Ocean & Coastal Management 150 (2017) 3e11

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Ocean & Coastal Management

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Social capital, interactive governance and coastal protection: The

effectiveness of mangrove ecosystem-based strategies in promoting
inclusive development in Demak, Indonesia
Annisa Triyanti a, b, *, Maarten Bavinck a, c, Joyeeta Gupta a, d, Muh Aris Marfai b
a
Governance and Inclusive Development, Department of Human Geography, Planning, and International Development, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe
Achtergracht 166 1018 WV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
b
Department of Environmental Geography, Faculty of Geography, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta, 55281 Indonesia
c
Norwegian Fisheries College, UiT Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
d
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: While there is considerable literature on coastal adaptation, there is less scholarly attention for how
Received 11 June 2016 social capital, interactive governance, and ecosystem-based approaches can be combined to promote
Received in revised form inclusive development. Hence, this paper examines contemporary efforts to protect coasts in Demak,
10 October 2017
northern Java, Indonesia, which are threatened by coastal erosion induced flooding, through large-scale
Accepted 12 October 2017
Available online 20 October 2017
planting of mangroves. We argue that the success of such ecosystem-based approaches depends on
wide-spread civil society participation. Our analysis of the structure of bonding, bridging and linking
capital in Demak reveals that although some local groups may lack bonding and bridging capital, their
Keywords:
Social capital
ability to acquire linking capital enables them to monopolise resources from the state and international
Interactive governance NGOs for mangrove plantings; this negatively effects the cohesion of the coastal protection program and
Inclusive development therefore its effectiveness and inclusiveness as mangrove groups protect their own areas. The paper
Coastal protection shows that an understanding of the social capital of different local groups can enable a better under-
Mangrove planting standing of how to engage them in ecosystem based governance.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction well as touches upon relational and political issues (Gupta et al.,
2015; Gupta and Pouw, 2017).
Coastal erosion is exacerbated by climate change and sea level As part of this Special Issue on Inclusive Development and
rise (IPCC, 2013). It negatively affects coastal populations and the Coastal Adaptiveness (see Gupta and Bavinck, this issue), this paper
development process, calling for greater coastal protection. addresses the question: How can governing actors better make use
Although there is considerable research on various aspects of of social capital and ecosystem-based approaches to enhance the
coastal protection and coastal zone management, there is a dearth effectiveness and inclusiveness of coastal protection? We define
of studies combining ecosystem-based solutions with governance effectiveness here as the extent to which the use of social capital
analysis and social capital theory. Furthermore, there is limited can contribute to inclusive development in terms of protecting
research on how insights from social capital theory, an ecosystem- human lives and livelihoods, and enhancing the local environment
based approach and interactive governance theory can be com- by taking an ecosystem-based approach to coastal space (Small and
bined and applied to assess the potential for inclusive development. Nicholls, 2003; Sudmeier-Rieux et al., 2006). We apply interactive
Inclusive development aims to ensure that development takes into governance and social capital theory to a case study of the Demak
account the interests of marginalized people, ecological aspects as coastal area in Central Java Province, Indonesia. This coast is
threatened by erosion and the possibility of creeping as well as
sudden disasters. The region has a predominantly rural population,
* Corresponding author. Governance and Inclusive Development, Department of and significant efforts are taking place to protect this coast through
Human Geography, Planning, and International Development, University of the planting of mangroves. The project is ongoing and our assess-
Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 166 1018 WV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. ment is, therefore, no more than a preliminary taxation of the
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Triyanti).

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4 A. Triyanti et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 150 (2017) 3e11

direction taken. settlements, each of which has a measure of identity and cohesion.
Section 2 first explains the issues involved in coastal protection, A coastal region that is determined on the basis of natural features
and then develops a theoretical perspective on the basis of inter- does not necessarily coincide with the boundaries of individual
active governance and social capital theory. This perspective is then settlements, requiring collaboration over larger coastal stretches.
applied in Sections 3 and 4 to the case study of Demak, before Administrative boundaries too do not always match with natural
drawing conclusions in Section 5. boundaries. The harmonizing of governing scales with the socio-
economic and natural scales of the system-to-be-governed is,
2. Conceptual framework and methodology therefore, problematic and a major concern in coastal management
(cf. Kooiman and Chuenpagdee, 2005).
2.1. Coastal zones and their protection

