurp wkh srsxodwlrq +zlwk uhsodfhphqw, lq wkh orqj uxq/ ;3( ri
wkh vdpsohg xqlwv zloo kdyh wkhlu khljkwv lq wklv udqjh1
Vrphwlphv/ zh zdqw wr vdpsoh gluhfwo| iurp wklv srsxodwlrq glvwulexwlrq/
l1h1/ jhqhudwh d qxpehu lq vxfk d zd| wkdw xqghu uhshdwhg vdpsolqj lq wkh orqj
uxq wkh sursruwlrq ri ydoxhv idoolqj lq dq| udqjh djuhhv zlwk wkdw suhvfulehg e|
wkh srsxodwlrq glvwulexwlrq1 Ri frxuvh/ zh w|slfdoo| grq*w nqrz wkh srsxodwlrq
glvwulexwlrq/ dv wklv lv zkdw zh zdqw wr qg rxw derxw lq d vwdwlvwlfdo lqyhvwljd0
wlrq1 Vwloo/ wkhuh duh pdq| lqvwdqfhv zkhuh zh zdqw wr suhwhqg wkdw zh gr nqrz
lw dqg vlpxodwh iurp wklv glvwulexwlrq/ h1j1/ shukdsv zh zdqw wr frqvlghu wkh
hhfw ri ydulrxv fkrlfhv ri srsxodwlrq glvwulexwlrq rq wkh vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq
ri vrph vwdwlvwlf ri lqwhuhvw1
Wkhuh duh frpsxwhu dojrulwkpv wkdw doorz xv wr gr wklv iru d ydulhw| ri
glvwulexwlrqv1 Lq Plqlwde/ wklv lv dffrpsolvkhg xvlqj wkh Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd
 
frppdqg1 Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh wkdw zh zdqw wr vlpxodwh wkh wrvvlqj ri d idlu
frlq +d frlq zkhuh khdg dqg wdlo duh htxdoo| olnho| dv rxwfrphv,1 Wkh Fdof I

Udqgrp Gdwd I Ehuqrxool frppdqg wrjhwkhu zlwk wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod|
 
616 jhqhudwhv d vdpsoh ri 433 iurp wkh Ehuqrxool(=5) glvwulexwlrq dqg sodfhv
wkhvh ydoxhv lq F41 D udqgrp yduldeoh kdv d Ehuqrxool(s) glvwulexwlrq li wkh
suredelolw| wkh yduldeoh htxdov 4  vxffhvv  lv s dqg wkh suredelolw| wkh
yduldeoh htxdov 3  idloxuh  lv 1  s= Vr wr jhqhudwh d vdpsoh ri q iurp wkh
Ehuqrxool(s) glvwulexwlrq/ zh sxw q lq wkh Jhqhudwh er{ dqg s lq wkh Suredelolw|
 
ri vxffhvv er{1 Lq vxfk d fdvh/ zh duh vlpxodwlqj wkh wrvvlqj ri d frlq wkdw
surgxfhv d khdg rq d vlqjoh wrvv zlwk suredelolw| s/ l1h1/ wkh orqj0uxq sursruwlrq
ri khdgv wkdw zh revhuyh lq uhshdwhg wrvvlqj lv s= Qrwh wkdw zh fdq jhqhudwh p
vdpsohv ri vl}h q e| sxwwlqj p glvwlqfw froxpqv lq wkh Vwruh lq froxpq+v, er{1

Riwhq/ d qrupdo glvwulexwlrq zlwk vrph sduwlfxodu phdq dqg vwdqgdug ghyld0
wlrq lv frqvlghuhg d uhdvrqdeoh dvvxpswlrq iru wkh glvwulexwlrq ri d phdvxuhphqw
lq d srsxodwlrq1 Iru h{dpsoh/ wkh Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I Qrupdo frppdqg
  
wrjhwkhu zlwk wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| 617 jhqhudwhv d vdpsoh ri 533 iurp wkh
Q (5=2> 1=3) glvwulexwlrq dqg sodfhv wklv vdpsoh lq F41 Wr jhqhudwh d vdpsoh ri
q iurp wkh Q (> ) glvwulexwlrq/ zh sxw q lq wkh Jhqhudwh er{/  lq wkh Phdq
er{/ dqg  lq wkh Vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq er{1  

Producing Data ;4

Glvsod| 616= Gldorj er{ iru jhqhudwlqj d vdpsoh ri 433 iurp wkh Ehuqrxool(=5)
glvwulexwlrq1

Glvsod| 617= Gldorj er{ iru jhqhudwlqj d vdpsoh ri 533 iurp d Q (5=2> 1=3)
glvwulexwlrq1

Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg random lv

random Y lqwr H1 = = = Hp
dqg wklv sxwv d vdpsoh ri vl}h Y lqwr hdfk ri wkh froxpqv H1 / 111/ Hp > dffruglqj
wr wkh glvwulexwlrq vshflhg e| wkh vxefrppdqg1 Iru h{dpsoh/
MTB A random 100 c1;
SUBCA bernoulli .5.
vlpxodwhv wkh wrvvlqj ri d idlu frlq 433 wlphv dqg sodfhv wkh uhvxowv lq F4 xvlqj
wkh bernoulli vxefrppdqg1 Li qr vxefrppdqg lv surylghg/ wklv glvwulexwlrq
lv wdnhq wr eh wkh Q (0> 1) glvwulexwlrq1 Wkh frppdqg
;5 Chapter 3

MTB A random 200 c1;

SUBCA normal mu=2.1 sigma=3.3.
jhqhudwhv d vdpsoh ri 533 iurp wkh Q(2=1> 3=3) glvwulexwlrq xvlqj wkh normal
vxefrppdqg1 Wkhuh duh d qxpehu ri rwkhu vxefrppdqgv vshfli|lqj glvwulex0
wlrqv/ dqg zh uhihu wkh uhdghu wr help iru d ghvfulswlrq ri wkhvh1

3.3 Exercises
Zkhq wkh gdwd iru dq h{huflvh frph iurp dq h{huflvh lq LSV/ wkh LSV h{huflvh
qxpehu lv jlyhq lq sduhqwkhvhv + ,1 Doo frpsxwdwlrqv lq wkhvh h{huflvhv duh
wr eh fduulhg rxw xvlqj Plqlwde/ dqg wkh h{huflvhv duh ghvljqhg wr hqvxuh wkdw
|rx kdyh d uhdvrqdeoh xqghuvwdqglqj ri wkh Plqlwde pdwhuldo lq wklv fkdswhu1
Jhqhudoo|/ |rx vkrxog eh xvlqj Plqlwde wr gr doo wkh frpsxwdwlrqv dqg sorwwlqj
uhtxluhg iru wkh sureohpv lq LSV1
Li |rxu yhuvlrq ri Plqlwde sodfhv uhvwulfwlrqv vxfk wkdw wkh ydoxh ri wkh vlp0
xodwlrq vdpsoh vl}h Q uhtxhvwhg lq wkhvh sureohpv lv qrw ihdvleoh/ wkhq vxevwlwxwh
d pruh dssursuldwh ydoxh1 Eh dzduh/ krzhyhu/ wkdw wkh dffxudf| ri |rxu uhvxowv
lv ghshqghqw rq krz odujh Q lv1

41 +6146, Jhqhudwh d udqgrp shupxwdwlrq ri wkh qdphv xvlqj Plqlwde1

51 +6165, Xvh wkh Pdqls I Vruw frppdqg ghvfulehg lq L14419 wr rughu wkh
 
vxemhfwv e| zhljkw1 Xvh wkh ydoxhv 48 wr lqglfdwh yh eorfnv ri htxdo
ohqjwk lq d vhsdudwh froxpq/ dqg wkhq xvh wkh Pdqls I Xqvwdfn frppdqg

ghvfulehg lq L1441: wr sxw wkh eorfnv lq vhsdudwh froxpqv1 Jhqhudwh d
udqgrp shupxwdwlrq ri hdfk eorfn1

61 Xvh wkh iroorzlqj phwkrgrorj| wr jhqhudwh d vdpsoh ri 53 iurp d srs0

xodwlrq ri 433/3331 Iluvw/ sxw wkh ydoxhv 3< lq hdfk ri F4F81 Qh{w/
xvh vdpsolqj zlwk uhsodfhphqw wr jhqhudwh 83 ydoxhv iurp F4/ dqg sxw
wkh uhvxowv lq F91 Gr wkh vdph iru hdfk ri F5F8 dqg sxw wkh uhvxowv
lq F:F43 +grq*w jhqhudwh iurp wkhvh froxpqv vlpxowdqhrxvo|,1 Fuhdwh d
vlqjoh froxpq ri qxpehuv xvlqj wkh gljlwv lq F9F43 dv wkh gljlwv lq wkh
qxpehuv1 Slfn rxw wkh uvw xqltxh 53 hqwulhv dv odehov iru wkh vdpsoh1 Li
|rx gr qrw rewdlq 53 xqltxh ydoxhv/ uhshdw wkh surfhvv xqwlo |rx gr1 Zk|
grhv wklv zrunB

71 Vxssrvh |rx zdqwhg wr fduu| rxw vwudwlhg vdpsolqj zkhuh wkhuh duh 6
vwudwd/ zlwk wkh uvw vwudwxp frqwdlqlqj 833 hohphqwv/ wkh vhfrqg vwudwxp
frqwdlqlqj 733 hohphqwv/ dqg wkh wklug vwudwxp frqwdlqlqj 433 hohphqwv1
Jhqhudwh d vwudwlhg vdpsoh zlwk 83 hohphqwv iurp wkh uvw vwudwxp/ 73
hohphqwv iurp wkh vhfrqg vwudwxp/ dqg 43 hohphqwv iurp wkh wklug vwudwxp1
Zkhq wkh vwudwd vdpsoh vl}hv duh wkh vdph sursruwlrq ri wkh wrwdo vdpsoh
vl}h dv wkh vwudwd srsxodwlrq vl}hv duh ri wkh wrwdo srsxodwlrq vl}h wklv lv
fdoohg sursruwlrqdo vdpsolqj1
Producing Data ;6

81 Vxssrvh zh kdyh dq xuq frqwdlqlqj 433 edoov zlwk 53 odehohg 4/ 83 odehohg

5/ dqg 63 odehohg 61 Xvlqj vdpsolqj zlwk uhsodfhphqw/ jhqhudwh d vdpsoh
ri vl}h 4333 iurp wklv glvwulexwlrq hpsor|lqj wkh Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd
 
frppdqg wr jhqhudwh wkh vdpsoh gluhfwo| iurp wkh uhohydqw srsxodwlrq
glvwulexwlrq1 Xvh wkh Vwdw I Wdeohv I Furvv Wdexodwlrq frppdqg wr
uhfrug wkh sursruwlrq ri hdfk odeho
 lq wkh vdpsoh1

91 Fduu| rxw d vlpxodwlrq vwxg| zlwk Q = 1000 ri wkh vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq

ri ŝ iru q = 5> 10> 20 dqg iru s = =5> =75> =95= Lq sduwlfxodu/ fdofxodwh wkh
hpslulfdo glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrqv dqg sorw wkh klvwrjudpv1 Frpphqw rq
|rxu qglqjv1
:1 Fduu| rxw d vlpxodwlrq vwxg| zlwk Q = 2000 ri wkh vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq
ri wkh vdpsoh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq zkhq vdpsolqj iurp wkh Q (0> 1) glvwul0
exwlrq edvhg rq d vdpsoh ri vl}h q = 5= Lq sduwlfxodu/ sorw wkh klvwrjudp
xvlqj fxwsrlqwv 3/ 418/ 513 518/ 613 8131 Uhshdw wklv iru wkh vdpsoh frh!0
flhqw ri yduldwlrq +vdpsoh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq glylghg e| wkh vdpsoh phdq,
xvlqj wkh fxwsrlqwv 10/ 9/ 111/ 3/ 111/ </ 431 Frpphqw rq wkh vkdshv ri
wkh klvwrjudpv uhodwlyh wr dq Q (0> 1) ghqvlw| fxuyh1
;7 Chapter 3
Chapter 4

Probability: The Study of

Randomness

Lq wklv fkdswhu wkh frqfhsw ri suredelolw| lv lqwurgxfhg pruh irupdoo| wkdq suh0
ylrxvo| lq wkh errn1 Suredelolw| wkhru| xqghuolhv wkh srzhuixo frpsxwdwlrqdo
phwkrgrorj| nqrzq dv vlpxodwlrq/ zklfk zh lqwurgxfhg lq Fkdswhu 61 Vlpxod0
wlrq kdv pdq| dssolfdwlrqv lq suredelolw| dqg vwdwlvwlfv dqg dovr lq pdq| rwkhu
hogv/ vxfk dv hqjlqhhulqj/ fkhplvwu|/ sk|vlfv/ dqg hfrqrplfv1

