Emerson Process Management - CSI

DoctorKnow® Application Paper

Title: Accelerometer Selection and Installation for Reliability-Based Maintenance Programs
Source/Author:Richard M. Barrett, Jr.
Product: General, Accessories for Data Collector
Technology: Vibration
Classification:

Accelerometer Selection and Installation

for Reliability-Based Maintenance Programs

Richard M. Barrett, Jr. - Senior Application Engineer

Wilcoxon Research, Inc.
CSI User Conference
October 10-14 1994
Accelerometers: The Vital Link
Accelerometers are the vital link between plant machinery and the vibration analysis system. Proper sensor
selection is crucial to the acquisition of vibration data and full utilization of the system capabilities. With more
and more machines being monitored, the modem vibration analyst needs accurate and reliable measurement
equipment. Poor sensor performance can render data useless, wasting valuable time and leaving machinery
unprotected.

Proper installation is also key to successful measurement of machinery vibration. Inadequate mounting and
cabling techniques will compromise the best sensor and monitoring system. The following pages will give brief
tips on sensor operation, selection, installation, and trouble shooting.

Accelerometer Selection for System Optimization

Many factors must be considered when selecting accelerometers for machine tool monitoring applications. The
same general factors apply, whether the accelerometer is being used for root cause testing, condition
monitoring, or process monitoring. Typical questions to be considered include:

❍ What is the machine speed?

❍ What is the minimum vibration level required ?
❍ What is the maximum vibration level possible?
❍ What is the full frequency range of interest (subsynchronous to HFD)?
❍ Are there sensor size and weight constraints?
❍ How is the sensor to be mounted?
❍ Will the sensor be removed during maintenance?
❍ Is the sensor exposed to direct spray from water or chemicals?
❍ Are significant electromagnetic or electrostatic fields present?
❍ Is the machinery grounded?
❍ What temperature range is required?

Additional questions must be answered about the connector, cable, and associated electronics:

❍ What cable lengths are required?

❍ Is armored cable required?
❍ To what temperatures will the cable be exposed?

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❍ Does the sensor require a splash-proof sealed connector?

❍ What other instrumentation will be used?
❍ What are the power supply requirements?

PRIMARY SENSOR CONSIDERATIONS

The main accelerometer considerations are the frequency range, sensitivity, and electronic noise floor. In
general, most high frequency sensors have low sensitivities and higher noise. Conversely, most high sensitivity
sensors have low frequency ranges and low noise, k is therefore necessary to compromise between the
frequency and amplitude response. Figure 1 shows the full usable range of a typical 100 mV/g piezoceramic
accelerometer in terms of acceleration, velocity, and displacement.

The Frequency Range

The frequency response of an accelerometer is determined by the mechanical design of the piezoelectric
sensing element and the electronic amplifier. The high frequency range is limited by the natural frequency or
resonance of the sensing element and is controlled by the increased mechanical sensitivity as signals approach
the resonance. The low frequency range is defined by low end roll-off filter in the electronic amplifier. Many
sensor amplifiers also filter the high end of the frequency range in order to attenuate the resonance amplitude.
This extends the operating frequency range and reduces electronic distortion.

In order to determine the required frequency range of an accelerometer, the design and operating speeds of the
machine must be known. Spectral characteristics of the machine vibration are often already known from
vibration data collected from similar machines or applications. Sometimes the best method to determine the

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spectral characteristics of a machine is to place a test sensor at various locations on the machine and evaluate
the data collected. The type of accelerometer selected for initial testing may vary depending on the operating
speed of the component. Below is a general guide:

Operating Speed Accelerometer Type

< 10 Hz 500 mV/g low noise, low frequency
10 - 300 Hz 100 mV/g low noise
> 300 Hz 10 mV/g high frequency

It must be noted that low frequency accelerometers cannot be selected on response alone. Widening the filter of
a general purpose sensor does not create a low frequency accelerometer. Many sensors that appear to measure
low frequencies cannot be used in slow speed applications because of excessive electronic noise. This is
especially true with most quartz accelerometers. Figure 2 shows the frequency response of commonly used
accelerometers.

Sensitivity
The sensitivity of condition monitoring accelerometers typically range between 10 and 500 mV/g; higher and
lower sensitivities are also available. To choose the correct sensitivity for an application, it is necessary to
understand the vibration amplitude levels to which the sensor will be exposed during measurements.

