THE INDIAN AWAKENING

N. Lekshmi Kutty “Vivekanada : A study in national, social and spiritual

reconstruction of India ” Thesis. Department of History , University of Calicut,
2002
 CHAPTER I1
THE INDIAN AWAmNING

Nineteenth century witnessed tremendous changes in Indian polity and

society consequent to the expansion and consolidation of British imperialism in

India. The most powefil and enduring effect of the British rule in India reflected

itself in the intellectual development of the people on an entirely new line, which in

turn brought changes in their political, social and religious outlook. The latter half

of the nineteenth century was particularly characterised by the growing spirit of

Indian nationalism which aimed at giving back to the nation its lost identity.

Though the conflict between British interests and Indian aspirations was not so

obvious in the first half of the 19" century, in the early years of the latter half, it

became apparent, culminating in the Rebellion of 1857. And in the last quarter of

the century Indian nationalism became self conscious and assertive.

It is a historical fact that Indian nationalism was the consequence of an

awakening which was marked by momentous changes embracing various spheres

of national life. It was a broad movement of regeneration affecting almost all

spheres of life such as political, religious, economic, social, educational etc. and is

popularly called "Indian Renaissance" or the "Indian Resurgence", though none of

these terms is altogether satisfactory".' Bengal was the centre of this awakening

I
Nemai Sadhan Bose, Indian Awakening and Bengal (Calcutta, 1969), Preface.
because it was in Bengal that British rule was first firmly established, western

education was introduced and a new economy was set up "leading to the birth of

middle-class intelligentsia which was in the forefront of the awakening."

Naturally the principal social, religious and political movements of the 19" century

connected with the awakening also emanated from Bengal.

New Middle Class

The awakening of India resulting in the reconstruction of the nation in socio-

political and cultural fields was the result of historical forces unleashed by

colonialism. The first and foremost among these forces was the emergence of a

new middle class. This class was constituted by a new class of zamindars created

by the Permanent Settlement of 1793) and a new class of merchants who grew rich

as middlemen in the East India Company's trade. This class played a decisive role

in the social history of Bengal in the 19" century in the sense that the initiative for

social reform came first from the educated sections of this class.

The emergence of this new middle class also created the atmosphere for the

introduction and growth of English education which proved to be an important

Ibid.
This measure of Lord cornwallis led to the transformation of the land revenue collectors
in the province of Bengal into land holders with permanent tenure. For its own political
convenience, the East India company thus "createda class of vested interests who became
the allies of the English rule". See Bhupendranath Datta, Swami Vivekananda Patriot
Prophet - A study (Calcutta, 1993.edn)p.21.
factor leading to the Indian awakening. The purpose of the introduction of English

education, was of course, to meet the imperialist needs rather than popular needs

which is clear fiom the Minutes of Macaulay, the law member of the viceroy's

council. He recorded "we must at present do our best to form a class of persons

Indian in blood and colour but English in tastes, in opinion, in morality and

intellect".' Throughout the colonial period, the British were using English

education as a channel through which "they were bringing their own waves to

1ndiaW5and acting as agents for European or Western culture. Yet, it cannot be

denied that the British introduced English education in India with the support of the

newly emerged middle class. These men were anxious to obtain an English

education for themselves and their sons, for knowledge of the rulers' tongue was

required to obtain employment. It may be noted in this context that the orthodox

and wealthy families of Bengal took a significant part in the foundation of the

Hindu college in 1817 which was a "landmark in the history of the growth of

English education in ~ n d i a . "Further,

~ this proved to be "the most important step in

Young, G.M, ed., Speeches by Lord, Macaulay with his Minute on Education (London,
1935) p.359.
5
Percival Spear, "The Mughuls and the British" in A.L. Basham, ed; A Cultural History
of lndia (Delhi, 1975), P.360.
a. Bose, n. 1, p.88.
b. Jawaharlal Nehru has noted that it was "due to the pioneering efforts of able and
earnest Englishmen who gathered enthusiastic groups of Indian students around
them that English thought and literature and political tradition were introduced to India
see I. Nehru, The Discovery of India (OUP, 15" Imprint, 1998), p.3 13.
the nineteenth century towards the formation of an educated middle class and an

intelligentsia in the western sense of the term,"7 who played a leading role in the

movements related to regeneration.

The point needs an explanation. With the introduction of English as the

medium of instruction, it became the channel through which India discovered the

liberal thought that was then transforming Europe. Western learning put the tools

of rationalism and scepticism in the hands of a generation of young Indians. In fact

the policy of English education and the establishment of universities in the three

presidency cities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857, resulted in the

emergence of a class of English - educated elite imbibed with western liberalism ,

who acted as catalysts in bringing about the much needed reform in Indian society

and religion.

Serampore Missionaries

It will not be an exaggeration to say that in making the Bengali mind

receptive to new ideas like social reforms, the activities of the Serarnpore

missionaries8 had done the ground work. Apart form the educational activities,

' Pradeep Sinha, Nineteenth Century Bengal - Aspects ofsocial History (Calcutta, 1965)
p.93.
The Baptist mission at Serampare (Calcutta) headed by William Carey, Marshman and
Ward was the pioneer of missionary movement in Bengal. The Renaissance of the 19'
century was very closely interlinked with the development of Bengali language and
literature and the latter was deeply indebted to the Serampore mission.
their work covered a wide range of other activities like translation of Bible into

vernacular Bengali, publishing books on various subjects like History, Geography

and general knowledge, reprinting old Bengali verses, etc, by which the

missionaries gave an impetus to Bengali particularly to its prose literature. Though

they gave stress on the study of Sanskrit, their main object was to challenge the

very citadel of Hinduism i.e. to study and expose the fallacies of the sacred texts all

of which were in Sansknt. Although a few conversions took place, the publication

of translated works from Sanskrit language drew the attention of the people into

their ancient culture which in turn helped the revival of oriental learning. The

crusade against Hindu religion, society, customs and practices was in fact proving

a blessing in disguise. At least a minority section of the population began to feel

that "everything was not right with Hindu religion and society."g Again, the

missionary publications created people's interest in the outer world and enlarged the

horizon of their knowledge. This immensely helped to correct the prevailing

exclusiveness and the sense of satisfaction which had made the Indian society

"apparently inert". The net result of the missionary activities in Bengal was that

the Bengalies became curious and interested in the wider world. A spirit of self

criticism developed and they began to look backward for lessons and inspiration

and forward to a future of progress and achievement. Existing religion, society,

social norms and practices and sense of values were reexamined and reassessed.