4.1 Basic Probability Calculations

Wkh fdofxodwlrq ri suredelolwlhv iru udqgrp yduldeohv fdq riwhq eh vlpsolhg
e| wdexodwlqj wkh fxpxodwlyh glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq1 Dovr/ phdqv dqg yduldqfhv
duh hdvlo| fdofxodwhg xvlqj frpsrqhqw0zlvh froxpq rshudwlrqv lq Plqlwde1 Iru
h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh zh kdyh wkh suredelolw| glvwulexwlrq

{ 4 5 6 7
suredelolw| 14 15 16 17

lq froxpqv F4 dqg F5/ zlwk wkh ydoxhv lq F4 dqg wkh suredelolwlhv lq F51 Wkh
Fdof I Fdofxodwru frppdqg zlwk wkh gldorj er{ dv lq Glvsod| 714 frpsxwhv wkh
 
fxpxodwlyh glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq lq F6 xvlqj Sduwldo Vxpv1

;8
;9 Chapter 4

Glvsod| 714= Gldorj er{ iru frpsxwlqj sduwldo vxpv ri hqwulhv lq F5 dqg sodflqj wkhvh
vxpv lq F61

Sulqwlqj F4 dqg F6 jlyhv

Row C1 C3
1 1 0.1
2 2 0.3
3 3 0.6
4 4 1.0
lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Zh fdq dovr hdvlo| frpsxwh wkh phdq dqg yduldqfh ri
wklv glvwulexwlrq1 Iru h{dpsoh/ wkh vhvvlrq frppdqgv
MTB A let c4=c1*c2
MTB A let c5=c1*c1*c2
MTB A let k1=sum(c4)
MTB A let k2=sum(c5)-k1*k1
MTB A print k1 k2
K1 3.00000
K2 1.00000
fdofxodwh wkh phdq dqg yduldqfh dqg vwruh wkhvh lq N4 dqg N5/ uhvshfwlyho|1 Wkh
phdq lv 6 dqg wkh yduldqfh lv 41 Ri frxuvh/ zh fdq dovr xvh Fdof I Fdofxodwru

wr gr wkhvh fdofxodwlrqv1 Lq suhvhqwlqj pruh h{whqvlyh frpsxwdwlrqv/  vrph0
lw lv
zkdw hdvlhu wr olvw wkh dssursuldwh vhvvlrq frppdqgv/ dv zh zloo gr vxevhtxhqwo|1
Krzhyhu/ wklv lv qrw wr eh lqwhusuhwhg dv wkh uhtxluhg zd| wr gr wkhvh frpsx0
wdwlrqv/ dv lw lv reylrxv wkdw wkh phqx frppdqgv fdq eh xvhg dv zhoo1 Xvh
zkdwhyhu |rx qg prvw frqyhqlhqw1

4.2 More on Sampling from Distributions

Dv zh vdz lq LL1615/ Plqlwde lqfoxghv dojrulwkpv iru jhqhudwlqj iurp pdq|
suredelolw| glvwulexwlrqv xvlqj Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd1 Wklv phqx frppdqg
 
Probability: The Study of Randomness ;:

surgxfhv d gurs0grzq olvw wkdw lqfoxghv wkh qrupdo/ elqrpldo/ Fkl0vtxduh/ I /

w/ xqlirup/ dqg pdq| rwkhu glvwulexwlrqv wkdw wkh wh{w/ dqg wklv pdqxdo/ zloo
glvfxvv1 Folfnlqj rq rqh ri wkhvh qdphv uhvxowv lq d gldorj er{ zlwk hqwulhv wr
eh oohg lq ixuwkhu vshfli|lqj wkh glvwulexwlrq dqg wkh vl}h ri wkh vdpsoh1
Iru h{dpsoh/ zh fdq jhqhudwh iurp rqh sduwlfxoduo| lpsruwdqw fodvv ri sure0
delolw| glvwulexwlrqv xvlqj Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I Glvfuhwh1 Wkhvh suredelolw|
  
glvwulexwlrqv duh frqfhqwudwhg rq d qlwh qxpehu ri ydoxhv1 Wr looxvwudwh wklv/
vxssrvh zh kdyh wkh iroorzlqj ydoxhv lq F4 dqg F51
Row C1 C2
1 -1 0.3
2 2 0.2
3 3 0.4
4 10 0.1
Khuh/ F4 frqwdlqv wkh srvvleoh ydoxhv ri dq rxwfrph/ dqg F5 frqwdlqv wkh sure0
delolwlhv wkdw hdfk ri wkhvh ydoxhv lv rewdlqhg/ vr/ iru h{dpsoh/ S (i1j) =
=3> S (i2j) = =2> hwf1 Wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| 715 jhqhudwhv d vdpsoh ri 83
iurp wklv glvfuhwh glvwulexwlrq dqg vwruhv wkh vdpsoh lq F61

Glvsod| 715= Gldorj er{ iru jhqhudwlqj d vdpsoh iurp d glvfuhwh glvwulexwlrq zlwk
ydoxhv lq F4 dqg suredelolwlhv lq F5 dqg vwrulqj wkh vdpsoh lq F61

Lw lv dq lqwhuhvwlqj h{huflvh wr fkhfn wkdw wkh dojrulwkpv Plqlwde lv xvlqj duh

lq idfw surgxflqj vdpsohv dssursuldwho|1 Wkhuh duh d ydulhw| ri wklqjv rqh frxog
fkhfn/ exw shukdsv wkh vlpsohvw lv wr fkhfn wkdw wkh orqj0uxq uhodwlyh iuhtxhqflhv
duh fruuhfw1 Vr lq wkh h{dpsoh ri wklv vhfwlrq/ zh zdqw wr pdnh vxuh wkdw/ dv
zh lqfuhdvh wkh vl}h ri wkh vdpsoh/ wkh uhodwlyh iuhtxhqflhv ri 1> 2> 3> 10 lq wkh
vdpsoh duh jhwwlqj forvhu wr 16/ 15/ 17/ dqg 14/ uhvshfwlyho|1 Qrwh wkdw lw lv qrw
jxdudqwhhg wkdw dv zh lqfuhdvh wkh vdpsoh vl}h wkdw wkh uhodwlyh iuhtxhqflhv jhw
forvhu prqrwrqlfdoo| wr wkh fruuhvsrqglqj suredelolwlhv/ exw lqhylwdeo| wklv pxvw
eh wkh fdvh1
Iluvw/ zh jhqhudwhg d vdpsoh ri vl}h 433 iurp wklv glvwulexwlrq dqg vwruhg
wkh ydoxhv lq F6 dv lq Glvsod| 7151 Qh{w/ zh uhfrughg d 4 lq F7 zkhqhyhu wkh
;; Chapter 4

fruuhvsrqglqj hqwu| lq F6 zdv 1 dqg uhfrughg d 3 lq F7 rwkhuzlvh1 Wr gr wklv/

zh xvhg wkh Fdof I Fdofxodwru frppdqg zlwk gldorj er{ dv vkrzq lq Glvsod|
 
7161

Glvsod| 716= Gldorj er{ wr uhfrug wkh lqflghqfh ri d 1 lq F61

Lw lv fohdu wkdw wkh phdq ri F7 lv wkh uhodwlyh iuhtxhqf| ri 1 lq wkh vdpsoh1

Zh fdofxodwhg wklv phdq xvlqj Fdof I Froxpq Vwdwlvwlfv/ dv glvfxvvhg lq L14316/
 
zklfk jdyh wkh rxwsxw

Mean of C4 = 0.33000

lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Uhshdwlqj wklv zlwk d vdpsoh ri vl}h 1000/ zh rewdlqhg

Mean of C4 = 0.28100

zklfk zh fdq vhh lv d elw forvhu wr wkh wuxh ydoxh ri =31 Uhshdwlqj wklv zlwk d
vdpsoh ri vl}h 10> 000 iurp wklv glvwulexwlrq/ zh rewdlqhg

Mean of C4 = 0.29300

zklfk lv forvhu vwloo1 Lw zrxog dsshdu wkdw wkh uhodwlyh iuhtxhqf| ri 1 lv lqghhg
frqyhujlqj wr =31
Zh fdq jhqhudwh d udqgrpo| fkrvhq srlqw iurp wkh olqh lqwhuydo (d> e) > zkhuh
d ? e/ xvlqj Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I Xqlirup1 Iru h{dpsoh/ wkh gldorj er{
ri Glvsod| 717 jhqhudwhv d vdpsoh ri 4833  iurp wkh xqlirup glvwulexwlrq rq wkh
lqwhuydo (3=0> 6=3) = Zlwk wklv glvwulexwlrq/ wkh suredelolw| ri dq| vxelqwhuydo (f> g)
ri (d> e) lv jlyhq e| (g  f) @ (e  d)/ l1h1/ wkh ohqjwk ri (f> g) ryhu wkh ohqjwk ri
(d> e)1 Ri frxuvh/ zh fdq hvwlpdwh wklv suredelolw| e| mxvw frxqwlqj wkh qxpehu
ri wlphv wkh jhqhudwhg uhvsrqvh idoov lq wkh lqwhuydo (f> g) dqg glylglqj wklv e|
wkh wrwdo vdpsoh vl}h1 Iru h{dpsoh/ xvlqj wkh rxwfrphv iurp wkh gldorj er{
ri Glvsod| 716 dqg hvwlpdwlqj wkh suredelolw| ri wkh lqwhuydo (4> 5)/ zh jhw wkh
uhodwlyh iuhtxhqf| 0=30867/ zklfk lv forvh wr wkh wuxh ydoxh ri (5  4) @ (6=3  3) =
0=30303=
Probability: The Study of Randomness ;<

Glvsod| 717= Gldorj er{ iru jhqhudwlqj d vdpsoh ri 4833 iurp wkh xqlirup
glvwulexwlrq rq wkh lqwhuydo (3=0> 6=3)1

Zh fdq jhqhudol}h wklv wr jhqhudwh iurp d srlqw udqgrpo| fkrvhq iurp d

uhfwdqjoh (d> e)  (f> g)/ l1h1/ wkh vhw ri doo srlqwv ({> |) vxfk wkdw d ? { ? e> f ?
| ? g= Li zh zdqw d vdpsoh ri q iurp wklv glvwulexwlrq/ zh jhqhudwh d vdpsoh
{1 > = = = > {q iurp wkh xqlirup rq (d> e) dqg dovr jhqhudwh d vdpsoh |1 > = = = > |q iurp
wkh xqlirup glvwulexwlrq rq (f> g)1 Wkhq ({1 > |1 ) > = = = > ({q > |q ) lv d vdpsoh ri
q iurp wkh xqlirup glvwulexwlrq rq (d> e)  (f> g)1 Zh fdq dssur{lpdwh wkh
suredelolw| ri d udqgrp sdlu ({> |) idoolqj lq dq| vxevhw D  (d> e)  (f> g) e|
frpsxwlqj wkh uhodwlyh iuhtxhqf| ri D lq wkh vdpsoh1
Wkh random frppdqg lv wkh vhvvlrq frppdqg iru fduu|lqj rxw vlpxodwlrqv
lq Plqlwde1 Iru h{dpsoh/ wkh vxefrppdqg
uniform Y1 Y2
vshflhv wkh frqwlqxrxv xqlirup glvwulexwlrq rq wkh lqwhuydo (Y1 > Y2 )> l1h1/ vxelq0
whuydov ri wkh vdph ohqjwk kdyh wkh vdph suredelolw| ri rffxuulqj1 Li zh kdyh
sodfhg d glvfuhwh suredelolw| glvwulexwlrq lq froxpq H2 / rq wkh ydoxhv lq froxpq
H1 / wkh vxefrppdqg
discrete H1 H2
jhqhudwhv d vdpsoh iurp wklv glvwulexwlrq1

4.3 Simulation for Approximating Probabilities

Dv suhylrxvo| qrwhg/ vlpxodwlrq fdq eh xvhg wr dssur{lpdwh suredelolwlhv1 Iru
d ydulhw| ri uhdvrqv/ wkhvh vlpxodwlrqv duh prvw hdvlo| suhvhqwhg xvlqj vhvvlrq
frppdqgv exw lw lv fohdu wkdw zh fdq uhsodfh hdfk vwhs e| wkh dssursuldwh phqx
frppdqg1
Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh zh duh dvnhg wr fdofxodwh