As a rule of thumb, if the machine produces high amplitude vibrations (greater than 10 g rms) at the
measurement point, a low sensitivity ( 10 mV/g) sensor is preferable. Typically low sensitivity/high frequency
accelerometers are used on equipment with geared drives. However, even lower speed machines may require
less sensitive accelerometers if gear mesh frequencies correspond to structural resonances. The spectrums in
figure 3 show high gear mesh amplitudes and resulting distortion due to sensor overload. The first spectrum
was taken at a pinion opposite and across the bull gear from the damaged pinion.

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If the maximum vibrations are less than 10 g rms and the shaft speed greater than 600 cpm (10 Hz), a 100 mV/
g sensor is probably the best choice. Low frequency accelerometers with sensitivities of 500 mV/g or higher,
should be used on precision spindles taming less than 600 cpm. Low frequency applications will be treated
separately on the following pages. Figure 4 shows the sensitivity and frequency responses of commonly used
accelerometers.

Dynamic Range
The dynamic range determines the largest and smallest signals that can be simultaneously measured. Typical
piezoceramic accelerometers exhibit a dynamic range of better than 140 dB (10,000,000 to 1). The upper
amplitude range of the sensor is determined by the voltage swing available to the amplifier. The lower range is
limited by the electronic noise floor. A signal must be greater than the electronic noise to be successfully
measured.

The power supply and the bias output voltage determine the voltage swing and upper limits on amplitude

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range. The accelerometer output consists of an AC voltage superimposed on a DC bias voltage. The amplitude
of the AC voltage is proportional to the amplitude of the vibration being measured. The vibration amplitude is
calculated using the gage factor or sensitivity of the accelerometer (usually given in mV/g).

Since the AC signal voltage is riding on the DC bias voltage, the amplitude of the AC signal voltage cannot
exceed the amount of the DC supply voltage powering the sensor. Figure 5 shows the boundary limits placed
on a 12 Volt bias accelerometer at various supply voltages.

As demonstrated in figure 3, the peak g level should never exceed the range of the sensor, as this will result in
amplifier overload and signal distortion. One of the excellent properties of the piezoceramic sensor is its wide
operating range. However, it is important that the vibration amplitudes of the application fall within the
operating range of the sensor.

LOW FREQUENCY MEASUREMENTS

Low frequency /low amplitude applications are more complicated than general machinery monitoring. As
shown in figure 6, motion below 10 Hz produces low levels of acceleration. Measurement of the low
acceleration amplitudes at slow speeds requires special sensor designs and low noise electronics.

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Low frequency accelerometers minimize electronic noise and maximize voltage output to the monitoring
instrument. The sensing element contains a high sensitivity piezoceramic crystal driven by a large seismic
mass. A special low noise amplifier conditions the charge signal from the sensing element and provides a
standardized voltage output. The charge output from the sensing element and amplifier design determine the
electronic noise and low frequency response. Figures 7a, b, and c show typical low frequency accelerometer
designs. Compression and shear mode accelerometers are most common in machine tool applications; flexure
modes are very fragile and reserved for specialized structural and certification testing.

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Sensor Noise
All amplifiers contain a variety of electronic noise sources including resisters, diodes, and transistors. Resisters
create Johnson (white) noise that governs the high frequency noise floor of the measure-ment. At low
frequencies the noise is inversely proportional to frequency and resembles Schottky (l/f) noise. Figure 8
compares the electronic noise responses of a low frequency and standard accelerometer. As shown, low
frequency noise increases with decreasing frequency - this limits the low frequency, low amplitude
measurement limit.

The low frequency noise of an accelerometer is proportional to the gain (amplification) of the circuit and
inversely proportional to the charge sensitivity of the piezoelectric sensing element. Increasing amplifier gain
to increase the sensitivity will not change the signal-to-noise ratio at the sensor. Increasing the charge output of
the sensing element (output before the amplification) reduces the need for gain and increases signal-to-noise.
The charge sensitivity can only be increased by adding more seismic mass or using a more active sensing
material. In low frequency applications, piezoceramics should be used to maximize the charge output of the
sensing assembly.