9
Bose, n.1, p.21
Rise of Calcutta as Metropolis

In making Bengal the craddle of Indian awakening, urbanization contributed

much. In fact the urban transformation of Calcutta prepared the ground for this.

The city of Calcutta hailed in the latter half of the nineteenth century as "the British

jewel in the crown of British Empire: "had in the beginningtrneither physical

Until the eighteenth century, Calcutta was a

glamour nor cultural an~estry."'~

cluster of villages inhabited by occupational group or caste. The very face of it

changed with the establishment of Fort Williarn, the trade centre of the East India

Company. Soon its population became strikingly heterogeneous. It also developed

the "nexus of continental trade"" in cotton cloth. With the growth of industries,

people belonging to all castes began to throng there either as agents or writers to

foreign merchants or as just fortune seekers. Among these inhabitants included all

classes and castes from the Brhamins to the fishermen. Superseding and discarding

caste limitations, grew the business community which amalgamated all castes and

by the nineteenth century, Calcutta's indigenous business had begun to be

dominated by higher caste Hindus like Brahamins and Kayasthas. Many of the

high caste men were Banias - " Suppliers of cash and cash keepers". The

expanding British trade soon attracted to Bengal a growing number of non-

' Aravind Poddar, Renaissance in Bengal - Quests and Confrontations (Simla, 1970)
p.229.
II
Ibid., p.23 1
Bengali Indians who included bankers and merchants, thus adding up new elements

to local population of the city".12 In addition to these people, foreigners belonging

to various nationalities, European and Asian also began to come and settle in

Calcutta which thus quickly expanded into a cosmopolitan city. And Indo-

European co-operation in matters of trade and commerce became an important

feature of its economic life.

In making Calcutta a cosmopolitan city, the growth of merchant capitalism

and urbanisation had an important role. Bengal remained the major investment

outlet for British. The foreign owned and foreign financed industries included

cotton, jute, tea and mining. The introduction of railways gave a fillip to these

industries . There was an influx of population to Calcutta fi-om other parts of

Bengal also in search of employment. Calcutta being the focal point of colonial

administration and trade and the seat of political power, became the receptacle of

talent and man power and developed a heterogeneous culture which having an

original mode of thought often came in clash with old culture and civilization of

the place. Naturally the city "acted as a catalytic agent for socio-cultural

change".13 oreo over, increasing volume of trade brought large number of Bengalis
into contact with Europeans an agents, interpreters, associates, money lenders, etc.

This Eruopean Bengali contact inhsed an element of dynamism into the

- -

I2
Ibid.,p.232.
13
S.P. Sen, ed., Modern Bengal - A Socio-Economic Survey (Calcutta, 1973), p.22.
"apparently inert society"14and at long last the hitherto unchangeable began to stir

and change. The enormous amount of European participation in Bengal's economic

life enabled her to take the intellectual lead over the other provinces of India.

Urbanization also created circumstances in which individuals were

compelled to break through the orbit of their family occupations and taboos, to find

situations inconceivable to earlier generations i.e., members of all castes - the

Brahamins and the so called low castes - were entering upon trade and service. In

other words, an individual's choice of occupation was no longer conditioned by his

belonging to particular caste. This facilitated one's movement from a caste to an

economic class and at the same time brought about a revolution in perception. This

"Social mobility which shook the caste-ridden organization of Indian society in

urban areas15 particularly in the metropolitan city of Calcutta resulted in the

formation of a new culture. The restrictions of castes were eliminated here.

Interdining and intermarriage became frequent. Along with this, there took place

an erosion of old values also.16 Thus the city of Calcutta did send ripples to the

distant corners of Bengal. A new social mobility led to a new awakening. It was

l 4 Poddar, n. 10, p.9.

IS Tara Chand, History of Freedom Movement in India (Delhi, 1984) Vol. 11, p. 1 15.
The situation has been beautifully portrayed in the Bengali works like "RamtanuLuhiri
0 Tatkalin Banga Sumaj" by Sivanath Sastri, "Sekal ar Eakal" and "Atmacharit" by
Rajnarayan Bose and Kalikatha Kumalalya by Babani Charan Bandopadhyaya.
quite natural that Calcutta which was the'nerve centre of modem ~ e n ~ a lshould
"'~

become the cradle of the spirit of renaissance.

New Literature

The process of transformation in Bengal was accelerated by the literary

resurgence taking shape in the thirties and forties of the nineteenth century. Literary

creation does not take place in vacuum. It is very often in response to social and

cultural changes that literature originates. Literature can also act as an instrument

or medium for effecting changes in social outlook. The same is true of Bengali

literature which blossomed and enriched itself by drawing inspiration from

indigenous and western sources as well. A distinctive feature of the "New

Literature" which flourished under the impact of western learning was its

humanism1* and rationalism and its infinite capacity to inspire the masses with

patriotic feelings and national sentiments. The entire nineteenth century

particularly its first half was marked by ideological conflict, cross currents and

contradictions. In different spheres of life, there was a certain amount of

inconsistency and hesitancy and this was reflected in Bengali literature of the

period. In this age of ideological conflict, the press became the main platform for

effective propaganda and the news papers like Samachar Darpan, Digdarshan and

" Sen, n.13, p. 13.

Man and his activities on earth became the theme of Bengali literature, instead of
exploits of Gods and Goddesses, which was its main theme till the nineteenth century.
Sambad Kaumudi which appeared during the period between 1 81 8-1 829

highlighted these issues and produced a profound impact on the minds of the

reading public.

However creative literature began with socio-religious reformers of the

nineteenth century. An important point to be noted in connection with literary

renaissance in Bengal is that all pioneers of early Bengali literature were active

social reformers of outstanding moral stature".19Eg: Raja Ram Mohun Roy (1 774-

1883) the great social reformer used literature a means for giving expression to his

social and religious ideas which were based on reason and shastras. The "new age"

found expression for the first time in his writings. Equally great literary figures like

Babani Charan Banerjee, Iswar ChandraGupta, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and

Akshay Kumar Dutta highlighted in their writings contemporary social issues like

Kulin women's education, widow remarriage etc. By highlighting such

issues, the literature of the time was serving as a reforming agency. In fact their

writings could create a great stir in Bengali society.