Before discussing the theories on which our analysis is based, 2.2. Interactive governance and social capital
we briefly discuss the challenges of coastal vulnerability. Coasts are
recognized as being dynamic and vulnerable geographical regions The theory of interactive governance considers governance as
(Kay and Alder, 1998; Beatley et al., 2002). As transition areas be- the dynamic, co-mingled outcome of efforts made by multiple
tween the land and sea, they are rich in biodiversity and provide governing actors (Torfing, 2012; Kooiman and Bavinck, 2013). In-
ecosystem services, including supporting, regulating, provisioning teractions between governing actors from the state, private sector
and cultural services. Coasts provide fish, shells, and seaweed (see or civil society, and between governing actors and those in the
Satria et al. this issue), thus contributing to local livelihoods, and system-to-be-governed, may have positive or negative outputs,
cultural services such as environments for recreation and aesthetic outcomes and impacts. As systems-to-be-governed, such as coasts,
experience. Coastal ecosystems also provide regulating services, are diverse, complex and highly dynamic, interactive governance
such as protection from erosion and inundation, and supporting pleads for building single, double and triple loop learning into the
services such as primary production (Millenium Ecosystem governing effort (Mahon et al., 2005; Armitage et al., 2008; Wilner
Assessment, 2005; Renaud et al., 2013; Glavovic et al., 2014; et al., 2012). While interactive governance discusses a range of
Spalding et al., 2014). However, not all coasts are equally vulner- different governance issues, adaptive governance focuses more on
able (O'Brien et al., 2004), nor are they equally valuable (Kay and answering the question of how to ensure that governance is able to
Alder, 1998; Beatley et al., 2002). cope with changing and uncertain problems (Berkes and Folke,
Low-lying coasts with high population densities and large eco- 1998; Dietz et al., 2003; Gupta et al., 2010; Djalante et al., 2011).
nomic investments face greater risks in terms of safety and sus- Interactive governance distinguishes three orders of governing
tainability of livelihoods (Small and Nicholls, 2003; Sudmeier- (Kooiman, 2003). First order governing deals with the day-to-day
Rieux et al., 2006). Depending on the needs and characteristics of management tasks of applying instruments to specific tasks. Sec-
coastal threats, such protection can be offered through hard (con- ond order governing includes the design and maintenance of in-
crete infrastructure), soft (using ecosystem-based coastal defense stitutions for governing (rules and organizational structures). The
systems), and hybrid (combining hard and soft structures) mea- third order, often referred to as meta-governance, consists of
sures. For example, planting casuarina trees along a highly principles that guide the overall governance effort. Where these
vulnerable coast threatened by tsunamis would not be a resilient principles promote social, ecological and relational inclusiveness,
solution due to its lower resistance. Casuarina trees, however, there is a normative overlap with the concept of inclusive devel-
provide a natural shield for low to moderate windstorms (see opment. All three orders play a role in realizing effectiveness, albeit
Triyanti et al., 2017), while for protection against tsunamis, sea-wall in different ways. Agreement on principles assists in keeping the
constructions are sometimes preferred (see Mimura and Nunn, steering effort on course (Kooiman and Jentoft, 2009), a notion that
1998; Dominey-Howes and Papathoma, 2007). Under circum- we will return to below.
stances where soft and hybrid approaches are considered suitable, Interactive governance also urges us to examine the extent to
the advantages are two-fold: such approaches offer sustainable which principles relevant to the field inform, or might better
protection by restoring (or maintaining) the natural ecosystem as inform in future, the governance effort. For this purpose, we make
well as providing opportunities to improve local inhabitants’ live- use of the scholarship that, from an applied ethical and interactive
lihoods through its direct use value such as fisheries production governance perspective, reflects on the relevant normative princi-
(Renaud et al., 2013; Perkins et al., 2015; Colloff et al., 2017). ples (Kooiman et al., 2005; Kooiman and Jentoft, 2009). We focus
In this paper, we focus on the implementation of ecosystem- on four such principles - rationality, representation, performance
based approaches to coastal protection. Such approaches require and responsiveness e that Kooiman and Chuenpagdee (2005)
more civil society participation than the conventional hard engi- suggest are prime ‘yardsticks’ for the governability of any societal
neering approach (Van den Hoek et al., 2012; Djoudi et al., 2013). system.
This is because while civil society needs to be engaged in the dis- Rationality in governance means making sure that images, in-
cussion regarding conventional hard engineering approaches, in struments and action potentials are mutually supportive and based
discussions on ecosystem based approaches, they have to be on adequate consideration. It includes accounting for the nature of
involved not only in the discussions but in the actual execution of the geographical scales of the system-to-be-governed and the
the ecosystem based approaches and also in their maintenance. governing system. Representation concerns the extent to which the
Mangrove planting projects require the participation of local in- viewpoints of those in the system-to-be-governed are ‘voiced’ in
habitants for defining and deciding where these plantings should the governing system. Responsiveness refers to the “quality [of the
take place, what should be planted in discussion with experts, who governing system] to respond to wishes” (Kooiman et al., 2005:
should pay for such plantings, who actually plants, how long-term 273). ‘Performance’ pertains to the achievement of the key
maintenance can be ensured and how those who maintain these objectives.
ecosystems are compensated for their contribution (Massel et al., In this paper, we assume that a governing system will be more
1999; Hiraishi and Harada, 2003; Kathiresan and Rajendran, effective in achieving inclusive development when it can mobilize
2005; Barbier, 2006). social capital (Kooiman, 2003: 62e64). The following definition of
Finally, coastal populations are not evenly spread but grouped in social capital is pertinent:
 A. Triyanti et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 150 (2017) 3e11 5