ACCELEROMETER MOUNTING
Permanently mounted sensors axe used to promote safer, faster, and more accurate data collection. In these
cases the sensors are hard wired back to a junction box or on-line system such as MachineView. However,
whether using magnets or permanent mounts, suitable transducer mounting surfaces should be provided at the
designated measurement positions. If proper mounting practice is used, the following general conditions apply:
● Two pole magnets may be used for temporary measurement positions requiring amplitude accuracy over a 2

- 2000 Hz bandwidth.
● Flat magnets may be used for temporary measurement positions requiring amplitude accuracy over a 2 -

3000 Hz bandwidth. Note: surface must be flat.

● Adhesive mounts may be used at frequencies of up to 25% of the sensors resonance.

(Note: High frequencies of adhesive vary widely)

● Stud mounts may be used at frequencies of up to 33% of the sensors resonance.

The response curves shown in Figures 9.a through .f demonstrate the effects various mounts have on a Model

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793 (CSI 320) accelerometer frequency response.

TEMPORARY MEASUREMENT POSITIONS

Flat mounting surfaces should be provided at all temporary measurement positions intended for magnetically
mounted transducers. The measurement position may be machined or cast with a minimum surface diameter of
40 mm (1.5"), fiat within 30 µm (.001") and finish of 4 µm (125 µinch). During measurement the mounting
location must remain clean, free of debris and excessive paint. The magnet should attach firmly to the structure
without rocking.

PERMANENT / SEMIPERMANENT MEASUREMENT POSITIONS

Flat mounting surfaces with properly tapped holes should be provided at all measurement locations requiring
permanent or semipermanent transducers. These include inaccessible positions that are protected by guarding,
safety locks, confined and hazardous areas. Also included are positions requiring high frequency measurements
and in some cases very low frequency measurements.

The measurement position should be machined to a minimum surface diameter of 32-40 mm (1.25-1.5"), flat

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within 30 µm (.001") and finish of 1 µrn (32µinches). The tapped mounting hole should be perpendicular to
the mounting surface within 0.1 mm (.004"). Figure 10a. gives a general machining diagram.

ADHESIVE MOUNTING
Adhesive mounting pads allow the sensor to be installed without drilling and tapping the machine surface. The
pads are permanently bonded and allow the sensor to be removed when needed. The sensor can be bonded
directly if installation height is a major limitation.

The adhesive should be chosen to withstand all temperature, chemicals, shock, and other environmental
conditions at the measurement position. The measurement position may be cast or machined with a minimum
surface diameter of 40 µm (.001") and flat within 30 µm (.001"); the surface should be abraded to at least 4
µm (128 µinch) to increase adhesion. The adhesive bond layer thickness should be less than 1 mm. The
adhesive may be filleted around the side of the transducer or mounting pad to increase shear strength.

COUPLING FLUIDS
Coupling fluids should be applied when using stud, pads, and flat magnets. Coupling fluids increase mounting
stiffness by filling voids between the sensor and machine surface. They also protect mating surfaces from
scratches and seize marks. Light oils and silicone grease are commonly used coupling fluids.

CONNECTOR/CABLE INSTALLATIONS
Connectors and cabling is one of the most important aspects of vibration sensor installation. Data from best
sensors and instrumentation can mined due to poor cabling practice. Connector seal, cable routing and
grounding are primary considerations.

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SEALED CONNECTOR
Fluid pressure during operation and cleaning can reach several hundred PSI, therefore a splash-proof sealed
connector with a locking ring is necessary to ensure system integrity. Integral cables should be avoided due to
difficulties in installation and maintenance.
The locking ring is provided to compress the connector seal and secure the cable during machinery operation
and maintenance. Silicone grease lubricates the seal and fills voids between the socket/pin interface. The
silicone grease should be reapplied to the mating parts whenever the connector is removed and reconnected.

COAXIAL VERSUS TWO CONDUCTOR SHIELDED CABLES

Both coaxial and two conductor shielded cables are widely used in for cabling accelerometers. Cable shields
consist of copper braid or wrapped foil with a drain wire; both are adequate for vibration sensors. Coaxial cable

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is required when terminating with BNC connectors. Sensor signal and power are carried on the center
conductor. Signal return/common are carried by the outer shield of the coaxial cable. Two conductor shielded
cable provides greater shielding capability and is generally used if BNC connectors are not required.