The period witnessed the development of all branches of literature like

poetry, novel and drama which helped in bringing attitudinal changes in society.

The contemporary poets were influenced by both Western and Sanskrit literature

l9 Krishna Kripalani, "Modern Literature" in Basharn, n.5, p.412.

20 The custom of girls being married away to (old) men of kulin (noble) or Brahmin caste.
which is quite evident in the poems of Hem Chandra Banerjee (1838-1903) and

Nabein Chandra Sen (1837-1909). Contemporary poetry made a profound impact .

on the educated intelligentsia from among whom the nationalists of the period

came.

It has been remarked that the flowering of the Renaissance began with the

poetry of Madhusoodan Datta, the drama of Dina Bandhu Mitra and the novels of

Bankim Chandra Chatterjee. In the words of J.N. Sarkar: "Each of them reigned

over one branch of literature and turned it into a new channel where it has since

flowed, at his biddingtf.*' Michael Madhu Sudan Datta (1824-1873) who was the

foremost Bengali poet of modern style, through his compositions exposed social

abuses. The main purpose of his writings was to awaken national consciousness by

breaking down the old traditional values. His famous work Virangana which

occupies a unique position in Bengali literature caught the spirit of the movement

for emancipation of women led by Iswar Chandra Vidya Sagar.

Dina Bandhu Mitra (1828-1873) made his mark as a playwright of

unsurpassed promise by his famous drama Nila Dapan which gave expression to

popular indignation against the brutal tyranny of the indigo planters in Bengal. All

his works are charged with the spirit of realism and a deep sympathy for the people

and they give a vivid picture of contemporary social life. There was a close

21
J.N. Sarkar, India Through the Ages (Calcutta, 1 960), p. 65.
relation between Bengali stage and nationalism and in stirring the feelings of the

people against the worst evils of the British rule, the dramas of Dina Bandhu did

play a vital role.

The nineteenth century Bengal produced a great patriot like Bankim

Chandra Chatterjee (1 838- 1894) known as "the literary prophet of Indian

nationalism". The spirit of patriotism found its finest expression in his novels. "By

choosing socio-cultural themes for writing, he was preparing the ground for a

political awakening which was to come later".22 Of all his works, the most

important was his immortal work Anandamath which became a source of

inspiration for the entire generation of nationalists of the nineteenth and twentieth

centuries. The famous song "Bande matharam" which it contained, became the

national hymn and inspired people to be ready to sacrifice every thing for their

motherland. Thus the new literature which embodied the national spirit and

aspirations was shaping the ideals.of Indian nationalism. It may be added that not

only the Bengali literature, but literature in other regional languages also developed

similar trends in the nineteenth century and naturally served as a medium for

promoting national consciousness among the Indians.

22
Arun Bhattacharji, Prophets ofIndian Nationalism (Calcutta, 1993), p.75.
Work of the Orientalists

Political awakening in India was preceded by a Cultural Renaissance. The

work of the Orientalists like William Jones, Max Muller and Monier Williams

contributed much in bringing the Cultural Renaissance. Their increased interest in

the study of India's past, her classical lore, resulted in the translation of many

Sansknt works into English and other foreign languages through which the world

came to know of the cultural attainments of India. The Asiatic Society of Bengal

founded by William Jones in 1784 did creditable work in revealing the greatness of

ancient Indian culture to the Westerners. This created a new interest among the

Indians to know more about their past and shed their inferiority complex. The

Cultural Renaissance which India witnessed in the early years of the nineteenth

century proved to be a very significant force in producing a new awakening, and in

generating creative activities. This cultural awakening had an abiding impact on

the ideology of Ramakrishna - Vivekananda Movement which played a significant

role in bringing Spiritual Renaissance in the latter half of the nineteenth century.

Socio-Religious Movements

Of the various forces that brought forth the Indian Awakening, the Socio-

Religious Movements of the nineteenth century had a decisive role. These

movements were an expression of the rising national consciousness and spread of

liberal ideas of the West among the Indian people. These movements, says A.R.
Desai, "increasingly tended to have a national scope and programme of

reconstruction in the social and religious spheres".23

A deep analysis of these movements will reveal the fact that a major concern

of them was religious reform; yet none of these movements was "exclusively

religious in character".'' Strongly humanist in inspiration, their attention was

focused on worldly existence. This is clear fiom the agenda of reform proposed by

reformers like Raja Rammmohun Roy, Iswar Chandra Vidya Sagar, Swami

Vivekananda and others. Vivekananda even emphasized the secular use of religion

and used spirituality to take cognizance of the material conditions of human

exi~tence."~'At the same time all these reformers worked for religious reform

because of their conviction that in India the religious beliefs and social practices

were so closely connected that reform in this direction was a pre-requisite for social

progress. As advocates of political freedom, they were also guided by the notion

that "political freedom can have no meaning and reality without social freedom and

equality".26 Therefore it was natural that the Socio-Religious movements of the

nineteenth century - whether they were reformistic or revivalistic - shouId affect

'3 A.R. Desai, Social Background of Indian Nationalism (Bombay, 1991 Reprint), p.240.
24
Bipan Chandra, ed., India's Struggle for Independence (New Delhi, 1989), p.83.
25 Ibrd.
K.C. Vyas, 7he Sociul Renaissance in India (Bombay, 1957), p.4.
the growth of national consciousness in the country. An analytical study of the

movement requires an investigation into the milieu in which they originated.

Challenge from the West

It may be noted that the nineteenth century for India was one of the great

moments of cultural confrontation, confrontation between modem scientific culture

and a traditional culture. It was accepted that the West which had become the

creators and representatives of a virile culture and civilization and whose aim was

material prosperity had come to India through England in the nineteenth century.

The dominant European culture came to India through the new system of education

introduced by Macaulay in 1936. Before the dazzling civilization of the West, the

tradition-bound Indian society could put up only a poor show.

As the new education advanced, imitation of the West began to spread and

very soon the traditional culture ceased to have any hold on the English educated

generation. The proselytization of Christian missionaries who indulged in

wholesale vilification of Hindu religion, fbrther tended to weaken the hold of

religion on the minds of the western educated Hindu youth. As such it was

believed that India was to lose her culture and her soul as well.
Social Conditions

The Indian society itself was caught in a vicious web created by

superstitions and social obscurantism. The Hindu religion had fallen on evil days.