“The sum of the resources, actual or virtual, that accrue to an in- between July 2012 and April 2013 (Triyanti, 2013) and has updated
dividual or a group by virtue of possessing a durable network of the material by cross-checking what has happened since. The
more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance methodology included 75 surveys using mainly Likert scale
and recognition” (Bourdieu and Wacquant, 1992:119) perception assessment methods for establishing bonding social
capital. The sampling method was one of purposive random sam-
pling that assured an equal representation of hamlets in Bedono.
Scholars distinguish between three types of social capital
Semi-structured questionnaires targeted mangrove group leaders
(Woolcock and Sweetser, 2002; Whiteley, 2015): (1) bonding cap-
of each hamlet in order to assess the availability of bridging social
ital, (2) bridging capital and (3) linking capital. Bonding social
capital. In addition, the lead author conducted unstructured in-
capital involves trust and the sharing of norms and values within a
depth interviews and two focus group discussions (FGD) to assess
group. (Woolcock and Sweetser, 2002). Bridging social capital re-
linking social capital. One FGD gathered local government officials,
fers to the networks which can serve to link diverse groups while
community leaders, and members of local mangrove groups; the
bonding social capital can actually act to keep them apart (Putnam,
other FGD was conducted with members of local mangrove groups
2000). Linking social capital joins local people or groups to people
only. Finally, semi-structured interviews were conducted with
in positions of authority (Woolcock and Sweetser, 2002).
district officials from the Environmental Office, the Agency of Ma-
Although scholars in the field of interactive governance and
rine and Fisheries Affairs, and the Agricultural Office. This facili-
inclusive development have not yet made much use of the social
tated an understanding of the workings of the governing system.
capital approach (but see Chuenpagdee and Mahon, 2013; Gupta
The results of the social capital assessments are presented in this
et al., 2015), we argue below that social capital has a critical role
paper in a qualitative manner.
to play in making ecosystem-based coastal protection systems
effective.
3. Case study: Demak Coastal Area