Two conductor shielded cable is preferred for splices and connection to terminal strips. One conductor carries
signal/power and the other return/common. The shield is isolated from the signal wires and connected to
ground. The twist of the two conductors greatly reduces magnetic field interference through differential
cancellation. Below are section views of common two conductor and coaxial cables.

CABLE ROUTING AND ANCHORING

Proper cable routing is critical for long-term reliability and electronic noise reduction. Cable clamps should be
used to anchor cable throughout the transmission route. Clamps relieve termination stress and prevent cable
damage during machinery operation and maintenance. When securing the cable, leave some slack to allow free
movement of the mounted accelerometer as shown in Figure 13. If planned maintenance requires periodic
sensor removal, appropriate slack should be allowed to facilitate servicing. Review all modes of machinery
movement including non-operational positions to prevent pinched or damaged cables. Dedicated cable trays or
conduit can be used if available, however tie wraps are convenient in many applications. The cable may be tied
to oil lines and other structures. Do not clamp onto or share trays with AC power lines.

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Stray Noise Reduction

Emission equipment, power lines, and electrical sparks produce electromagnetic interference (EMI).
Equipment which may cause EMI includes radio transmitters, motors, starters, and transformers. EMI
generating equipment should be avoided whenever possible to maintain the integrity of the vibration signal. As
previously stated, the following practices should be observed.

❍ Use dedicated cable trays for sensor transmission lines.

❍ Never run sensor cables alongside AC power cables in the same cable tray.
❍ Separate sensor and AC power cables by a minimum of 6 inches.
❍ Cross AC power lines at fight angles.
❍ Use two conductor shielded cables when monitoring emission equipment.
❍ Route cable away from un-monitored emission equipment.
❍ Avoid areas of high electrostatic discharges (ESD) or other electronic spikes.

Cable Splices and Connections

All splices and connections should be made inside a junction box or equivalent enclosure. Ensure that
connections are kept dry and free of contamination. If the enclosure is not sealed, provide a drain to prevent
fluid buildup. Splice connections can be protected by using wire nuts filled with silicone sealant. Maintain
electronic shielding throughout the splice by grounding the enclosure. Metalized tape is available to provide
continuous shielding across splices.

CABLE GROUNDING
Proper cable grounding is required for electronic shielding and prevention of ground loops. Slow speed, low
amplitude measurements are very sensitive to grounding problems. Grounding schematics depend on cable
type and mounting configuration. Lowering electronic noise and stray pickup is the common goal of all
grounding procedures.

Ground loops must be avoided in all electronic measurement applications. Ground loops are developed when a
cable is grounded at two different points as illustrated in Figure 14. Although different machine locations are
considered "machine ground", voltage potentials exist between them. These voltages cause spurious signals on
cable shields when proper grounding is not observed. Never connect an electronic shield or common lead at
two ground points!

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When using coaxial cables, the outer braid provides shielding and is connected to common at the monitor as
shown in Figure 15. The cable shield must be isolated from the sensor housing and machine ground; this is
necessary to prevent ground loops between the monitor and the machine. If the sensor is stud mounted, the
sensor housing will contact machine ground and provide some extra shielding.

If two conductor shielded cable is used, the outer shield is isolated from the signal carriers. When using two
conductor shielded cables, two configurations are widely used. The first is shield connected to machine ground,
and the second is shield connected to the monitor.

If the accelerometer is directly stud coupled, the housing is connected to machine ground at the mounting
surface. In this configuration, the cable shield can be connected to machine ground through the sensor housing.
The opposite end of the cable shield should be left floating and not connected anywhere (see Figure 16).

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Isolated Mount Grounding

If the accelerometer housing is electrically isolated from machine ground, the cable shield must be connected
to monitor ground at the junction box or other appropriate termination site as shown in Figure 17 When using
stud mounted configurations with the cable shield connected at the monitor end, the shield must be electrically
isolated from the sensor housing.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SENSORS IN MACHINE TOOL APPLICATIONS

STANDARD CURRENT POWERING (SCP)

SCP accelerometers require an 18 to 30 V supply, current limited between 2 to l0 mA. Most data collectors and
monitoring systems supply 20 to 24 V with 2 to 4 mA current regulation. Long cable installations may require
more driving current than the typical 2-4 mA supplied. If lengths exceed 100 feet between the sensor and the
power supply, high frequency machine noise may distort very low frequency measurements. Consult Wilcoxon
Research to determine if installation powering is sufficient for long cable applications.
Sometimes sensor power is supplied by a junction box or external supply other than the data collector or
monitoring system. When using the CSI 2110 or 2115 Data Collector with powered junction boxes the
measurement must be made through the unpowered "Voltage In" side of the CSI Model 625 BNC adapter.
Otherwise the power supplies will fight one another.