S (=1  [1 + [2  =3)
<3 Chapter 4

zkhq [1 > [2 duh erwk lqghshqghqw dqg iroorz wkh xqlirup glvwulexwlrq rq wkh
lqwhuydo (0> 1) = Wkh vhvvlrq frppdqgv
MTB A random 1000 c1 c2;
SUBCA uniform 0 1.
MTB A let c3=c1+c2
MTB A let c4 = .1?=c3 and c3?=.3
MTB A let k1=sum(c4)/n(c4)
MTB A print k1
K1 0.0400000
MTB A let k2=sqrt(k1*(1-k1)/n(c4))
MTB A print k2
K2 0.00619677
MTB A let k3=k1-3*k2
MTB A let k4=k1+3*k2
MTB A print k3 k4
K3 0.0214097
K4 0.0585903
jhqhudwh Q = 1000 lqghshqghqw ydoxhv ri [1 > [2 dqg sodfh wkhvh ydoxhv lq F4
dqg F5/ uhvshfwlyho|/ wkhq fdofxodwh wkh vxp [1 + [2 dqg sxw wkhvh ydoxhv lq
F61 Xvlqj wkh frpsdulvrq rshudwruv glvfxvvhg lq L14317/ d 4 lv uhfrughg lq F7
hyhu| wlph =1  [1 + [2  =3 lv wuxh dqg d 3 lv uhfrughg wkhuh rwkhuzlvh1 Zh
wkhq fdofxodwh wkh sursruwlrq ri 4*v lq wkh vdpsoh dv N4/ dqg wklv lv rxu hvwlpdwh
ŝ ri wkh suredelolw|1 Zh zloo vhh odwhu wkdw d jrrg phdvxuh ri wkh dffxudf| ri
wklv hvwlpdwh lv wkh vwdqgdug huuru ri wkh hvwlpdwh/ zklfk lq wklv fdvh lv jlyhq
e| p
ŝ (1  ŝ) @Q
dqg wklv lv frpsxwhg lq N51 Dfwxdoo|/ zh fdq ihho idluo| frqghqw wkdw wkh wuxh
ydoxh ri wkh suredelolw| lv lq wkh lqwhuydo
p
ŝ 3 ŝ (1  ŝ) @Q

zklfk lq wklv fdvh/ htxdov wkh lqwhuydo (0=0214097> 0=0585903)1 Vr zh nqrz wkh
wuxh ydoxh ri wkh suredelolw| zlwk uhdvrqdeoh dffxudf|1 Dv wkh vlpxodwlrq vl}h
Q lqfuhdvhv/ wkh Odz ri Odujh Qxpehuv vd|v wkdw ŝ frqyhujhv wr wkh wuxh ydoxh
ri wkh suredelolw|1

4.4 Simulation for Approximating Means

Wkh phdqv ri glvwulexwlrqv fdq dovr eh dssur{lpdwhg xvlqj vlpxodwlrqv lq Plqlwde1
Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh [1 > [2 duh erwk lqghshqghqw dqg iroorz wkh xqlirup
glvwulexwlrq rq wkh lqwhuydo (0> 1) dqg wkdw zh zdqw wr fdofxodwh wkh phdq ri
\ = 1@ (1 + [1 + [2 ) = Zh fdq dssur{lpdwh wklv lq d vlpxodwlrq1 Wkh vhvvlrq
frppdqgv
Probability: The Study of Randomness <4

MTB A random 1000 c1 c2;

SUBCA uniform 0 1.
MTB A let c3=1/(1+c1+c2)
MTB A let k1=mean(c3)
MTB A let k2=stdev(c3)/sqrt(n(c3))
MTB A print k1 k2
K1 0.521532
K2 0.00375769
MTB A let k3=k1-3*k2
MTB A let k4=k1+3*k2
MTB A print k3 k4
K3 0.510259
K4 0.532805
jhqhudwh Q = 1000 lqghshqghqw ydoxhv ri [1 > [2 dqg sodfh wkhvh ydoxhv lq F4/
F5/ wkhq fdofxodwh \ = 1@ (1 + [1 + [2 ) dqg sxw wkhvh ydoxhv lq F61 Wkh phdq
ri F6 lv vwruhg lq N4/ dqg wklv lv rxu hvwlpdwh ri wkh phdq ydoxh ri \ 1 Dv d
phdvxuh ri krz dffxudwh wklv hvwlpdwh lv/ zh frpsxwh wkh vwdqgdug huuru ri wkh
hvwlpdwh/ zklfk lv jlyhq e| wkh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq glylghg e| wkh vtxduh urrw
ri wkh vlpxodwlrq vdpsoh vl}h Q 1 Djdlq/ zh fdq ihho idluo| frqghqw wkdw wkh
lqwhuydo jlyhq e| wkh hvwlpdwh soxv ru plqxv 6 wlphv wkh vwdqgdug huuru ri wkh
hvwlpdwh frqwdlqv wkh wuxh ydoxh ri wkh phdq1 Lq wklv fdvh/ wklv lqwhuydo lv jlyhq
e| (0=510259> 0=532805)/ dqg vr zh nqrz wklv phdq zlwk uhdvrqdeoh dffxudf|1
Dv wkh vlpxodwlrq vl}h Q lqfuhdvhv/ wkh Odz ri Odujh Qxpehuv vd|v wkdw wkh
dssur{lpdwlrq frqyhujhv wr wkh wuxh ydoxh ri wkh phdq1

4.5 Exercises
Zkhq wkh gdwd iru dq h{huflvh frph iurp dq h{huflvh lq LSV/ wkh LSV h{huflvh
qxpehu lv jlyhq lq sduhqwkhvhv + ,1 Doo frpsxwdwlrqv lq wkhvh h{huflvhv duh
wr eh fduulhg rxw xvlqj Plqlwde/ dqg wkh h{huflvhv duh ghvljqhg wr hqvxuh wkdw
|rx kdyh d uhdvrqdeoh xqghuvwdqglqj ri wkh Plqlwde pdwhuldo lq wklv fkdswhu1
Jhqhudoo|/ |rx vkrxog eh xvlqj Plqlwde wr gr doo wkh frpsxwdwlrqv dqg sorwwlqj
uhtxluhg iru wkh sureohpv lq LSV1
Li |rxu yhuvlrq ri Plqlwde sodfhv uhvwulfwlrqv vxfk wkdw wkh ydoxh ri wkh vlp0
xodwlrq vdpsoh vl}h Q uhtxhvwhg lq wkhvh sureohpv lv qrw ihdvleoh/ wkhq vxevwlwxwh
d pruh dssursuldwh ydoxh1 Eh dzduh/ krzhyhu/ wkdw wkh dffxudf| ri |rxu uhvxowv
lv ghshqghqw rq krz odujh Q lv1

41 Vxssrvh zh kdyh wkh suredelolw| glvwulexwlrq

{ 4 5 6 7 8
suredelolw| 148 138 166 16: 143

rq wkh ydoxhv 4/ 5/ 6/ 7/ dqg 81 Fdofxodwh wkh phdq dqg yduldqfh ri wklv

glvwulexwlrq1 Vxssrvh wkdw wkuhh lqghshqghqw rxwfrphv ([1 > [2 > [3 ) duh
<5 Chapter 4

jhqhudwhg iurp wklv glvwulexwlrq1 Frpsxwh wkh suredelolw| wkdw 1 ? [1 

4> 2  [2 dqg 3 ? [3  5=
51 Vxssrvh zh kdyh wkh suredelolw| glvwulexwlrq

{ 4 5 6 7 8
suredelolw| 148 138 166 16: 143

rq wkh ydoxhv 4/ 5/ 6/ 7/ dqg 81 Xvlqj Plqlwde/ yhuli| wkdw wklv lv d

suredelolw| glvwulexwlrq1 Pdnh d edu fkduw +suredelolw| klvwrjudp, ri wklv
glvwulexwlrq1 Jhqhudwh d vdpsoh ri vl}h 4333 iurp wklv glvwulexwlrq dqg
sorw d uhodwlyh iuhtxhqf| klvwrjudp iru wkh vdpsoh1
61 +7156, Lqglfdwh krz |rx zrxog vlpxodwh wkh jdph ri urxohwwh xvlqj Plqlwde1
Edvhg rq d vlpxodwlrq ri Q = 1000> hvwlpdwh wkh suredelolw| ri jhwwlqj
uhg dqg d pxowlsoh ri 61
71 D suredelolw| glvwulexwlrq lv sodfhg rq wkh lqwhjhuv 4/ 5/ 111/ 433/ zkhuh wkh
suredelolw| ri lqwhjhu l lv f@l2 1 Ghwhuplqh f vr wkdw wklv lv d suredelolw|
glvwulexwlrq1 Zkdw lv wkh <3wk shufhqwlohB Jhqhudwh d vdpsoh ri 53 iurp
wkh glvwulexwlrq1
81 Vxssrvh dq rxwfrph lv udqgrp rq wkh vtxduh (0> 1)  (0> 1)1 Xvlqj vlpxod0
wlrq/ dssur{lpdwh wkh suredelolw| wkdw wkh uvw frruglqdwh soxv wkh vhfrqg
frruglqdwh lv ohvv wkdq 1:8 exw juhdwhu wkdq 1581
91 Jhqhudwh
© d vdpsoh ri 4333 ª iurp wkh xqlirup glvwulexwlrq rq wkh xqlw glvn
G = ({> |) : {2 + |2  1 =
:1 Wkh h{suhvvlrq h{ iru { A 0 lv wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh iru zkdw lv fdoohg wkh
H{srqhqwldo (1) glvwulexwlrq1 Sorw wklv ghqvlw| fxuyh lq wkh lqwhuydo iurp
3 wr 43 xvlqj dq lqfuhphqw ri 141 Wkh Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I H{srqhqwldo
  
frppdqg fdq eh xvhg wr jhqhudwh iurp wklv glvwulexwlrq e| vshfli|lqj wkh
Phdq dv 4 lq wkh hqvxlqj gldorj er{1 Jhqhudwh d vdpsoh ri 4333 iurp wklv
glvwulexwlrq dqg hvwlpdwh lwv phdq1 Dssur{lpdwh wkh suredelolw| wkdw d
ydoxh jhqhudwhg iurp wklv glvwulexwlrq lv lq wkh lqwhuydo +4/5,1 Wkh jhqhudo
H{srqhqwldo () kdv d ghqvlw| fxuyh jlyhq e| 1 h{@ iru { A 0 dqg
zkhuh  A 0 lv wkh phdq1 Uhshdw wkh vlpxodwlrq zlwk phdq  = 31
Frpphqw rq wkh ydoxhv ri wkh hvwlpdwhg phdqv1
;1 Vxssrvh |rx fduu| rxw d vlpxodwlrq wr dssur{lpdwh wkh phdq ri d udqgrp
yduldeoh [ dqg |rx uhsruw wkh ydoxh 4156 zlwk d vwdqgdug huuru ri 1358=
Li |rx duh dvnhg wr dssur{lpdwh wkh phdq ri \ = 3 + 5[> gr |rx kdyh
wr fduu| rxw dqrwkhu vlpxodwlrqB Li qrw/ zkdw lv |rxu dssur{lpdwlrq/ dqg
zkdw lv wkh vwdqgdug huuru ri wklv dssur{lpdwlrqB
<1 Vxssrvh wkdw d udqgrp yduldeoh [ iroorzv dq Q (3> 2=3) glvwulexwlrq1 Vxe0
vhtxhqwo|/ frqglwlrqv fkdqjh dqg qr ydoxhv vpdoohu wkdq 1 ru eljjhu wkdq
<18 fdq rffxu/ l1h1/ wkh glvwulexwlrq lv frqglwlrqhg wr wkh lqwhuydo (1> 9=5)1
Probability: The Study of Randomness <6

Jhqhudwh d vdpsoh ri 4333 iurp wkh wuxqfdwhg glvwulexwlrq/ dqg xvh wkh
vdpsoh wr dssur{lpdwh lwv phdq1
431 Vxssrvh wkdw [ lv d udqgrp yduldeoh dqg iroorzv dq Q (0> 1) glvwulexwlrq1
Vlpxodwh Q = 1000 ydoxhv iurp wkh glvwulexwlrq ri \ = [ 2 / dqg sorw wkhvh
ydoxhv lq d klvwrjudp zlwk fxwsrlqwv 3/ 18/ 4/ 418/ 111/ 481 Dssur{lpdwh wkh
phdq ri wklv glvwulexwlrq1 Jhqhudwh \ gluhfwo| iurp lwv glvwulexwlrq/ zklfk
lv nqrzq wr eh d Fklvtxduh(1) glvwulexwlrq1 Lq jhqhudo/ wkh Fklvtxduh(n)
glvwulexwlrq fdq eh jhqhudwhg iurp yld wkh frppdqg Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd
 