The religion of theupanishads and the Gita had degenerated into meaningless

formalism. Superstition was rampant. The race had almost lost its spirit of

independence and fearlessness due to long subjection to an alien rule.

Social conditions were equally depressing. The most distressing was the

position of women. The birth of a girl was unwelcome, her marriage a burden and

her widowhood inauspicuous. Hindu society was characterised by the prevalence of

such evils like female infanticide, child marriage and sati.

Another debilitative factor was caste which "sought to maintain a system of

segregation hierarchically ordained on the basis of ritual status".27 The rules and

regulations of the caste system hampered social mobility, fostered social divisions

and sapped individual initiatives. It is a natural consequence that social rigidity and

exclusiveness would nurture many an injustice and oppression. Above all was the

humiliation of untouchability which militated against human dignity. The dynamic

conception of life taught by the Upanisads had given place to a static complacence.

There was a languishing of spirit everywhere in Indian society during the

nineteenth century.

27 Bipan Chandra, n.24, p.84.

 It was into this old bottle of "social and national life that, was poured the

new wine of European culture".28 There was a ferment, unrest and questioning

which issued forth in a Renaissance of the Spirit of India.

It may be recalled in this context that the impact which the Western ideas

produced on Indian society, particularly Bengali society was varied. The orthodox

section revolted against the new ideas outwardly but searched inwardly for a

change. The intellectuals found it necessary to rationalise the traditional society.

The new ideas made them conscious of the need to change their society. The

learned discovered common grounds on which Hinduism, Islam and Christianity

met, since the essence of all religions were the same. A wave of unrest swept over

the thinking minds in the early years of the nineteenth century. Out of that unrest

"the Indian Renaissance" began to take shape.

Raja Rammohun Roy and Indian Awakening

At the head of this movement in its first phases, guiding it to a healthy

direction stands the personality of Raja Rarnmohun Roy, the "Father of Indian

Renaissance". As a reformer he had perceived religion as the dominant ideology of

the times and believed that it was not possible to undertake any social action

without coming to gnps with it. He also realized the need of religious and social

28
Swami Ranganthananda, The Ramakrishnu Miss~on Ifs Ideals and Acfivities (Calcutta,
1963), p.4.
regeneration to precede the political regeneration which he gave expression in

1828. He wrote:

I regret to say that the present system of religion adhered to by

the Hindus is not well calculated to promote their political

interests. The destruction of castes introducing innumerable

divisions and sub divisions among them has entirely deprived

them of patriotic feeling and the multitude of religious rites and

ceremonies and the laws of purification have totally disqualified

them from understanding any difficult enterprise. This, I think

necessary that some change should take place in their religion at

least for the sake of their political advantage and social comfort.29

These words represented the immediate Indian response to the dissemination

of colonial culture and ideology, resulting in an inevitable introspection about the

strengths and weaknesses of indigenous culture and institutions. They also project

the deep feeling of Rammohun that, even for the attainment of political freedom,

social reform was essential.

Rammohun's passionate love for reform led him to found the Brahmo Samaj

in 1828 which inaugurated the first important religious reform movement that

29Rammohun Roy quoted in Charles Heirnsath, Indian Nutionalism und Hindu Social
Reform (Bombay, 1964), p.24.
 42

"fairly dealt with the Western challenge and the new ideas that came from the

In meeting the challenge he had adopted a method acceptable to the

educated Indians who had come in contact with the sciences of Europe and who

hungered for a faith consistent with modern rationalism. Quite distinct Erom some

other social reformers of the time, Ramrnohun dealt with the rationalist, utilitarian

and liberal challenge of the West by incorporating all that could be incorporated

therefrom into Hinduism and by discovering afresh in Hinduism "the real source of

its universal humanism and ethical monotheism which had been concealed by the

inertia and thoughtlessness of an overgrown priest craft and a lethargic populace1'.31

Thus on the one side Rammohun wanted to preserve Hinduism by re-

interpreting it, but at the same time, his mind was broad enough to recognize what

was good and assimilable in the message of the West. From this it follows that his

Brahmoism was not a rebel child of Hinduism, instead he sought to keep it close to

Hindu moorings. In fact he founded the Sarnaj to save Hinduism from Chistian

attacks by purifying it fiom within. The reinterpretation of Hinduism that he made

as a means of making it more humanistic found its hlfilment later in the

Ramaknshna-Vivekananda movement which strengthened India's struggle for self-

discovery and self-realisation as a nation.

"l sankar Ghose, 7'he Kenuissance to lbfilituntNationulism (Calcutta, 1969), p.3.

 It is true that the reform movement started by Rammohun went a long way

towards liberating the Hindu society in Bengal from the clutches of superstitious

customs and practices which in turn invoked a sense of value of political freedom.

But under Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-1884), it took a radical turn. The reformistic

movement initiated by Keshab Chandra intended to mark a radical break with the

traditional Hindu society and provoked a reaction to it in the mind of the parent

body. The educated youth particularly of Bengal were searching for the discovery

of their national self. They aspired much more than what was stated by reformistic

Keshabsen, whose leanings towards Christianity, the religion of the rulers, did not

fit in well with the Indian identity which was then seizing the youthful minds.

The point needs an explanation. Keshab Chandra Sen who joined the

Brahmo Samaj in 1857 wanted to reform the Hindu society on Western lines. His

belief in the cult of great men and his acceptance of Christian idea of original sin

and repentance began to have an impact on the activities of the Samaj. Such trends

were not liked by other leaders of the movement like Devendranath Tagore who did

not share Keshab's zeal for social reform like giving up sacred threads, inter-caste

marriages, etc. This group who did not want to break with the Indian moorings,

soon came in clash with Keshab Chandra and his followers resulting in a schism

within the Samaj. That indicated the development of new trends in the process of

Indian reform movement, i.e., a trend for reform, by keeping the national identity.
 It was but natural that the initiative for religious and social reform soon

passed from Keshab Chandra Sen and the Samaj to other reformers of India like

Dayananda Saraswathy (1 824- 1883) and Sri Rarnakrishna Paramahamsa (1 836-

1886) whose message was rooted in Indian tradition and derived strength from

indigenous ideas.