2.3. Methodology 3.1. Current state of interactive governance

This paper takes a case study approach. Mangrove plantations in The results of our survey and follow-up research show that in-
Demak were chosen because the area has been severely impacted habitants have realized that the area is prone to inundation and
by coastal erosion, which has led to flooding and consequently a erosion and understand that there is an urgent need for a coastal
decision to plant mangroves. Comparative satellite image analysis protection program. The most striking coastal transformation in
(1972e2015) demonstrates that significant setbacks to the shore- Demak is the inundation of a mosque in Tambaksari hamlet of
lines have occurred, impacting settlements, agricultural fields, Bedono village and the forced relocation of inhabitants there (see
aquaculture units and public spaces (see Fig. 1). Fig. 2) following a massive tidal flood in the hamlet of Rejosari-
The lead author of this paper carried out fieldwork in a settle- Senik in 2005 (Merdeka, 2011). Their sense of urgency is fuelled
ment called Bedono, consisting of five hamlets, in Sayung Sub- by the impacts of coastal erosion on their livelihoods. Shrimp ponds
Districts in Demak District, Central Java Province, Indonesia, and agricultural fields are being inundated, and roads are heavily
damaged. In 2007, the Agency of Marine and Fisheries Affairs of
Demak District estimated the size and length of the coastline that is
affected by coastal erosion and inundation. Four sub-districts of
Demak appear to be most affected, including Sayung, Kar-
angtengah, Bonang and Wedung. Sayung sub-district, in which our
research is based, has been affected the most with 121 km of
affected coastline (Dinas Kelautan dan Perikanan Provinsi Jawa
Tengah, 2007).
Scholars attribute coastal erosion in Demak to different causes
including land reclamation for coastal infrastructure such as the
building of Tanjung Mas Port in 1987 and the promotion of real
estate housing in the neighboring city of Semarang (Marfai, 2012).
The latter reclamation project deflects currents towards the Demak
coastal area, leading to erosion. Satellite images (Fig. 1) of shoreline
dynamics confirm this, and local people agree that coastal flooding
commenced in 1988, after the first coastal reclamation projects
began (Marfai, 2012). Other causes include groundwater extraction
in the neighboring city of Semarang and Demak that might have
caused sea water intrusion and land subsidence in the Demak

Fig. 1. Shoreline change in Bedono, Demak Coastal Area 1972e2015.

Source: Google Earth Landsat ETM images adapted to show the changes in shorelines Fig. 2. Mosque and hamlets are inundated.
by first author. Source: first author
6 A. Triyanti et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 150 (2017) 3e11

Table 1
Application of social capital theory to our case study regions and type of relationship and interaction.

Form of social capital External to mangrove groups Internal to mangrove groups

1.Bonding social capital Between community members not participating in mangrove groups Between community members of each mangrove group
2. Bridging social capital a. Relations between community members of mangrove groups and community members not belonging to these groups
3. Linking social capital b. Between hamlet populations (external and internal to mangrove groups), NGOs, and government agencies

Source: Authors.

Table 2
Parameters and results of bonding social capital assessment in Demak1.

Indicator bonding social Community members not participating in mangrove groups Community members of each mangrove group
capital- Integration scorea
Analysis Result Analysis Result

Population in the research area Bedono Village has represented less than 25% Low The percentage of community population inside of Very low
population in the whole sub-district the mangrove group is significantly lower than
population in Bedono Village
Duration of stay Majority of residents have stayed in the area for Very high Majority of residents have stayed in the area for Very high
generations generations
Homogeneity of community Bonded Javanese-Moslem community Very high Bonded Javanese-Moslem community Very high
Homogeneity of livelihood Diverse livelihood, including fishers, farmers, Low Mainly local elites, but the rest of the members have Very low
labourers diverse livelihood (fishers, farmers, labourers)
Quality of facility Basic education and health facilities are adequate Low Basic education and health facilities are adequate- Medium
(have limited access to toolsj) Mangrove groups mostly possess basic equipment
and tools (e.g. boats, mangrove planting tools)
The function of social norm The social norm is highly influenced by Islamic High The social norm is highly influenced by Islamic High
religious and Javanese cultural values religious and Javanese cultural values
Effectivity of rules and law Village rules on mangrove protection and Medium Village rules on mangrove protection and Medium
ecosystem protection exist and are effective ecosystem protection exist and are effective
Mean result on integration Medium to High Low to Medium
a
The standard of integration assessments is based on hypotheses: (1) The higher the population, the higher the social capital score (Population of Demak is classified based
on the composition of population in the village compared to the district level population, retrieved from statistical data); (2) The longer the duration of stay of the community,
the higher the social capital score; (3) The higher the homogeneity in terms of religion and culture, the higher the social capital score; (4) The higher the homogeneity of
livelihood, the higher the social capital score; (5) The higher the quality of life facility, the higher the social capital score; (6) The higher the function of social norms (religious
norms, cultural norms), the higher the social capital score; (7) The higher the effectivity of rules and law (village rules, government rules), the higher the social capital score.
Source: Fieldwork data conducted by first author