I Fkl0Vtxduh/ zkhuh n lv vshflhg dv wkh Ghjuhhv ri iuhhgrp lq wkh gldorj
 
er{1 Sorw wkh \ ydoxhv lq d klvwrjudp xvlqj wkh vdph fxwsrlqwv1 Frpphqw
rq wkh wzr klvwrjudpv1 Qrwh wkdw |rx fdq sorw wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh ri wkhvh
glvwulexwlrqv xvlqj Fdof I Suredelolw| Glvwulexwlrqv I Fkl0Vtxduh dqg

hydoxdwlqj wkh suredelolw| 
ghqvlw| dw d udqjh ri srlqwv dv zh glvfxvvhg lq
LL15 iru wkh qrupdo glvwulexwlrq1
441 Li [1 dqg [2 duh lqghshqghqw udqgrp yduldeohv zlwk [1 iroorzlqj d
Fklvtxduh(n1 ) glvwulexwlrq dqg [2 iroorzlqj d Fklvtxduh(n2 ) glvwulex0
wlrq/ wkhq lw lv nqrzq wkdw \ = [1 + [2 iroorzv d Fklvtxduh(n1 + n2 )
glvwulexwlrq1 Iru n1 = 1> n2 = 1> yhuli| wklv hpslulfdoo| e| sorwwlqj klv0
wrjudpv zlwk fxwsrlqwv 3/ 18/ 4/ 418/ 111/ 48/ edvhg rq vlpxodwlrqv ri vl}h
Q = 1000=
451 Li [1 dqg [2 duh lqghshqghqw udqgrp yduldeohv zlwk [1 iroorzlqj dq
Q (0> 1) glvwulexwlrq dqg [2 iroorzlqj d Fklvtxduh(n) glvwulexwlrq/ wkhq
lw lv nqrzq wkdw
[1
\ =p
[2 @n
iroorzv d Vwxghqw(n) glvwulexwlrq1 Wkh Vwxghqw(n) glvwulexwlrq fdq eh
jhqhudwhg iurp xvlqj wkh frppdqg Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I w/ zkhuh n
  
lv wkh Ghjuhhv ri iuhhgrp dqg pxvw eh vshflhg lq wkh gldorj er{1 Iru

n = 3> yhuli| wklv uhvxow hpslulfdoo| e| sorwwlqj klvwrjudpv zlwk fxwsrlqwv
10/ 9/ 111/ </ 43/ edvhg rq vlpxodwlrqv ri vl}h Q = 1000=
461 Li [1 dqg [2 duh lqghshqghqw udqgrp yduldeohv zlwk [1 iroorzlqj d
Fklvtxduh(n1 ) glvwulexwlrq dqg [2 iroorzlqj d Fklvtxduh(n2 ) glvwulex0
wlrq/ wkhq lw lv nqrzq wkdw
[1 @n1
\ =
[2 @n2
iroorzv dq I (n1 > n2 ) glvwulexwlrq1 Wkh I (n1 > n2 ) glvwulexwlrq fdq eh jhq0
hudwhg iurp xvlqj wkh vxefrppdqg Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I I/ zkhuh n1
  
lv wkh Qxphudwru ghjuhhv ri iuhhgrp dqg n2 lv wkh Ghqrplqdwru ghjuhhv
 
ri iuhhgrp/ erwk ri zklfk pxvw eh vshflhg lq wkh gldorj er{= Iru n1 = 1>
n2 = 1> yhuli| wklv hpslulfdoo| e| sorwwlqj klvwrjudpv zlwk fxwsrlqwv 3/ 18/
4/ 418/ 111/ 48/ edvhg rq vlpxodwlrqv ri vl}h Q = 1000=
<7 Chapter 4
Chapter 5

Sampling Distributions

New Minitab command discussed in this chapter

Fdof I Suredelolw| Glvwulexwlrqv I Elqrpldo
  

Rqfh gdwd kdyh ehhq froohfwhg/ wkh| duh dqdo|}hg xvlqj d ydulhw| ri vwdwlvwlfdo
whfkqltxhv1 Yluwxdoo|/ doo ri wkhvh lqyroyh frpsxwlqj vwdwlvwlfv wkdw phdvxuh
vrph dvshfw ri wkh gdwd frqfhuqlqj txhvwlrqv zh zlvk wr dqvzhu1 Wkh dqvzhuv
ghwhuplqhg e| wkhvh vwdwlvwlfv duh vxemhfw wr wkh xqfhuwdlqw| fdxvhg e| wkh idfw
wkdw zh w|slfdoo| gr qrw kdyh wkh ixoo srsxodwlrq exw rqo| d vdpsoh iurp wkh
srsxodwlrq1 Dv vxfk/ zh kdyh wr eh frqfhuqhg zlwk wkh yduldelolw| lq wkh dqvzhuv
zkhq glhuhqw vdpsohv duh rewdlqhg1 Wklv ohdgv wr d frqfhuq zlwk wkh vdpsolqj
glvwulexwlrq ri d vwdwlvwlf1
Vrphwlphv/ wkh vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq ri d vwdwlvwlf fdq eh zrunhg rxw h{dfwo|
wkurxjk ydulrxv pdwkhpdwlfdo whfkqltxhv/ h1j1/ lq Fkdswhu 8 ri LSV lw lv vhhq
wkdw wkh qxpehu ri 4*v lq d vdpsoh ri q iurp d Ehuqrxool(s) glvwulexwlrq lv
Elqrpldo(q> s)1 Riwhq/ krzhyhu/ wklv lv qrw srvvleoh/ dqg zh pxvw uhvruw wr
dssur{lpdwlrqv1 Rqh dssur{lpdwlrq whfkqltxh lv wr xvh vlpxodwlrq1 Vrphwlphv/
krzhyhu/ wkh vwdwlvwlfv zh duh frqfhuqhg zlwk duh dyhudjhv/ dqg/ lq vxfk fdvhv/
zh fdq w|slfdoo| dssur{lpdwh wkhlu vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq yld dq dssursuldwh
qrupdo glvwulexwlrq1

5.1 The Binomial Distribution

Vxssrvh wkdw [1 > = = = > [q lv d vdpsoh iurp wkh Ehuqrxool(s) glvwulexwlrq/ l1h1/
[1 > = = = > [q duh lqghshqghqw uhdol}dwlrqv/ zkhuh hdfk [l wdnhv wkh ydoxh 4 ru 3
zlwk suredelolwlhv s dqg 1  s/ uhvshfwlyho|1 Wkh udqgrp yduldeoh \ = [1 +
   + [q htxdov wkh qxpehu ri 4*v lq wkh vdpsoh dqg iroorzv/ dv glvfxvvhg lq
LSV/ d Elqrpldo(q> s) glvwulexwlrq1 Wkhuhiruh/ \ fdq wdnh rq dq| ri wkh ydoxhv
0> 1> = = = > q zlwk srvlwlyh suredelolw|1 Lq idfw/ dq h{dfw irupxod fdq eh ghulyhg

<8
<9 Chapter 5

iru wkhvh suredelolwlhv> qdpho|

µ ¶
q n
S (\ = n) = s (1  s)qn
n

lv wkh suredelolw| wkdw \ wdnhv wkh ydoxh n iru 0  n  q= Zkhq q dqg n duh vpdoo/
wklv irupxod frxog eh xvhg wr hydoxdwh wklv suredelolw| exw lw lv doprvw dozd|v
ehwwhu wr xvh vriwzduh olnh Plqlwde wr gr lw/ dqg zkhq wkhvh ydoxhv duh qrw vpdoo/
lw lv qhfhvvdu|1 Dovr/ zh fdq xvh Plqlwde wr frpsxwh wkh Elqrpldo(q> s) fxpx0
odwlyh suredelolw| glvwulexwlrq  wkh suredelolw| frqwhqwv ri lqwhuydov (4> {]
dqg wkh lqyhuvh fxpxodwlyh glvwulexwlrq  shufhqwlohv ri wkh glvwulexwlrq1
Iru lqglylgxdo suredelolwlhv/ zh xvh wkh Fdof I Suredelolw| Glvwulexwlrqv I
Elqrpldo frppdqg1 Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh zh kdyh d Elqrpldo(30>  =2) glvwul0

exwlrq dqg zdqw wr frpsxwh wkh suredelolw| S (\ = 10)= Wklv frppdqg/ zlwk
wkh gldorj er{ dv lq Glvsod| 814/ surgxfhv wkh rxwsxw
Binomial with n = 30 and p = 0.200000
x P( X = x )
10.00 0.0355
lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz/ l1h1/ S (\ = 10) = =03551

Glvsod| 814= Gldorj er{ iru Elqrpldo(q> s) suredelolw| fdofxodwlrqv1

Li zh zdqw wr frpsxwh wkh suredelolw| ri jhwwlqj 43 ru ihzhu vxffhvvhv/ wklv lv

wkh suredelolw| ri wkh lqwhuydo (4> 10]> dqg zh fdq xvh wkh Fdof I Suredelolw|

Glvwulexwlrqv I Elqrpldo frppdqg zlwk wkh gldorj er{ dv lq Glvsod| 8151 Wklv
 
surgxfhv wkh rxwsxw
Binomial with n = 30 and p = 0.200000
x P( X ?= x )
10.00 0.9744
lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz/ l1h1/ S (\  10) = =97441
Sampling Distributions <:

Glvsod| 815= Gldorj er{ iru frpsxwlqj fxpxodwlyh suredelolwlhv iru wkh
Elqrpldo(q> s) glvwulexwlrq1

Vxssrvh zh zdqw wr frpsxwh wkh uvw txduwloh ri wklv glvwulexwlrq1 Wkh Fdof

I Suredelolw| Glvwulexwlrqv I Elqrpldo frppdqg/ zlwk wkh gldorj er{ dv lq
 
Glvsod| 816/ surgxfhv wkh rxwsxw

Binomial with n = 30 and p = 0.200000

x P( X ?= x ) x P( X ?= x )
3 0.1227 4 0.2552

lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Wklv jlyhv wkh ydoxhv { wkdw kdyh fxpxodwlyh suredelolwlhv
mxvw vpdoohu dqg mxvw odujhu wkdq wkh ydoxh uhtxhvwhg1 Uhfdoo wkdw zlwk d glvfuhwh
glvwulexwlrq/ vxfk dv wkh Elqrpldo(q> s)> zh zloo qrw lq jhqhudo eh deoh wr rewdlq
dq h{dfw shufhqwloh1

Glvsod| 816= Gldorj er{ iru frpsxwlqj shufhqwlohv ri wkh Elqrpldo(q> s)

glvwulexwlrq1
<; Chapter 5

Wkhvh frppdqgv fdq rshudwh rq doo wkh ydoxhv lq d froxpq vlpxowdqhrxvo|1

Wklv lv yhu| frqyhqlhqw li |rx vkrxog zdqw wr wdexodwh ru judsk wkh suredelolw|
ixqfwlrq/ fxpxodwlyh glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq/ ru lqyhuvh glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq1
Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh pdf, cdf, dqg invcdf vhvvlrq frppdqgv lv jlyhq
lq LL1416/ dqg khuh zh xvh wkhp zlwk wkh binomial vxefrppdqg dv lq
MTB A pdf 10;
SUBCA binomial 30 .2.
zklfk rxwsxwv S (\ = 10) zkhq \ kdv wkh Elqrpldo(30> =2) glvwulexwlrq1
Dfwxdoo|/ zkhq q lv yhu| odujh hyhq vriwzduh zloo qrw eh xvhixo wr frpsxwh
wkhvh suredelolwlhv/ dqg |rx zloo kdyh wr xvh qrupdo dssur{lpdwlrqv wr elqrpldo
suredelolwlhv yld wkh fhqwudo olplw wkhruhp1 Wkh pdf dqg cdf frppdqgv zlwk
wkh normal vxefrppdqg fdq eh xvhg iru wklv1
Zh pljkw dovr zdqw wr vlpxodwh iurp wkh Elqrpldo(q> s) glvwulexwlrq1 Iru
wklv zh xvh wkh Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I Elqrpldo frppdqg ru wkh vhvvlrq
  
frppdqg random zlwk wkh binomial vxefrppdqg1 Iru h{dpsoh/
MTB A random 10 c1;
SUBCA binomial 30 .2.
MTB A print c1
C1
2 2 4 2 11 5 7 8 5 2
jhqhudwhv d vdpsoh ri 43 iurp wkh Elqrpldo(30> =2) glvwulexwlrq1

5.2 Simulating Sampling Distributions

Iluvw/ zh frqvlghu dq h{dpsoh zkhuh zh nqrz wkh h{dfw vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq1
Vxssrvh zh ls d srvvleo| eldvhg frlq q wlphv dqg zdqw wr hvwlpdwh wkh xqnqrzq
suredelolw| s ri jhwwlqj d khdg1 Wkh qdwxudo hvwlpdwh lv ŝ wkh sursruwlrq ri khdgv
lq wkh vdpsoh1 Zh zrxog olnh wr dvvhvv wkh vdpsolqj ehkdylru ri wklv vwdwlvwlf
lq d vlpxodwlrq1 Wr gr wklv/ zh fkrrvh d ydoxh iru s/ wkhq jhqhudwh Q vdpsohv
iurp wkh Ehuqrxool glvwulexwlrq ri vl}h q/ iru hdfk ri wkhvh frpsxwh ŝ/ orrn dw
wkh hpslulfdo glvwulexwlrq ri wkhvh Q ydoxhv/ shukdsv sorwwlqj d klvwrjudp dv
zhoo1 Wkh odujhu Q lv wkh forvhu wkh hpslulfdo glvwulexwlrq dqg klvwrjudp zloo
eh wr wkh wuxh vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq ri ŝ=
Qrwh wkdw wkhuh duh wzr vdpsoh vl}hv khuh= wkh vdpsoh vl}h q ri wkh ruljlqdo
vdpsoh wkh vwdwlvwlf lv edvhg rq/ zklfk lv {hg/ dqg wkh vlpxodwlrq vdpsoh vl}h Q /
zklfk zh fdq frqwuro1 Wklv lv fkdudfwhulvwlf ri doo vlpxodwlrqv1 Vrphwlphv/ xvlqj
pruh dgydqfhg dqdo|wlfdo whfkqltxhv zh fdq ghwhuplqh Q vr wkdw wkh vdpsolqj
glvwulexwlrq ri wkh vwdwlvwlf lv hvwlpdwhg zlwk vrph suhvfulehg dffxudf|1 Vrph
whfkqltxhv iru grlqj wklv duh glvfxvvhg lq odwhu fkdswhuv ri LSV1 Dqrwkhu phwkrg
lv wr uhshdw wkh vlpxodwlrq d qxpehu ri wlphv/ vorzo| lqfuhdvlqj Q xqwlo zh
vhh wkh uhvxowv vwdelol}h1 Wklv lv vrphwlphv wkh rqo| zd| dydlodeoh/ exw fdxwlrq
vkrxog eh vkrzq dv lw lv hdv| iru vlpxodwlrq uhvxowv wr eh yhu| plvohdglqj li wkh
qdo Q lv wrr vpdoo1
Sampling Distributions <<