BIAS OUTPUT VOLTAGE (BOV)

SCP accelerometers (two wire amplified) operate in a single ended configuration and require biased outputs for
AC signal measurement. The Wilcoxon PiezoFet® amplifier uses a voltage divider to provide a biased DC
voltage at the output of the accelerometer. As previously stated, the BOV stabilizes a rest point of zero
acceleration about which the AC vibration signal is measured. The BOV of the industrial sensor is typically 8
to 13 VDC. The exact amount is determined by the supply voltage. The bias output voltage varies slightly with
current regulation and temperature. Typical BOV curves (based on a nominal BOV of 12 VDC), as a function

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of current and temperature, are shown in Figure 19.

PERFORMANCE TESTS
Performance testing completes the installation to ensure proper sensor operation. If operation is not normal,
standard troubleshooting procedures will usually determine the cause of the problem.

Bias Output Voltage Testing

The BOV is the best indicator of sensor operating condition. If the BOV measures at +2 VDC of nominal BOV
specification, the sensor, in almost all cases, is operating properly.

The BOV can be measured by connecting a voltmeter across the sensor output. MachineView systems provides
continuous BOV measurement and trending. The BOV should be trended as an operation verification
parameter.

Signal Output Testing

After testing the BOV, the output of the sensor should be tested. Replace the Voltmeter with an oscilloscope or
timewave form display. Tap the machine next to the sensor and observe the output, a strong signal should be
generated. Measuring the running speed and other machine characteristics on start-up also helps verify proper
operation.

Trouble Shooting
Inaccurate measurements may result from improper installation, sensor or cable damage, and environmental
noise. Monitoring BOV, FFT spectrum, and time waveform will pinpoint most system problems.

Ground loop and emissive pickup can be isolated by dismounting the sensor while maintaining electrical and/
or near field contact. Mechanical overload problems can be isolated by placing a robber pad between the sensor
and machine. A troubleshooting chart is provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Troubleshooting Chart

BOV Spectrum Time Waveform Fault condition Test/Repair

0 no signal no signal no power or -Turn on power

cable/connector short -Test cable isolation
-Repair/replace cable

1.5-5V no signal no signal damaged amplifier -Replace sensor

10-14 pronounced high amplitude high frequency overload -Repair steam leak/dump
stable low frequency high frequency noise (steam release, air- -Use less sensitive sensor "ski slope" leak,
cavitation, etc.) -Place rubber pad under

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sensor

10-14 strong low choppy damaged amplifier -Replace sensor stable frequency
"ski slope"
no high frequency
signal

10-14 good signal 50 or 60 Hz inadequate shielding -Connect/ground cable

stable strong 50 or 60 Hz
(supply voltage)

8-16 high low frequency high frequency ESD arcing -Reroute cable
unstable noise spikes Impacts -Use less sensitive sensor
-Place rubber pad under
sensor

8-16V pronounced low jumpy/choppy intermittent connection -Repair connection

frequency noise

8-30V no signal/weak no signal open cable connection -Repair connection 50 or 60 Hz

(supply voltage)

CONCLUSION
Industry will continue to increase its reliance on vibration monitoring as an important aspect of efficient plant
operation. Vibration monitoring can contribute significantly to improved product quality, and plant
profitability. Vibration monitoring also contributes to increased safety in the work environment.

As with any system used in industry, performance is dependent on the selection of correct equipment and
proper installation. A good vibration monitoring system requires not only adequate data collection and analysis
equipment, but also the right vibration sensors and cables. In addition, the installation practices will affect the
overall performance of the system.

Proper sensor selection requires an understanding of the individual machines and components in the plant. It
also requires an understanding of the capabilities of the many different types of vibration sensors and
hardware. Important considerations include the operating speeds and vibration levels of the machinery being
monitored as well as the environment in which the sensors will be operating.

All contents copyright © 1998 - 2006, Computational Systems, Inc.

All Rights Reserved.

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