Arya Samaj and Indian Awakening

The national awakening which found expression in Brahmo Samaj, assumed

a new dimension through Arya Samaj founded in Bombay in 1875. Its founder

Swami Dayananda Saraswathi was guided by the belief that the Indians could not

rise as a nation unless they radically transformed their social system. He was also

of the opinion that India had been subjected to foreign rule because Indian life and

society suffered from manifold defects and vices and that without the necessary

religious and social reform political subjection of India was to continue. Therefore

he sought to found a religious reform movement on national and indigenous lines.

The Arya Samaj which took its final form in 1877y2 undertook the task of

reforming the Hindu religion by attacking the hereditary caste system and

untouchability, which recording to Dayananda had "no sanction in the v e d a ~ " . ~He
)

also attacked polytheism and idolatry as being inconsistent with the teachings of the

32 The principles of Arya Samaj were finally defined in June 1877 at Lahore (Punjab).
33Dayananda Saraswathi, Light of Truth (tr. Chiranjiva Bharadwaja), Allahabad, 1 9 15,
p.97.
Vedas. The interpretation which he gave to the Vedas were similar to the religious

and social reforms that other Indian reformers were undertaking. His ideas made

him a liberal orthodox, according to Max Muller, the nineteenth century orientalist.

A dreamer of splendid dreams, Dayananda visualised an India purged of her

superstitions, filled with fruits of science, worshipping one God, fitted for freedom,

having a place in the comity of nations and restored to her ancient glory. And all

these he hoped to be accomplished by rejecting outright the accumulated

superstitions of centuries and returning to the "pristine purity" of the vedas. His

watchword "Back to the ~ e d a s " was

) ~ the first religious watchword leading to the

political principle "India for the Indians". By this slogan he meant a return to the

pure teachings of the Vedas which would gradually fit the people of India for self

rule and eventually for independence. However since the Arya Samaj retained its

narrow Hindu basis, national unity that it proclaimed could not gather into its fold

the non-Hindu communities such as the Mohammedans and the Christians.

Yet it cannot be denied that the Arya Samaj was a crusading and reforming

movement. Its crusade against untouchability, child marriage etc. on the strength

of the authority of the Vedas went a long away towards taking the Hindu society on

the path of progress. And as a reforming movement its principles and teachings

34His call for a return to the Vedas was a call for India's social, economic and political
regeneration in accordance with the changed religious and social ideas of his times. In
fact he had made social and religious reform a necessary pre-condition to the
reconstruction of India's past.
fostered patriotism. In the words of A.R. Desai "it played a progressive role in the

earlier stages when the national awakening was just sprouting".35 It was the

progressive features of the movement like attack of religious superstitions and

superiority of Brahmins, adoption of a programme of mass education, of the

elimination of sub-castes, of the equality of man and woman etc. that perhaps drew

to itself hundreds of nationalist Indians inspite of its narrow Hindu basis. How the

Samaj was able to strengthen the spirit of patriotism in a natinalist like Lala Lajpat

Rai is expressed by him in the following words:

All that was good and creditable in me, I owe to the Arya Samaj.

. It was the Arya Samaj that taught me to love the vedic religion

and to be proud of Aryan greatness . . . . It was Arya Samaj that

instilled into me love for my nation and that breathed into me the

spirit of truth . . . . and of liberty. It was Samaj again that taught

me that society, Dharma and country command our worship and

that those shall inherit the kingdom of Heaven who make

sacifices to serve these.36

It was cultural nationalism that was promoted by this reform movement

which would in turn strengthen political nationalism. But it failed to see that in

35 Desai, n.23, p.292.

36 Lajpat Rai in The Bengalee, 14 June, 1 905, cited in Sankar Ghose, n.30, p.40.
India national unity had to be secular and above religion so that it would embrace

the people of all religions. A movement which would preach the hndamental unity

of all religions, at the same time would impregnate Hinduism with the loftiest

ideals of a non-sectarian religion, a movement which with its "man-making" and

"nation building" messages would give a mighty fillip to India's anti-British

struggle, was the need of the hour. Ramakrishna Movement which was started by

Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) towards the close of the nineteenth century

hlfilled this need.

Ramakrishna Mission and Indian Awakening

In spite of the activities of the reformers like Rammohun Roy and Swami

Dayananda Indian society had not achieved the desired measure of reform. It may

be recalled in this context that in the latter half of the 19" century faint rumblings

were heard here and there as an echo of Brahmo Samaj. The Prarthana Samaj of

Bombay which was an offshoot of the Brahmo Samaj founded in the sixties of the

nineteenth century was another attempt at keeping alive the ancient light. Later

another religious movement, the Theosophical Society ( 1 878) made its appearance

in India from abroad which was a western fad of Eastern occultism and it played a

similar role in Madras. Of course, the movement helped to check to a certain

extent the influence of Christian as well as materialistic thoughts of the period.

 But neither the early reform movements like Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj

nor the later movements like the Prarthana Samaj and Theosophical society were

yet successful in restoring India's national ideals and cultural integrity. Neither was

there any definite sign of Indian regeneration. The country had to be given back a

sense of direction and faith in herself The nation needed not only a philosophy of

action but also a man who could articulate such a philosophy. The kind of man

India needed was in the words of Swami Vivekananda:

One who in one body would have the brilliant intellect of

~ a n k a r a ) ~ and wonderfully expansive, infinite heart of

~haitan~a,"one who would see in every sect the same sect,

working the same God, one who would see God in every being,

one whose heat weep for the poor, for the week, for the outcaste,

for the downtrodden . . . . such a man was born . . . .39

He was none other than Sri Ramakrishna whom the French philosopher Romain

Rolland introduced to the West as the "Messiah of Bengal". According to him Sri

Ramakrishna was "the consummation of two thousand years of the spiritual life of

" Sankaracharya (A.D. 788-820) was one of the greatest saints and philosophers of India,
the foremost exponent of Advaita Vedanta. He was born at Kalady, Kerala.
38 A prophet born in A.D. 1485, wholived at Navadvip, Bengal and emphasized the path of
divine love for the realisation of God.
'' Swami Vivekananda, (bmplefe Works of' Swumi Vivekananda, Vol. 111 (Mayavati,
1 979), pp.267-268.
three hundred million people".40 It meant that this great saint fi-om Dakshineswar