Zh looxvwudwh d vlpxodwlrq wr ghwhuplqh wkh vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq ri ŝ zkhq

vdpsolqj iurp d Ehuqrxool(=75) glvwulexwlrq1 Iru wklv/ zh xvh wkh frppdqgv
Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I Ehuqrxool/ Fdof I Urz Vwdwlvwlfv/ dqg Vwdw I Wdeohv
      
I Wdoo|/ zlwk wkh gldorj er{hv jlyhq e| Glvsod|v 817/ 818/ dqg 819/ uhvshfwlyho|/

wr surgxfh wkh rxwsxw

Summary Statistics for Discrete Variables

C11 CumPct
0.3 0.40
0.4 2.20
0.5 7.60
0.6 23.10
0.7 47.70
0.8 78.00
0.9 94.70
1.0 100.00

lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Khuh zh kdyh jhqhudwhg Q = 1000 vdpsohv ri vl}h q = 10

iurp wkh Ehuqrxool(=75) glvwulexwlrq/ l1h1/ zh vlpxodwhg wkh wrvvlqj ri wklv frlq
43/333 wlphv/ dqg zh sodfhg wkh uhvxowv lq wkh urzv ri froxpqv F4F43 xvlqj
Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I Ehuqrxool1 Wkh sursruwlrq ri khdgv ŝ lq hdfk vdpsoh
  
lv frpsxwhg dqg sodfhg lq F44 xvlqj Fdof I Urz Vwdwlvwlfv1 Qrwh wkdw d phdq
 
ri ydoxhv htxdo wr 3 ru 4 lv mxvw wkh sursruwlrq ri 4*v lq wkh vdpsoh1 Ilqdoo|/ zh
xvhg Vwdw I Wdeohv I Wdoo| wr frpsxwh wkh hpslulfdo glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq ri
  
wkhvh 4333 ydoxhv ri ŝ= Iru h{dpsoh/ wklv vd|v :;( ri wkhvh ydoxhv zhuh 1; ru
vpdoohu dqg wkhuh zhuh qr lqvwdqfhv vpdoohu wkdq 161

Glvsod| 817= Gldorj er{ iru jhqhudwlqj 43 froxpqv ri 4333 Ehuqrxool(=75) ydoxhv1
433 Chapter 5

Glvsod| 818= Gldorj er{ iru frpsxwlqj wkh sursruwlrq ri 4*v lq hdfk ri wkh 4333
vdpsohv ri vl}h 431

Glvsod| 819= Gldorj er{ iru frpsxwlqj wkh hpslulfdo glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq ri ŝ1

Lq Glvsod| 81:/ zh kdyh sorwwhg d klvwrjudp ri wkh 4333 ydoxhv ri ŝ= Edvhg
rq Q = 800> wkh iroorzlqj hpslulfdo glvwulexwlrq zdv rewdlqhg=
C11 CumPct
0.4 1.20
0.5 7.20
0.6 22.20
0.7 47.80
0.8 78.20
0.9 95.00
1.0 100.00
Ehfdxvh wkhvh ydoxhv duh uhdvrqdeo| forvh wr wkrvh rewdlqhg zlwk Q = 1000> zh
vwrsshg dw Q = 1000=
Sampling Distributions 434

300

200
Frequency

100

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

C11

Glvsod| 81:= Klvwrjudp ri vlpxodwlrq ri Q = 1000 ydoxhv ri ŝ edvhg rq d vdpsoh ri

vl}h q = 10 iurp wkh Ehuqrxool+1:8, glvwulexwlrq1

Wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqgv iru wklv vlpxodwlrq duh

MTB A random 1000 c1-c10;

SUBCA bernoulli .75.
MTB A rmean c1-c10 c11
MTB A tally c11;
SUBCA cumpcts.

dqg wkhvh pljkw vhhp olnh dq hdvlhu zd| wr lpsohphqw wkh vlpxodwlrq1
Lq Fkdswhu 8 ri LSV zh vdz wkdw wkh vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq ri ŝ fdq eh gh0
whuplqhg h{dfwo|/ l1h1/ wkhuh duh irupxodv wr ghwhuplqh wklv/ dqg zh fdq vlpxodwh
gluhfwo| iurp wkh vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq/ vr wklv vlpxodwlrq fdq eh pdgh pxfk
pruh h!flhqw1 Lq hhfw/ wklv hqwdlov xvlqj wkh Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I Elqrpldo
 
frppdqg zlwk gldorj er{ dv lq Glvsod| 81; dqg glylglqj hdfk hqwu| lq F4 e| 431
Wklv jhqhudwhv Q = 1000 ydoxhv ri ŝ exw xvhv d pxfk vpdoohu qxpehu ri fhoov1
Vwloo/ wkhuh duh pdq| vwdwlvwlfv iru zklfk wklv nlqg ri h!flhqf| uhgxfwlrq lv qrw
dydlodeoh/ dqg/ wr jhw vrph lghd ri zkdw wkhlu vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq lv olnh/ zh
pxvw uhvruw wr wkh pruh euxwh irufh irup ri vlpxodwlrq ri jhqhudwlqj gluhfwo|
iurp wkh srsxodwlrq glvwulexwlrq1
Vrphwlphv/ pruh vrsklvwlfdwhg vlpxodwlrq whfkqltxhv duh qhhghg wr jhw dq
dffxudwh dvvhvvphqw ri d vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq1 Zlwklq Plqlwde/ wkhuh duh sur0
judpplqj whfkqltxhv/ zklfk zh gr qrw glvfxvv lq wklv pdqxdo/ wkdw fdq eh
dssolhg lq vxfk fdvhv1 Iru h{dpsoh/ lw lv fohdu wkdw li rxu vlpxodwlrq uhtxluhg
wkh jhqhudwlrq ri 436 fhoov +dqg wklv lv qrw dw doo xqfrpprq iru vrph kdughu
sureohpv,/ wkh vlpxodwlrq dssurdfk zh kdyh ghvfulehg zrxog qrw zrun zlwklq
Plqlwde/ dv wkh zrunvkhhw zrxog eh wrr odujh1
435 Chapter 5

Glvsod| 81;= Gldorj er{ iru jhqhudwlqj 4333 ydoxhv iurp wkh vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq ri
10ŝ xvlqj wkh Elqrpldo(10> =75) glvwulexwlrq1

5.3 Exercises
Zkhq wkh gdwd iru dq h{huflvh frph iurp dq h{huflvh lq LSV/ wkh LSV h{huflvh
qxpehu lv jlyhq lq sduhqwkhvhv + ,1 Doo frpsxwdwlrqv lq wkhvh h{huflvhv duh
wr eh fduulhg rxw xvlqj Plqlwde/ dqg wkh h{huflvhv duh ghvljqhg wr hqvxuh wkdw
|rx kdyh d uhdvrqdeoh xqghuvwdqglqj ri wkh Plqlwde pdwhuldo lq wklv fkdswhu1
Jhqhudoo|/ |rx vkrxog eh xvlqj Plqlwde wr gr doo wkh frpsxwdwlrqv dqg sorwwlqj
uhtxluhg iru wkh sureohpv lq LSV1
Li |rxu yhuvlrq ri Plqlwde sodfhv uhvwulfwlrqv vxfk wkdw wkh ydoxh ri wkh vlp0
xodwlrq vdpsoh vl}h Q uhtxhvwhg lq wkhvh sureohpv lv qrw ihdvleoh/ wkhq vxevwlwxwh
d pruh dssursuldwh ydoxh1 Eh dzduh/ krzhyhu/ wkdw wkh dffxudf| ri |rxu uhvxowv
lv ghshqghqw rq krz odujh Q lv1

41 Fdofxodwh doo wkh suredelolwlhv iru wkh Elqrpldo(5> =4) glvwulexwlrq dqg wkh
Elqrpldo(5> =6) glvwulexwlrq1 Zkdw uhodwlrqvkls gr |rx revhuyhB Fdq |rx
h{sodlq wklv dqg vwdwh d jhqhudo uxohB

51 Frpsxwh doo wkh suredelolwlhv iru d Elqrpldo(5> =8) glvwulexwlrq dqg xvh
wkhvh wr gluhfwo| fdofxodwh wkh phdq dqg yduldqfh1 Yhuli| |rxu dqvzhuv
xvlqj wkh irupxodv surylghg lq LSV1

61 Frpsxwh dqg sorw wkh suredelolw| dqg fxpxodwlyh glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrqv ri

wkh Elqrpldo (10> =2) dqg wkh Elqrpldo (10> =5) glvwulexwlrqv1 Frpphqw
rq wkh vkdshv ri wkhvh glvwulexwlrqv1

71 Jhqhudwh 4333 vdpsohv ri vl}h 43 iurp wkh Ehuqrxool(=3) glvwulexwlrq1

Frpsxwh wkh sursruwlrq ri 4*v lq hdfk vdpsoh dqg frpsxwh wkh sursru0
wlrq ri vdpsohv kdylqj qr 4*v/ rqh 4/ wzr 4*v/ hwf1 Frpsxwh zkdw wkhvh
sursruwlrqv zrxog eh lq wkh orqjuxq dqg frpsduh1
Sampling Distributions 436

81 Fduu| rxw d vlpxodwlrq vwxg| zlwk Q = 1000 ri wkh vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq

ri ŝ iru q = 5> 10> 20 dqg iru s = =5> =75> =95= Lq sduwlfxodu/ fdofxodwh wkh
hpslulfdo glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrqv dqg sorw wkh klvwrjudpv1 Frpphqw rq
|rxu qglqjv1
91 Vxssrvh wkdw [1 > [2 > [3 > = = = duh lqghshqghqw uhdol}dwlrqv iurp wkh
Ehuqrxool(s) glvwulexwlrq/ l1h1/ hdfk [l wdnhv wkh ydoxh 4 ru 3 zlwk sure0
delolwlhv s dqg 1  s/ uhvshfwlyho|1 Li wkh udqgrp yduldeoh \ frxqwv wkh
qxpehu ri wrvvhv xqwlo zh rewdlq wkh uvw khdg lq d vhtxhqfh ri lqgh0
shqghqw wrvvhv [1 > [2 > [3 > = = = > wkhq \ kdv d Jhrphwulf(s) glvwulexwlrq1
Plqlwde grhv qrw kdyh exlow0lq dojrulwkpv iru frpsxwlqj wkh suredelo0
lw| ixqfwlrq/ glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq/ lqyhuvh glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq/ dqg iru
jhqhudwlqj iurp wklv glvwulexwlrq1 Wkh suredelolw| ixqfwlrq iru wklv glvwul0
exwlrq lv jlyhq e|
|1
S (\ = |) = (1  s) s
iru | = 1> 2> = = = = Sorw wkh suredelolw| ixqfwlrq iru wkh Jhrphwulf (=5) glv0
wulexwlrq iru wkh ydoxhv | = 1> = = = > 10= Gr wkh vdph iru wkh Jhrphwulf (=1)
glvwulexwlrq1 Zkdw gr |rx qrwlfhB
:1 Xvlqj phwkrgv iru vxpplqj jhrphwulf vxpv/ wkh fxpxodwlyh glvwulexwlrq
ixqfwlrq ri wkh Jhrphwulf (s) glvwulexwlrq +vhh H{huflvh LL1819, lv jlyhq
|
e| S (\  |) = 1  (1  s) 1 Sorw wkh fxpxodwlyh glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq
iru wkh Jhrphwulf (=5) dqg Jhrphwulf (=1) glvwulexwlrq iru wkh ydoxhv | =
1> = = = > 10= Zkdw gr |rx qrwlfhB
;1 Wr udqgrpo| jhqhudwh iurp wkh Jhrphwulf(s) glvwulexwlrq +vhh H{huflvh
LL1819,/ zh fdq uhshdwhgo| jhqhudwh iurp d Ehuqrxool(s) dqg frxqw krz
pdq| wlphv zh glg wklv xqwlo wkh uvw 4 dsshduhg1 D vlpsoh zd| wr gr wklv
lq Plqlwde lv wr jhqhudwh Q ydoxhv iurp wkh Ehuqrxool(s) lqwr d froxpq1
Frxqw wkh qxpehu ri hqwulhv xqwlo wkh uvw 4/ frxqw wkh qxpehu ri vxevh0
txhqw hqwulhv xqwlo wkh qh{w 4/ hwf1 Wkhvh frxqwv duh lghqwlfdoo| dqg lqgh0
shqghqwo| glvwulexwhg dffruglqj wr wkh Jhrphwulf(s) glvwulexwlrq1 Wklv
lv d yhu| lqh!flhqw phwkrg zkhq s lv vpdoo dqg pxfk ehwwhu dojrulwkpv
h{lvw1 Jhqhudwh d vdpsoh ri 43 iurp wkh Jhrphwulf (=5) glvwulexwlrq1
<1 Fduu| rxw d vlpxodwlrq vwxg|/ zlwk Q = 2000> ri wkh vdpsolqj glvwulexwlrq
ri wkh vdpsoh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq zkhq vdpsolqj iurp wkh Q (0> 1) glvwul0
exwlrq/ edvhg rq d vdpsoh ri vl}h q = 5= Lq sduwlfxodu/ sorw wkh klvwrjudp
xvlqj fxwsrlqwv 3/ 418/ 513 518/ 613 8131 Uhshdw wklv iru wkh vdpsoh frh!0
flhqw ri yduldwlrq +vdpsoh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq glylghg e| wkh vdpsoh phdq,
xvlqj wkh fxwsrlqwv 10/ 9/ 111/ 3/ 111/ </ 431 Frpphqw rq wkh vkdshv ri
wkh klvwrjudpv uhodwlyh wr d Q (0> 1) ghqvlw| fxuyh1
431 Jhqhudwh Q = 1000 vdpsohv ri vl}h q = 5 iurp wkh Q (0> 1) glvwulexwlrq1
Uhfrug d klvwrjudp iru { ¯ xvlqj wkh fxwsrlqwv 3> 2=5>
s 2> ===> 2=5> 3=0=
Jhqhudwh d vdpsoh ri vl}h Q = 1000 iurp wkh Q (0> 1@ 5) glvwulexwlrq1
Sorw wkh klvwrjudp xvlqj wkh vdph fxwsrlqwv dqg frpsduh wkh klvwrjudpv1
Zkdw zloo kdsshq wr wkhvh klvwrjudpv dv zh lqfuhdvh Q B
437 Chapter 5

441 Jhqhudwh Q = 1000 ydoxhv ri [1 > [2 > zkhuh [1 iroorzv d Q (3> 2) glvwul0
exwlrq dqg [2 iroorzv d Q(1> 3) glvwulexwlrq1 Frpsxwh \ = [1  2[2
iru hdfk ri wkhvh sdluv dqg sorw d klvwrjudp iru \ xvlqj wkh fxwsrlqwv
20> 15> ===> 25> 301 Jhqhudwh d vdpsoh ri Q = 1000 iurp wkh dssursuldwh
glvwulexwlrq ri \ dqg sorw d klvwrjudp xvlqj wkh vdph fxwsrlqwv1
451 Sorw wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh iru wkh H{srqhqwldo(3) glvwulexwlrq +vhh H{huflvh
LL171:, ehwzhhq 3 dqg 48 zlwk dq lqfuhphqw ri 141 Jhqhudwh Q = 1000
vdpsohv ri vl}h q = 2 iurp wkh H{srqhqwldo(3) glvwulexwlrq dqg uhfrug
wkh vdpsoh phdqv1 Vwdqgdugl}h wkh vdpsoh ri { ¯ xvlqj  = 3 dqg  = 3=
Sorw d klvwrjudp ri wkh vwdqgdugl}hg ydoxhv xvlqj wkh fxwsrlqwv 5/ 4/
111/ 7/ 81 Uhshdw wklv iru q = 5> 10= Frpphqw rq wkh vkdshv ri wkhvh
klvwrjudpv1
461 Sorw wkh ghqvlw| ri wkh xqlirup glvwulexwlrq rq +3/4,1 Jhqhudwh Q = 1000
vdpsohv ri vl}h q = 2 p ¯
iurp wklv glvwulexwlrq1 Vwdqgdugl}h wkh vdpsoh ri {
xvlqj  = =5 dqg  = 1@12= Sorw d klvwrjudp ri wkh vwdqgdugl}hg ydoxhv
xvlqj wkh fxwsrlqwv 5> 4> ===> 4> 51 Uhshdw wklv iru q = 5> 10= Frpphqw
rq wkh vkdshv ri wkhvh klvwrjudpv1

471 Wkh Zhlexoo () kdv ghqvlw| fxuyh jlyhq e| {1 h{ iru { A 0> zkhuh
 A 0 lv d {hg frqvwdqw1 Sorw wkh Zhlexoo (2) ghqvlw| lq wkh udqjh 3 wr
43 zlwk dq lqfuhphqw ri 14 xvlqj wkh Fdof I Suredelolw| Glvwulexwlrqv I
 
Zhlexoo/ frppdqg1 Jhqhudwh d vdpsoh ri Q = 1000 iurp wklv glvwulex0

wlrq xvlqj wkh vxefrppdqg Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I Zhlexoo zkhuh 
  
lv wkh Vkdsh sdudphwhu dqg wkh Vfdoh sdudphwhu lv 41 Sorw d suredelolw|
 
klvwrjudp dqg frpsduh zlwk wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh1
Chapter 6

Introduction to Inference

New Minitab commands discussed in this chapter

Vwdw I Edvlf Vwdwlvwlfv I 40Vdpsoh ]
  
Srzhu dqg Vdpsoh Vl}h I 40Vdpsoh ]
 

Lq wklv fkdswhu/ wkh edvlf wrrov ri vwdwlvwlfdo lqihuhqfh duh glvfxvvhg1 Wkhuh
duh d qxpehu ri Plqlwde frppdqgv wkdw dlg lq wkh frpsxwdwlrq ri frqghqfh
lqwhuydov dqg iru fduu|lqj rxw whvwv ri vljqlfdqfh1

6.1 }-Confidence Intervals

Wkh frppdqg Vwdw I Edvlf Vwdwlvwlfv I 40Vdpsoh ] frpsxwhv frqghqfh lqwhu0
  
ydov iru wkh phdq  xvlqj d vdpsoh {1 > = = = > {q iurp d glvwulexwlrq zkhuh zh nqrz
wkh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq 1 Wkhuh duh wkuhh vlwxdwlrqv zkhq wklv lv dssursuldwh=
+4, Zh nqrz wkdw zh duh vdpsolqj iurp d qrupdo glvwulexwlrq zlwk xqnqrzq
phdq  dqg nqrzq vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq / dqg wkxv
¯
{
}= s
@ q

lv glvwulexwhg Q (0> 1)=

+5, Zh kdyh d odujh vdpsoh iurp d glvwulexwlrq zlwk xqnqrzq phdq  dqg
nqrzq vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq / dqg wkh fhqwudo olplw wkhruhp dssur{lpdwlrq wr
wkh glvwulexwlrq ri {¯ lv dssursuldwh/ l1h1/ wkh glvwulexwlrq ri
¯
{
}= s
@ q

lv dssur{lpdwho| glvwulexwhg Q(0> 1)=

438
439 Chapter 6

+6, Zh kdyh d odujh vdpsoh iurp d glvwulexwlrq zlwk xqnqrzq phdq  dqg
xqnqrzq vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq / dqg wkh vdpsoh vl}h lv odujh hqrxjk vr wkdw
¯
{
}= s
v@ q

lv dssur{lpdwho| Q (0> 1)/ zkhuh v lv wkh vdpsoh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq1

s
Wkh frqghqfh lqwhuydo wdnhv wkh irup { ¯ }  @ q> zkhuh v lv vxevwlwxwhg
iru  lq fdvh +6,/ dqg }  lv ghwhuplqhg iurp wkh Q (0> 1) glvwulexwlrq e| wkh
frqghqfh ohyho ghvluhg/ dv ghvfulehg lq LSV1 Ri frxuvh/ vlwxdwlrq +6, lv suredeo|
wkh prvw uhdolvwlf/ exw qrwh wkdw wkh frqghqfh lqwhuydov frqvwuxfwhg iru +4, duh
h{dfw/ zkloh wkrvh frqvwuxfwhg xqghu +5, dqg +6, duh rqo| dssur{lpdwh/ dqg d
odujhu vdpsoh vl}h lv uhtxluhg lq +6, iru wkh dssur{lpdwlrq wr eh uhdvrqdeoh wkdq
iru +5,1
Frqvlghu wkh vdpsoh jlyhq e| 31;736/ 31;696/ 31;77:/ zklfk duh vwruhg lq
F4/ dqg vxssrvh wkdw lw pdnhv vhqvh wr wdnh  = =00681 Wkh frppdqg Vwdw I

Edvlf Vwdwlvwlfv I 40Vdpsoh ] zlwk wkh gldorj er{hv dv lq Glvsod|v 914 dqg 915
 
surgxfhv wkh rxwsxw
Variable N Mean StDev SE Mean
C1 3 0.84043 0.00420 0.00393
99.0% CI
(0.83032, 0.85055)
lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Wklv vshflhv wkh <<( frqghqfh lqwhuydo +31;6365/
31;8388, iru = Qrwh wkdw lq wkh gldorj er{ ri Glvsod| 914/ zh vshfli| zkhuh wkh
gdwd uhvlghv lq wkh Yduldeohv er{/ wkh ydoxh ri  lq wkh Vljpd er{/ dqg folfn rq
 
wkh Rswlrqv exwwrq wr eulqj xs wkh gldorj er{ lq Glvsod| 9151 Lq wklv gldorj er{

zh kdyh vshflhg wkh <<( frqghqfh ohyho lq wkh Frqghqfh ohyho er{1


Glvsod| 914= Iluvw gldorj er{ iru surgxflqj wkh } 0frqghqfh lqwhuydo iru =
Introduction to Inference 43:

Glvsod| 915= Vhfrqg gldorj er{ iru surgxflqj wkh } 0frqghqfh lqwhuydo1 Khuh zh
vshfli| wkh frqghqfh ohyho1

Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg zinterval lv

zinterval Y1 vljpd @ Y2 H1 = = =Hp
zkhuh Y1 lv wkh frqghqfh ohyho dqg lv dq| ydoxh ehwzhhq 4 dqg <<1<</ Y2 lv
wkh dvvxphg ydoxh ri > dqg H1 / 111/ Hp duh froxpqv ri gdwd1 D Y1 ( frqghqfh
lqwhuydo lv surgxfhg iru hdfk froxpq vshflhg1 Li qr ydoxh lv vshflhg iru Y1 >
wkh ghidxow ydoxh lv <8(1

6.2 }-Tests
Wkh Vwdw I Edvlf Vwdwlvwlfv I 40Vdpsoh ] frppdqg lv xvhg zkhq zh zdqw wr
  
whvw wkh k|srwkhvlv wkdw wkh xqnqrzq phdq  htxdov d ydoxh 0 dqg rqh ri wkh
vlwxdwlrqv +4,/ +5,/ ru +6, dv glvfxvvhg lq LL14314 lv dssursuldwh1 Wkh whvw lv edvhg
rq frpsxwlqj d S 0ydoxh xvlqj wkh revhuyhg ydoxh ri
¯  0
{
}= s
@ q
dqg wkh Q (0> 1) glvwulexwlrq dv ghvfulehg lq LSV1
Vxssrvh wkh vdpsoh 2=0> 0=4> 0=7> 2=0> 0=4> 2=2> 1=3> 1=2> 1=1> 2=3 lv vwruhg lq
F4/ dqg zh duh dvnhg wr whvw wkh qxoo k|srwkhvlv K0 :  = 0 djdlqvw wkh dowhuqd0
wlyh Kd :  A 0 dqg lw pdnhv vhqvh wr wdnh  = 1= Wkh Vwdw I Edvlf Vwdwlvwlfv
 
I 40Vdpsoh ] frppdqg wrjhwkhu zlwk wkh gldorj er{hv ri Glvsod|v 916 dqg 917

surgxfhv wkh rxwsxw
Variable 99.0% Lower Bound Z P
C1 0.284 3.23 0.001
lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Wklv vshflhv wkh S 0ydoxh iru wklv whvw dv 1334/ dqg vr zh
uhmhfw wkh qxoo k|srwkhvlv lq idyru ri wkh dowhuqdwlyh1 Lq wkh uvw gldorj er{/ zh
vshflhg zkhuh wkh gdwd lv orfdwhg/ wkh ydoxh ri  dv ehiruh dqg wkdw zh zdqw
wr whvw K0 :  = 0 e| 3 lq wkh Whvw phdq er{1 Zh eurxjkw xs wkh vhfrqg gldorj

er{ e| folfnlqj rq wkh Rswlrqv exwwrq1 Lq wkh vhfrqg gldorj er{/ zh vshflhg

wkdw zh zdqw wr whvw wklv qxoo k|srwkhvlv djdlqvw wkh dowhuqdwlyh Kd :  A 0 e|
vhohfwlqj juhdwhu wkdq lq Dowhuqdwlyh er{1 Wkh rwkhu fkrlfhv duh qrw htxdo/