(near Calcutta) represented an India which remembers herself in her ancient Vedas

and Upanishads, in Buddha and Sankara and which continues to exist as a beacon

of spiritual hope for man everywhere. "In him India's hoary spiritual legacy

became alive and vital".41

Sri ~amakrishna'~
appeared at a psychological moment in the history of

India. The country was in a transitional phase, resulting fi-om the conflict of

rationalism and empiricism which led to never-ending controversies between the

modem reformers and the traditionalists. A new phenomenon which would be a

genuine growth from within and which would strike a balance between the two was

the need of the hour. In other words a re-examination, a reinterpretation and a re-

adjustment of ancient Indian religion and ethics in the light of the most advanced

modern thought were needed. In fact Sri Ramakrishna appeared in the spiritual

horizon of Bengal to fulfil that need. As Swami Nirvedananda observes:

In him the orthodox society found a pre-eminent seer who had the

potency of bringing about a mighty awakening of the old religion

of Hindus with all that it stands for. The radicals too found in the

40
Romain Rolland, Life ofHamukrishna (Calcutta, 1947 edn.), p. 14.
JI
Ranganathananda Swami, 7'he Meeting of East and West in Swami Vivekunandu,
(Calcutta, 1968), p. 10.
" Forhis biographical details see ( l ) I,$e ofSri Ramakrishna, Advaita Ashram (Calcutta,
1924); (2) Rolland, n.40.
 realization of Ramakrishna a wonderful solution of their

intellectual

What is implied in this observation is that Sri Ramakrishna was not an ordinary

Indian monk. He expressed the highest wisdom or greatest truth in simple

sentences and parables. His simple comments struck an even balance between the

orthodox and the radicals, "incorporating the best of both and thus leading to the

emergence of something which was characteristically Indian in its approach and yet

universal in its application"."

Universalism of Sri Ramakrishna

It may be noted that the British after the Rebellion of 1857 had intensified

their policy of "divide and rule" in India. Therefore, the need of the hour was a

philosophy which would pinpoint the central unity in the diversity of creeds. The

contemporary religious reformers failed to display that panoramic vision of religion

which pinpointed the underlying unity of all religions. It was at such a time that Sri

Ramakrishna appeared with his ideal of unity of all religions. His concept of

religion was universal. To be religious, according to him was to struggle to realise

God; nothing more and nothing less. Spirituality is the core of religion and to be

spiritual meant to be humanistic and service minded. He used to say that dogmas

43
Nirvedananda, Swami. "Sri Rarnaknshna and Spiritual Renaissance" in Haridas
Bhattacharya, ed., Cultural Heritage oflndia (Calcutta, 1969), IV, p.653.
44
Shukla Das, "India's Awakening and Sri Ramahshna" in SAMVIT, No.7, March 1983.
and doctrines were as stones to a hungry man. They divide and lead to conflict and

these conflicts have brought religions into conflict.

Perhaps the most important contribution of Sri Ramakrishna and that which

made him distinct from other social reformers of the time, was his effort to bring all

religions together "in a golden bond of understanding and love". He showed the

underlying unity behind the multiplicity of religions and proved the validity of each

through direct perception and disciplined expriments. The conclusion that he

arrived at, was expressed in his famous saying "yata mat tata path" which meant

that all religions of the world are but different ways of reaching God. Thus he went

beyond his contemporaries in proving that all religions were "not partly but wholly

true".45 This was synthesis and not mere eclecticism or syncretism. This amounted

to acceptance and not mere toleration. Ramakrishna's universalism and

cosmoplitanism did not lead to mechanical uniformity but to unity in diversity. In

fact this spirit of universalism, he salvaged from the hidden depths of Hinduism and

released it, liberalising all sectarian views.

This marked a new era in the evolution of religious thought which

recognized the individual identity of each sect or religion. By highlighting identity

and individuality of religion Ramakrishna exposed the hollowness of religious

conve&ion which was one of the serious challenges faced by Hinduism in those

15
C.A. Stark, (;oJ oj' All - Sri Rumakrishna!s Approacl~f o Religious Pluralrry (USA,
1974).
days. This also indicated his originality in thinking in regard to the question of

Christian proselytism of the time.

Humanitarian Ideals

Apart from this, Sri Ramakrishna gave a new interpretation to the concept of

God worship according to which "the jiva was none other than Siva"' meaning that

every creature was god himself in a particular garb of name and form. This

interpretation implied that one could realize god by serving him through the poor as

through an image. His emphasis on service to humanity, not mercy or pity was the

strongest protest ever made against the prevailing social inequalities, discrimination

and domination. This social content of his teachings together with its universalism

became an integral part of the philosophy of Swami Vivekananda, the most noted

and the most favoured disciple of Sri Ramakrishna. These two ideals were the

motivating force behind the foundi'ng of the Ramakrishna Order of monks by him.

One of the principal targets of criticism by Christian missionaries in the

nineteenth century was the so called Hindu idolatry. Sri Ramakrishna's clear and

decisive reply to this criticism was that God is with form and without form, which

implies that both views of God are not contradictory but complementary. It is for

the individuals to select his path according to his predilection. "Sree Ramakrishna

thus spake about the harmony of religions and taught about a God who is above all
gods, a religion which ascends above all our religiosities, transcending all

dogmatism, rituals and contrivances".46

Yet another ideal preached by Ramakrishna was the development of

character. In fact he regarded the development of character as superior to

knowledge. The idea of character development was given prime importance by

Swami Vivekananda in his scheme of national regeneration.

An important characteristic feature of his teachings is that Sri Rarnaknshna

expressed the highest wisdom or greatest truths in simple sentences and parables.