43; Chapter 6

zklfk vhohfwv wkh dowhuqdwlyh Kd :  9= 0> dqg ohvv wkdq/ zklfk vhohfwv wkh
dowhuqdwlyh Kd :  ? 0=

Glvsod| 916= Iluvw gldorj er{ iru whvwlqj d k|srwkhvlv frqfhuqlqj wkh phdq xvlqj d
} 0whvw1

Glvsod| 917= Vhfrqg gldorj er{ iru whvwlqj d k|srwkhvlv xvlqj wkh } 0whvw1

Wkh jhqhudo v|qwd{ ri wkh fruuhvsrqglqj vhvvlrq frppdqg ztest lv

ztest Y1 vljpd @ Y2 H1 = = =Hp
zkhuh Y1 lv wkh k|srwkhvl}hg ydoxh wr eh whvwhg/ Y2 lv wkh dvvxphg ydoxh ri >
dqg H1 / 111/ Hp duh froxpqv ri gdwd1 Li qr ydoxh lv vshflhg iru Y1 / wkh ghidxow
lv 31 D whvw ri wkh k|srwkhvlv lv fduulhg rxw iru hdfk froxpq1 Li qr alternative
vxefrppdqg lv vshflhg/ d wzr0vlghg whvw lv frqgxfwhg/ l1h1/ K0 :  = Y1 djdlqvw
wkh dowhuqdwlyh Kd :  9= Y1 = Li wkh vxefrppdqg
SUBCA alternative 1.
lv xvhg/ d whvw ri K0 :  = Y1 djdlqvw wkh dowhuqdwlyh Kd :  A Y1 lv frqgxfwhg1
Li wkh vxefrppdqg
SUBCA alternative -1.
lv xvhg/ d whvw ri K0 :  = Y1 djdlqvw wkh dowhuqdwlyh Kd :  ? Y1 lv frqgxfwhg1
Introduction to Inference 43<

6.3 Simulations for Confidence Intervals

Zkhq zh duh vdpsolqj iurp d Q (> ) glvwulexwlrq dqg nqrz wkh ydoxh ri / wkh
frqghqfh lqwhuydov frqvwuxfwhg lq LL1914 duh h{dfw/ l1h1/ lq wkh orqj uxq d sur0
sruwlrq 95% ri wkh 95% frqghqfh lqwhuydov frqvwuxfwhg iru dq xqnqrzq phdq
 zloo frqwdlq wkh wuxh ydoxh ri wklv txdqwlw|1 Ri frxuvh/ dq| jlyhq frqghqfh
lqwhuydo pd| ru pd| qrw frqwdlq wkh wuxh ydoxh ri / dqg/ lq dq| qlwh qxpehu ri
vxfk lqwhuydov vr frqvwuxfwhg/ vrph sursruwlrq rwkhu wkdq <8( zloo frqwdlq wkh
wuxh ydoxh ri = Dv wkh qxpehu ri lqwhuydov lqfuhdvhv/ krzhyhu/ wkh sursruwlrq
fryhulqj zloo jr wr <8(1
Zh looxvwudwh wklv yld d vlpxodwlrq vwxg| edvhg rq frpsxwlqj <3( frqghqfh
lqwhuydov1 Wkh vhvvlrq frppdqgv
MTB A random 100 c1-c5;
SUBCA normal 1 2.
MTB A rmean c1-c5 c6
MTB A invcdf .95;
SUBCA normal 0 1.
Normal with mean = 0 and standard deviation = 1.00000
P( X ?= x) x
0.9500 1.6449
MTB A let k1=1.6449*2/sqrt(5)
MTB A let c7=c6-k1
MTB A let c8=c6+k1
MTB A let c9=c7?1 and c8A1
MTB A mean c9
Mean of C9 = 0.94000
MTB A set c10
DATAA 1:25
DATAA end
MTB A delete 26:100 c7 c8
MTB A mplot c7 versus c10 c8 versus c10;
SUBCA xstart=1 end=25;
SUBCA xincrement=1.
jhqhudwh 433 udqgrp vdpsohv ri vl}h 8 iurp wkh Q (1> 2) glvwulexwlrq/ sodfh wkh
phdqv lq F9/ wkh orzhu hqg0srlqw ri d <3( frqghqfh lqwhuydo lq F:/ dqg wkh
xsshu hqg0srlqw lq F;/ dqg uhfrug zkhwkhu ru qrw d frqghqfh lqwhuydo fryhuv
wkh wuxh ydoxh  = 1 e| sodflqj d 4 ru 3 lq F</ uhvshfwlyho|1 Wkh phdq ri F<
lv wkh sursruwlrq ri lqwhuydov wkdw fryhu/ dqg wklv lv <7(/ zklfk lv 7( wrr kljk1
Ilqdoo|/ zh sorwwhg wkh uvw 58 ri wkhvh lqwhuydov lq d sorw vkrzq lq Iljxuh 9141
Gudzlqj d vrolg krul}rqwdo olqh dw 4 rq wkh |0d{lv lqglfdwhv wkdw prvw ri wkhvh
lqwhuydov gr lqghhg fryhu wkh wuxh ydoxh  = 1=
443 Chapter 6

C7
0

-1

-2

-3
0 5 10 15 20 25
C10

Iljxuh 914= Sorw ri <3( frqghqfh lqwhuydov iru wkh phdq zkhq vdpsolqj iurp wkh
Q (1> 2) glvwulexwlrq zlwk q = 51 Wkh orzhu hqg0srlqw lv rshq dqg wkh xsshu
hqg0srlqw lv forvhg1

Wkh vlpxodwlrq mxvw fduulhg rxw vlpso| yhulhv d wkhruhwlfdo idfw1 Rq wkh
rwkhu kdqg/ zkhq zh duh frpsxwlqj dssur{lpdwh frqghqfh lqwhuydov  l1h1/ zh
duh qrw vdpsolqj qhfhvvdulo| iurp d qrupdo glvwulexwlrq  lw lv jrrg wr gr vrph
vlpxodwlrqv iurp ydulrxv glvwulexwlrqv wr vhh krz pxfk uholdqfh zh fdq sodfh
lq wkh dssur{lpdwlrq dw d jlyhq vdpsoh vl}h1 Wkh wuxh fryhudjh suredelolw| ri
wkh lqwhuydo/ l1h1/ wkh orqj0uxq sursruwlrq ri wlphv wkdw wkh lqwhuydo fryhuv wkh
wuxh phdq/ zloo qrw lq jhqhudo eh htxdo wr wkh qrplqdo frqghqfh ohyho1 Vpdoo
ghyldwlrqv duh qrw vhulrxv/ exw odujh rqhv duh1

6.4 Simulations for Power Calculations

Lw lv dovr xvhixo wr nqrz lq d jlyhq frqwh{w krz vhqvlwlyh d sduwlfxodu whvw ri
vljqlfdqfh lv1 E| wklv zh phdq krz olnho| lw lv wkdw wkh whvw zloo ohdg xv wr
uhmhfw wkh qxoo k|srwkhvlv zkhq wkh qxoo k|srwkhvlv lv idovh1 Wklv lv phdvxuhg e|
wkh frqfhsw ri wkh srzhu ri d whvw1 W|slfdoo|/ d ohyho  lv fkrvhq iru wkh S 0ydoxh
dw zklfk zh zrxog ghqlwho| uhmhfw wkh qxoo k|srwkhvlv li wkh S 0ydoxh lv vpdoohu
wkdq 1 Iru h{dpsoh/  = =05 lv d frpprq fkrlfh iru wklv ohyho1 Vxssrvh wkdw
zh kdyh fkrvhq wkh ohyho ri 138 iru wkh wzr0vlghg }0whvw dqg zh zdqw wr hydoxdwh
wkh srzhu ri wkh whvw zkhq wkh wuxh ydoxh ri wkh phdq lv  = 1 > l1h1/ hydoxdwh
wkh suredelolw| ri jhwwlqj d S 0ydoxh vpdoohu wkdq 138 zkhq wkh phdq lv 1 = Wkh
wzr0vlghg }0whvw zlwk ohyho  uhmhfwv K0 :  = 0 zkhqhyhu
µ ¯ ¯¶
¯{¯  0 ¯¯
¯
S m]m A ¯ s ¯  
@ q

zkhuh ] lv d Q (0> 1) udqgrp yduldeoh1 Wklv lv htxlydohqw wr vd|lqj wkdw wkh qxoo
k|srwkhvlv lv uhmhfwhg zkhqhyhu
Introduction to Inference 444

¯ ¯
¯{ ¯
¯ ¯ s0 ¯
¯ @ q ¯

lv juhdwhu wkdq ru htxdo wr wkh 1  @2 shufhqwloh iru wkh Q (0> 1) glvwulexwlrq1
Iru h{dpsoh/ li  = =05> wkhq 1  @2 = =975 dqg wklv shufhqwloh fdq eh rewdlqhg
xvlqj wkh frppdqg Fdof I Suredelolw| Glvwulexwlrqv I Qrupdo dqg wkh lqyhuvh
  
glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq/ zklfk jlyhv wkh rxwsxw
Normal with mean = 0 and standard deviation = 1.00000
P( X ?= x) x
0.9750 1.9600
lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz/ l1h1/ wkh 1<:8 shufhqwloh ri wkh Q(0> 1) glvwulexwlrq lv 41<91
Ghqrwh wklv shufhqwloh e| }  = Li  = 1 > wkhq
¯  0
{
s
@ q
¯
lv d uhdol}hg ydoxh iurp wkh glvwulexwlrq ri \ = [ s 0 zkhq [ ¯ lv glvwulexwhg
@ q
s 1 
Q(1 > @ q)= Wkhuhiruh/ \ iroorzv d Q ( @sq0 > 1) glvwulexwlrq1 Wkh srzhu ri
wkh wzr0vlghg whvw dw  = 1 lv

S (m\ m A }  )

dqg wklv fdq eh hydoxdwhg h{dfwo| xvlqj wkh frppdqg Fdof I Suredelolw|

Glvwulexwlrqv I Qrupdo dqg wkh glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq/ diwhu zulwlqj
 
S (m\ m A }  ) = S (\ A }  ) + S (\ ? }  )
µ ¶ µ ¶
(1  0 )  (1  0 ) 
=S ]A s +} +S ] ? s }
@ q @ q

zlwk ] iroorzlqj dq Q(0> 1) glvwulexwlrq1

Dowhuqdwlyho|/ h{dfw srzhu fdofxodwlrqv fdq eh fduulhg rxw xqghu wkh dvvxps0
wlrq ri vdpsolqj iurp d qrupdo glvwulexwlrq xvlqj wkh Srzhu dqg Vdpsoh Vl}h

I 40Vdpsoh ] frppdqg dqg oolqj lq wkh gldorj er{ dssursuldwho|1 Dovr/ wkh

plqlpxp vdpsoh vl}h uhtxluhg wr jxdudqwhh d jlyhq srzhu dw d suhvfulehg gli0
ihuhqfh m1  0 m fdq eh rewdlqhg xvlqj wklv frppdqg1 Iru h{dpsoh/ oolqj lq
wkh gldorj er{ iru wklv frppdqg dv lq Glvsod| 918 fuhdwhv wkh rxwsxw
Testing mean = null (versus not = null)
Calculating power for mean = null + difference
Alpha = 0.05 Sigma = 1.3
Sample
Difference Size Power
0.1 10 0.0568
0.2 10 0.0775
445 Chapter 6

lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Wklv jlyhv wkh srzhu iru whvwlqj K0 :  = 0 yhuvxv
K0 :  9= 0 dw m1  0 m = =1 dqg m1  0 m = =2 zkhq q = 10/  = 1=3> dqg
 = =05= Wkhvh srzhuv duh jlyhq e| 1389; dqg 13::8/ uhvshfwlyho|1 Folfnlqj rq
wkh Rswlrqv exwwrq doorzv |rx wr fkrrvh rwkhu dowhuqdwlyhv dqg vshfli| rwkhu
ydoxhvri  lq wkh Vljqlfdqfh ohyho er{1