Here he differed ii-om the contemporary intellectuals like Ramrnohun,

Devendranath Tagore and Keshab Chandrasen who tried to build up a spiritual

unity, with their approach being more intellectual and academic. Sri Ramakrishna,

by his direct and simple approach could reach the hearts of people from all walks of

life. Referring to the Gospel of Sri Rarnakrishna a translation from Bengali, which

contains these conversations and parables, Aldous Huxley has remarked: "To read

these conversations, is in itself a liberal education in humility, tolerance and

suspense of judgementw.47

That was a time when under the influence of rationalism of the West, the

intellectuals of Bengal used to look down upon the idea of god and religion. But

46
Das, n.44,p.22.
j7Aldous Huxley in his Foreword to Nikhilananda,Swami, ed. & tran., Gospel of Sri
Ramakrishna (Madras, 1969).
Sri Ramaknshna, whenever he met them would correct their flippant attitudes

towards things spiritual by his humble yet piercing remarks. Even for a vexed

question like caste which had become a target of attack by the missionaries as well

as radical reformers, Ramakrishna had a solution to offer. In reply to a question as

to how the caste distinctions could be removed, he said:

There is only one way to remove them, and that is by love of

God. Lovers of God had no caste. Through this divine love the

untouchable becomes pure, the pariah no longer remains a

The above passage reveals the humanism of Sri Ramakrishna, his love for

the poor and the lowly in whom he saw the divine. His teachings were so original

and appealing that even the radical reformers like Keshab Chandra Sen came under

his profound influence so much so that his 'Navavidhan' or New Dispensation

became "a practical representation of the truths which Ramakrishna had taught for a

long time".49 Thus the universalism and humanism of Ramakrishna gave the Hindu

revivalism a new dimension of spiritual significance.

48 Nikhilananda, n.47, p. 89.

49
Quoted in Rolland, n.40, 1970, edn., p.294.
Foundation of the Ramakrishna Mission

It was to keep up the ideals preached by this noble soul and to rejuvenate the

Indian society based on them that Swami Vivekananda established the twin

institutions, the Ramakrishna Math and the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 with

Belur as its head quarters. Both these wings together came to be known as the

Ramakrishna Order of Monks. Among the various factors that influenced the

foundation of the Order, the influence of Sri Ramakrishna, Buddhist influence,

influences of Christian monasteries and the Brahma Samaj, the first hand

experience which Swamiji had during his travels in India during 1891-92 etc. are to

be considered. But his conviction that in a country like India which had fallen into

stupor under alien rule, no great cause could succeed without an organization, was

what actually prompted him to found the Order. In other words, to awaken the

nation from the age old slumber a machinery of dedicated and selfless sanyasins

and lay disciples of Sri ~amakrishnawas needed. He organized the machinery of

Ramakrishna Order with that conviction and it was quite natural that it should play

a crucial role in the awakening of the nation. The rules and regulations governing

the organization which contain its aims and objectives, and the activities it carried

out indicate the role it played in strengthening the emerging national consciousness

in India.
Uniqueness of the Movement

The Ramakrishna Movement was unique in the sense that it represented

India's inward quest for spiritual awakening. If the Brahmo movement of

Rammohun Roy was an outcome of external influences emanating from the

enlightenment and rationalism of modern West, the movement represented by

Ramakrishna and his disciples was "the result of an inner resurgence of the Hindu

spirit to recover and reassert itself

Secondly, though the Mission was organised on the Principle of

Organization borrowed from the West, its main thrust was on social service, which

is an integral part of nation building activity. When compared to other movements

of the time, the Ramakrishna Order had its novelty in that it preached not only god-

realisation, but also service to humanity. The concept of social service which was

enjoined with the Order was a revolutionary concept. As Swami Tapasyananda has

noted:

In India monks traditionally were expected to confine their

activities exclusively to study, meditation and wanderings from

one holy place to another. To engage oneself in activities of any

other kind including work of service in the field of education.

50P.N. Chopra and others, A Sociul, (~ullurulund l~conomicH i s f o r y (flndiu, (Bombay,

1974), Vol. 111, p. 107.
 health, etc. relating to worldly needs of men, was considered

outside the pale of monastic ethics. It was in this respect that

Swami Vivekananda produced a revolution by including active

social service as a part of the Sanyasin's spiritual discipline.51

To ask the monks in India to approach service as a spiritual discipline was a

revolutionary step. By creating this order with service as its central thrust, Swamiji

gave monasticism a new meaning, a new dimension and a new dignity.

It may also be added that the Mission took up the work of social service

basing it on Vedantic ideals. How the intellectuals of the time were struck by this

new approach and tried to assess its significance is revealed in the editorial articles

which appeared in Poona daily "Native Opinion" dt. 12 July 1 900 which observed:

The work of the Ramakrishna- Mission utterly proves the

hollowness of the contention that the vedantic system of

philosophy preaches a gospel of extreme selfishness. The

members of the Ramakrishna Mission are vedantists to the hilt

and in trying to relieve distress in a particular manner, they are

simply following the noblest dictates of their creed. It is indeed

difficult to conceive how a system, the corner-stone of which is

5'
Swami Tapasyananda in his Foreword to Swami Akhandananda, l.i-om Holy
Wanderings to Service ofGod in hfun, Ramakrishna Math (Madras, 1979).
 the oneness of life, can ever be charged with being selfish by

those who have really understood its creed.52

It showed that the Mission was offering social service not in the

conventional sense, its service was for the sake of service, demonstrating the truth

that the same self is immanent in all beings.

It also indicates that Vedanta which had been viewed by Rammohun Roy as

a "positive impediment to modernity and progress" or dismissed as a "false system

of philosophy" by Vidya Sagar did stage a comeback towards the closing decades

of the nineteenth century. It was through Ramakrishna Mission that Vedanta

acquired a practical dimension.

Yet another feature of the Movement was its non-sectarian character.

Though rooted firmly in ancient Hindu monastic ideals of chastity and absence of

possession, the Ramaknshna Order was not committed to any particular creed,

community or country. It stood for humanity itself. "Its source of strength is its

universalism, its readiness to accept every thought, every emotion that comes fiom

the pure spirit of man"." Moreover the movement proved itself to be a progressive

one in the sense tht it accepted both Indian tradition and Western science. Scientific

52 Citedin Sankari Prasad Basu, "Temple for Worship of the Virat" in 50 Golden Yeurs,
Selectionsfrom Annual Souvenirs, R.K. Mission Seva Prathishtan, (Calcutta, 1982), pp.94-
95.
53
Lokeswarananda, Swami, "Ramakrishna Order of Monks: A New Orientation of
Monasticism" in R.C. Majumdar, (ed.). Swum1 C'ivekunanh Centenary Memorial Volume
(Calcutta, 1963),pp.440-4 1
development was recognized by the Mission as a must, in view of its conviction

that "you cannot speak religion to an empty stomach" as Ramakrishna used to say.

So, to remove poverty and also to remove superstitions, the study of science was

welcomed. The ideal of East-West Synthesis and Synthesis between spirituality

and science as conceived by Rammohun Roy reached its consummation in the

Ramakrishna Movement.

The Mission was unique also in its approach to the question of social reform.