Glvsod| 918= Gldorj er{ iru fdofxodwlqj srzhuv dqg plqlpxp vdpsoh vl}hv1

Li zh kdg lqvwhdg oohg lq Srzhu ydoxhv dw 14 dqg 15 lq wkh gldorj er{ ri


Glvsod| 918/ vd| dv 1; dqg 1</ dqg kdg ohiw wkh Vdpsoh vl}hv er{ hpsw|/ zh zrxog

kdyh rewdlqhg wkh rxwsxw
Testing mean = null (versus not = null)
Calculating power for mean = null + difference
Alpha = 0.05 Sigma = 1.3
Sample Target Actual
Difference Size Power Power
0.1 1327 0.8000 0.8002
0.1 1776 0.9000 0.9000
0.2 332 0.8000 0.8005
0.2 444 0.9000 0.9000
lq wkh Vhvvlrq zlqgrz1 Wklv suhvfulehv wkh plqlpxp vdpsoh vl}hv q = 1327
dqg q = 1776 wr rewdlq wkh srzhuv 1; dqg 1</ uhvshfwlyho|/ dw wkh glhuhqfh
14 dqg wkh vdpsoh vl}hv q = 332 dqg q = 444 wr rewdlq wkh srzhuv 1; dqg 1</
uhvshfwlyho|/ dw wkh glhuhqfh 151
Wklv ghulydwlrq ri wkh srzhu ri wkh wzr0vlghg whvw ghshqghg rq wkh vdpsoh
frplqj iurp d qrupdo glvwulexwlrq/ dv wklv ohdgv wr [ ¯ kdylqj dq h{dfw qrupdo
¯
glvwulexwlrq1 Lq jhqhudo/ krzhyhu/ [ zloo eh rqo| dssur{lpdwho| qrupdo/ dqg vr
wkh qrupdo fdofxodwlrq lv qrw h{dfw1 Wr dvvhvv wkh hhfw ri wkh qrqqrupdolw|/
krzhyhu/ zh fdq riwhq vlpxodwh vdpsolqj iurp d ydulhw| ri glvwulexwlrqv dqg
hvwlpdwh wkh suredelolw| S (m\ m A }  )= Iru h{dpsoh/ vxssrvh wkdw zh zdqw wr
Introduction to Inference 446

whvw K0 :  = 0 lq d wzr0vlghg }0whvw edvhg rq d vdpsoh ri 43/ zkhuh zh hvwlpdwh

 e| wkh vdpsoh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq dqg zh zdqw wr hydoxdwh wkh srzhu dw 41 Ohw
xv ixuwkhu vxssrvh wkdw zh duh dfwxdoo| vdpsolqj iurp d xqlirup glvwulexwlrq
rq wkh lqwhuydo (10> 12)> zklfk lqghhg kdv lwv phdq dw 41 Wkh vlpxodwlrq jlyhq
e| wkh vhvvlrq frppdqgv
MTB A random 1000 c1-c10;
SUBCA uniform -10 12.
MTB A rmean c1-c10 c11
MTB A rstdev c1-c10 c12
MTB A let c13=absolute(c11/(c12/sqrt(10)))
MTB A let c14=c13A1.96
MTB A let k1=mean(c14)
MTB A let k2=sqrt(k1*(1-k1)/n(c14))
MTB A print k1 k2
K1 0.112000
K2 0.00997276
hvwlpdwhv wkh srzhu wr eh 1445/ dqg wkh vwdqgdug huuru ri wklv hvwlpdwh/ dv
jlyhq lq N5/ lv dssur{lpdwho| 1341 Wkh dssolfdwlrq ghwhuplqhv zkhwkhu ru qrw
wkh dvvxpswlrq ri d xqlirup glvwulexwlrq pdnhv vhqvh dqg zkhwkhu ru qrw wklv
srzhu lv lqglfdwlyh ri d vhqvlwlyh whvw ru qrw1

6.5 The Chi-Square Distribution

Li ] lv glvwulexwhg dffruglqj wr wkh Q (0> 1) glvwulexwlrq/ wkhq \ = ] 2 lv
glvwulexwhg dffruglqj wr wkh Fklvtxduh(1) glvwulexwlrq1 Li [1 lv glvwulexwhg
Fklvtxduh(n1 ) lqghshqghqw ri [2 glvwulexwhg Fklvtxduh(n2 )> wkhq \ = [1 +[2
lv glvwulexwhg dffruglqj wr wkh Fklvtxduh(n1 + n2 ) glvwulexwlrq1 Wkhuh duh
Plqlwde frppdqgv wkdw dvvlvw lq fduu|lqj rxw frpsxwdwlrqv iru wkh Fklvtxduh(n)
glvwulexwlrq1 Qrwh wkdw n lv dq| srvlwlyh ydoxh dqg lv uhihuuhg wr dv wkh ghjuhhv
ri iuhhgrp1
Wkh ydoxhv ri wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh iru wkh Fklvtxduh(n) glvwulexwlrq fdq eh
rewdlqhg xvlqj wkh Fdof I Suredelolw| Glvwulexwlrqv I Fkl0Vtxduh frppdqg/
  
zlwk n dv wkh Ghjuhhv ri iuhhgrp lq wkh gldorj er{/ ru wkh vhvvlrq frppdqg pdf

zlwk wkh vxefrppdqg chisquare. Iru h{dpsoh/ wkh frppdqg
MTB A pdf c1 c2;
SUBCA chisquare 4.
fdofxodwhv wkh ydoxh ri wkh Fklvtxduh(4) ghqvlw| fxuyh dw hdfk ydoxh lq F4 dqg
vwruhv wkhvh ydoxhv lq F51 Wklv lv xvhixo iru sorwwlqj wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh1 Wkh Fdof

I Suredelolw| Glvwulexwlrqv I Fkl0Vtxduh frppdqg/ ru wkh vhvvlrq frppdqgv
 
cdf dqg invcdf, fdq dovr eh xvhg wr rewdlq ydoxhv ri wkh Fklvtxduh(n) fxpx0
odwlyh glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq dqg lqyhuvh glvwulexwlrq ixqfwlrq/ uhvshfwlyho|1 Zh
xvh wkh Fdof I Udqgrp Gdwd I Fkl0Vtxduh frppdqg/ ru wkh vhvvlrq frppdqg
  
random, wr rewdlq udqgrp vdpsohv iurp wkhvh glvwulexwlrqv1
447 Chapter 6

Zh zloo vhh dssolfdwlrqv ri wkh fkl0vtxduh glvwulexwlrq odwhu lq wkh errn exw
zh phqwlrq rqh khuh1 Lq sduwlfxodu/ li {1 > = = = > {q lv d vdpsoh iurp d Q (> )
Pq 2
glvwulexwlrq/ wkhq (q  1) v2 @ 2 = l=1 ({l  { ¯) @2 lv nqrzq wr iroorz d
Fklvtxduh(q  1) glvwulexwlrq/ dqg wklv idfw lv xvhg dv d edvlv iru lqihuhqfh
derxw  +frqghqfh lqwhuydov dqg whvwv ri vljqlfdqfh,1 Ehfdxvh ri wkh qrqur0
exvwqhvv ri wkhvh lqihuhqfhv wr vpdoo ghyldwlrqv iurp qrupdolw|/ wkhvh lqihuhqfhv
duh qrw uhfrpphqghg1

6.6 Exercises
Zkhq wkh gdwd iru dq h{huflvh frph iurp dq h{huflvh lq LSV/ wkh LSV h{huflvh
qxpehu lv jlyhq lq sduhqwkhvhv + ,1 Doo frpsxwdwlrqv lq wkhvh h{huflvhv duh
wr eh fduulhg rxw xvlqj Plqlwde/ dqg wkh h{huflvhv duh ghvljqhg wr hqvxuh wkdw
|rx kdyh d uhdvrqdeoh xqghuvwdqglqj ri wkh Plqlwde pdwhuldo lq wklv fkdswhu1
Jhqhudoo|/ |rx vkrxog eh xvlqj Plqlwde wr gr doo wkh frpsxwdwlrqv dqg sorwwlqj
uhtxluhg iru wkh sureohpv lq LSV1
Li |rxu yhuvlrq ri Plqlwde sodfhv uhvwulfwlrqv vxfk wkdw wkh ydoxh ri wkh vlp0
xodwlrq vdpsoh vl}h Q uhtxhvwhg lq wkhvh sureohpv lv qrw ihdvleoh/ wkhq vxevwlwxwh
d pruh dssursuldwh ydoxh1 Eh dzduh/ krzhyhu/ wkdw wkh dffxudf| ri |rxu uhvxowv
lv ghshqghqw rq krz odujh Q lv1

41 +919, Xvh wkh Vwdw I Edvlf Vwdwlvwlfv I 40 Vdpsoh ] frppdqg wr frpsxwh

  
<3(/ <8(/ dqg <<( frqghqfh lqwhuydov iru =
51 +917<, Xvh wkh Vwdw I Edvlf Vwdwlvwlfv I 40 Vdpsoh ] frppdqg wr whvw wkh
  
qxoo k|srwkhvlv djdlqvw wkh dssursuldwh dowhuqdwlyh1 Hydoxdwh wkh srzhu
ri wkh whvw zlwk ohyho  = =05 dw  = 225=
61 Vlpxodwh Q = 1000 vdpsohv ri vl}h 8 iurp wkh Q (1> 2) glvwulexwlrq/ dqg
fdofxodwh wkh sursruwlrq ri 1<3 }0frqghqfh lqwhuydov iru wkh phdq wkdw
fryhu wkh wuxh ydoxh  = 1=
71 Vlpxodwh Q = 1000 vdpsohv ri vl}h 43 iurp wkh xqlirup glvwulexwlrq rq
+3/4,/ dqg fdofxodwh wkh sursruwlrq ri 1<3 }0frqghqfh
s lqwhuydov iru wkh
phdq wkdw fryhu wkh wuxh ydoxh  = =5= Xvh  = 1@ 12=
81 Vlpxodwh Q = 1000 vdpsohv ri vl}h 43 iurp wkh H{srqhqwldo(1) glvwulex0
wlrq +vhh H{huflvh LL171:,/ dqg fdofxodwh wkh sursruwlrq ri 1<8 }0frqghqfh
lqwhuydov iru wkh phdq wkdw fryhu wkh wuxh ydoxh  = 1= Xvh  = 1=
91 Wkh ghqvlw| fxuyh iru wkh Vwxghqw(1) glvwulexwlrq wdnhv wkh irup
1 1
 1 + {2
iru 4 ? { ? 41 Wklv vshfldo fdvh lv fdoohg wkh Fdxfk| glvwulexwlrq1 Sorw
wklv ghqvlw| fxuyh lq wkh udqjh (20> 20) xvlqj dq lqfuhphqw ri 141 Vlpxodwh
Q = 1000 vdpsohv ri vl}h 5 iurp wkh Vwxghqw(1) glvwulexwlrq +vhh H{huflvh
Introduction to Inference 448

LL17145,/ dqg fdofxodwh wkh sursruwlrq ri 1<3 frqghqfh lqwhuydov iru wkh
phdq/ xvlqj wkh vdpsoh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq iru / wkdw fryhu wkh ydoxh
 = 0= Lw lv srvvleoh wr rewdlq yhu| edg dssur{lpdwlrqv lq wklv h{dpsoh
ehfdxvh wkh fhqwudo olplw wkhruhp grhv qrw dsso| wr wklv glvwulexwlrq1 Lq
idfw/ lw grhv qrw kdyh d phdq1
:1 Vxssrvh zh duh whvwlqj K0 :  = 3 yhuvxv K0 :  9= 3 zkhq zh duh vdpsolqj
iurp d Q (> ) glvwulexwlrq zlwk  = 2=1 dqg wkh vdpsoh vl}h lv q = 20=
Li zh xvh wkh fulwlfdo ydoxh  = =01> ghwhuplqh wkh srzhu ri wklv whvw dw
 = 4=
;1 Vxssrvh zh duh whvwlqj K0 :  = 3 yhuvxv K0 :  A 3 zkhq zh duh
vdpsolqj iurp d Q (> ) glvwulexwlrq zlwk  = 2=1= Li zh xvh wkh fulwlfdo
ydoxh  = =01> ghwhuplqh wkh plqlpxp vdpsoh vl}h vr wkdw wkh srzhu ri
wklv whvw dw  = 4 lv 1<<=
<1 Wkh xqlirup glvwulexwlrq rqq wkh lqwhuydo (d> e) kdv phdq  = (d + e) @2
2
dqg vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq  = (e  d) @12= Fdofxodwh wkh srzhu dw  = 1
ri wkh wzr0vlghg }0whvw dw ohyho  = =95 iru whvwlqj K0 :  = 0 zkhq wkh
vdpsoh vl}h lv q = 10/  lv wkh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq ri d xqlirup glvwulexwlrq
rq (10> 12)/ dqg zh duh vdpsolqj iurp d qrupdo glvwulexwlrq1
431 Vxssrvh wkdw zh duh whvwlqj K0 :  = 0 lq d wzr0vlghg whvw edvhg rq
d vdpsoh ri 61 Dssur{lpdwh wkh srzhu ri wkh }0whvw dw ohyho  = =1 dw
 = 5 zkhq zh duh vdpsolqj iurp wkh glvwulexwlrq ri \ = 5 + Z> zkhuh
Z iroorzv d Vwxghqw(6) glvwulexwlrq +vhh H{huflvh LL17145, dqg zh xvh
wkh vdpsoh vwdqgdug ghyldwlrq wr hvwlpdwh 1 Qrwh wkdw wkh phdq ri wkh
glvwulexwlrq ri \ lv 81
449 Chapter 6