Quite distinct from the nineteenth century reform agencies like Brahmo Samaj and

Arya Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission did not take up social reforms as its

programme of action. Ln fact the Mission was kept away from political activities

and social reform through the discerning insight of Swami Vivekananda. His

contention was that if individuals reformed themselves, there was no need of social

reform. What was needed was to create a climate for the elimination of evils in

society through "a man-making education" and "a man-making religion" - the two

ideals which the Mission was entrusted to carry out. Similarly, Swamiji also

believed that a national awakening would lead to the liberation of the country from

colonial regime. The Mission's task was again, to work in this direction. Hence, no

need of it directly involving in the political struggle for freedom. However, the

Mission repudiated casteism in all its forms and untouchability in its all kinds of

manifestation. By not keeping any distinction of caste either among the permanent
residents or among visitors and also by starting schools and hostels for the study of

the Harijans and tribals, the Mission tried to fight such evils.

Finally, the process of regeneration in the nineteenth century "derived its

main strength and support, not fiom emotional appeals to the masses of the

common people, but fiom the sympathy of the rising educated classes".54 The

Ramakrishna Movement, too first worked among modem educated youths and

through them went out in wider and wider circles. This resulted in a general

uplifting of Indian masses.

A brief study of the unique features of the Ramakrishna Movement was

attempted here, in order to show that it was these features which enabled the

Mission to silently prepare the Indian mind for revolutionary social changes which

became an integral part of national regeneration.

In general, the Indian awakening was the cumulative effect of various

historical forces that were generated by colonialism. Yet, the Socio-Religious

Movements had an unstinted role in creating national consciousness. Their

significance lies in the fact that they embodied the democratic yearning which the

Indian nationalism felt from its birth. In varying degrees, these movements sought

to eliminate privilege from social and religious fields to democratize social and

religious institutions of the country to reform and dissolve such disruptive

C.F. Andrews, The Kenaissunce in India, Its Missionary Aspect (London, 1909), p. 146.
institutions as caste which were obstacles to national unity. They sought to equal

rights of all individuals irrespective of caste or sex. The reformers in general

argued that such democratization of institutions and social relations was vitally

necessary to build up a sound national unity to achieve political freedom and social,

economic and cultural advancement of the Indian people.

Secondly during the period of the Religious Reform movements, the people

of India began to look beyond the limits of India. The broader vision and

comparative outlook which developed, awakened the people of India to a

realisation of their achievements and capabilities. The Indian discovered himself

anew and this discovery gave him hope and strength. This religous revival and the

growth of national consciousness affected each other. As K.C. Vyas has observed,

"the stream of socio-religious movements merged itself into the bigger stream of

the national movement for the regeneration of ~ndia".'~

The Awakening - A Process of Self-Renewal

The above discussion on the Indian awakening leads us to an enquiry into

the actual nature of the process. Rabindra Nath Tagore had once remarked that "the

Indian nationalism was not fully political, but began to give voice to the mind of

our people".56 What he meant by this observation is that the national movement

55
Vyas, n.26, p. 1 16.
56 Rabindranath Tagore, The Religion of An Artist (Calcutta, 1993 ed.), p.2.
was directed to the search of India's national soul. In this search for national soul

first effort was made in the socio-religious sphere and that involved a process of

self-discovery and self-renewal.

A study of the Indian past will reveal the fact that Indian society has always

kept itself alive by retaining most of its basic values and nature through a process

of socio-cultural regeneration, revival and reconciliation. The forces of self-

renewal have played a significant role in shaping and preserving Indian society

whenever the country faced cultural crisis which often followed foreign invasions.

During the Islamic invasions in the medieval period, the Bhakti movement kept the

torch burning. Through this movement which implied religious awakening, the

cultural potentiality of India was expressed itself. This movement of self

preservation acted as the main force in keeping the Indian society alive and afresh

under changed circumstance^.^^ The cultural synthesis achieved under the Mughul

Emperor Akbar, h n c e Dara Shikoh and others was primarily an outcome of Hindu

awakening.

But the process of self renewal received a temporary set back due to colonial

intervention in the 18' century. As a consequence of British occupation, the

country came into grip with all the evils of colonial subjection. Under such

M.C. Joshi, "Self-Renewal in Indian History and Swami Vivekananda in India's

Contribution to World Culture - A Vivekanuncla Commemoration Volume (Madras, 1970),
p.698.
circumstances, the Indian society became helpless and developed an acute

inferiority complex. The proselytizing activities of the Christian missionaries and

their sharp attacks on most of the Hindu traditions, practices and beliefs, besides

the sweeping current of western education, created do~bts~distmst

and aversion in

the minds of the educated youth about many aspects of Hinduism. A process of de-

Indianization commenced. The Hindu society for a while became totally perplexed

as there was no one to lead and guide. It was at this time that the Socio-Religious

movements took their origin. Under the pioneering leadership of Raj Rammohun

Roy the renovation of Hinduism began. In fact, the self-renewal process got a re-

start with him. His propagation of Vedantic monotheism and Upanishadic

liberalism through Brahmo Samaj was an attempt in that direction. This process

continued under Dayananda who revived the militant spirit in Hinduism besides a

deep sense of nationalism. Other parallel movements of this period also

contributed to the mainstream of social life, national awakening and modem Indian

Renaissance. The consummation of this process reached in Sri Ramakrishna and

Vivekananda, who really succeeded in renewing the Hindu soul and reviving the

noblest values of ancient Indian culture based on Universal Religion. In fact the

Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Doctrines combined the best elements of other reform

movements and ensured allround progress of Indian society. How the self renewal

process attained its hlfilment in the Ramaknshna-Vivekananda Movement has

been evaluated by Sri Aurobindo in the following words.

 The movement associated with the great names of Ramakrishna

and Vivekananda has been a very wide synthesis of past religious

motives and spiritual experience topped by a re-affirmation of the

old asceticism and monasticism, but with new living strands in it

and combined with a strong humanitarianism and zeal for

missionary expansion.58

It was by propagating the ideals like unity, service and sacrifice and by

inculcating a sense of pride in India's past that Ramakrishna Movement represented

the culmination of the process of self renewal. Through this movement, ethical

nationalism was recreated which indirectly paved the way for political libertion.

Aurobindo Ghose, Renuissunce in India (Pondicheny, 195 1 ), p.54