coastal region (Setyowati, 2010); mangrove cutting (Dinas Kelautan capital and type of relationship and interaction.
dan Perikanan Provinsi Jawa Tengah, 2007; Setyowati, 2010; Governing actors in Demak belong to three categories: com-
Wahyudi et al., 2012; Marfai, 2012; Triyanti, 2013); and sea level munity institutions (such as mangrove or fisher groups), NGOs
rise as a result of climate change (Wahyudi et al., 2012). (international and national NGOs), and governmental entities
In order to effectively address some of the causes and impacts of (Environmental Office, Agricultural Office, Agency of Marine and
coastal erosion, we need to understand the role of social capital. In Fisheries Affairs). Together, they form a loosely organized govern-
this area, there are 5 hamlets; each hamlet has local people con- ing system for mangrove-based protection of the coast. The system-
sisting of those who are within and outside the mangrove groups. to-be-governed includes local inhabitants who engage in liveli-
Those in the mangrove groups are the elite in the local community, hoods, and depend to varying extents on surrounding ecosystems.
dominated by NGOs, hamlets and village officials. The common goal of governance is to protect the area from coastal
For the purpose of this case study, we define bonding social disasters, reduce local vulnerability, and ensure the sustainability of
capital as the common values and norms and the mutual trust of mangrove based protection programs.
people external and internal to mangrove groups in these five Mangrove groups, established in collaboration with NGOs and
hamlets. Bonding social capital is considered to be high when government institutions, are the primary entities involved in
integration is high (see Tables 2 and 3). Bridging social capital is mangrove planting and maintenance at the community level. They
assessed according to synergism parameters between people reside under different villages and hamlets. We return to them
external and internal to mangrove groups in the five hamlets (in below.
other words, regarding their connection). Linking social capital is A Japanese-based NGO called OISCA (Organization for Industrial,
assessed by analysing the network quality between hamlet pop- Spiritual & Cultural Advancement) initiated the first mangrove
ulations (external and internal to mangrove groups), NGOs, and planting program in Demak in 2004. OISCA signed an agreement
government agencies at the district level (see Table 1 for the with the government of Indonesia to plant mangroves in several
assessment targets of each typology of social capital). The selected locations including Demak District. Currently, many NGOs,
parameters of bonding, bridging, and linking social capital have including The Netherlands-based consortium Ecoshape, promote
been adapted to our case study (see Woolcock, 1998; Woolcock and mangrove planting in Demak (Tonneijck, 2016). There are many
Narayan, 2000) and builds on indicators developed by the World small projects initiated by local NGOs as well as by Indonesian
Bank (Grootaert et al., 2004). Table 1 summarizes the form of social university students (gathered in an organization called KESEMAT).
Each village in Demak consists of more than one hamlet, and
while most hamlets have only one mangrove group, there may be
1 other groups in one hamlet. Bedono possesses six mangrove groups
The data collected records interviewee perceptions from 75 structured surveys
which are quantified and processed with Summated Ratings and only one data (i.e. in an equal number of hamlets, with each mangrove group linked to
population) was retrieved from a secondary statistical data source (BPS, 2013). a different NGO. Although all these groups have planted
 A. Triyanti et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 150 (2017) 3e11 7

Table 3
Parameters and results of bridging social capital assessment in Demak2.

Indicator bridging social Relations between members of mangrove groups and community members not belonging to these groups
capital- Synergism scorea
Analysis Result

Relation of intra-community Local people outside of mangrove group has weak connection with mangrove groups Low
Accessibility It is not easy for local people outside of mangrove group to access and to be involved in the mangrove group programme Low
Network frequency There are almost no meetings Low
Choice of network No effort to network with each other Very low
Mean result on synergism Low
a
The standard of synergism assessments is based on the hypotheses: the higher the quality of relations of (1) intra-community (i.e. among community in the village
mangrove groups and among community in different mangrove groups), the higher the social capital score; (2) the higher the accessibility (i.e. perception on the access to
mangrove groups), the higher the social capital score; (3) The higher the network frequency (i.e. meetings, discussion session and consultation), the higher the social capital
score; and (4) the higher the mutual benefits achieved from selecting network, the higher social capital score.
Source: Fieldwork data conducted by first author

Fig. 3. Mangroves for coastal protection in Demak.

Source: First author

mangroves, this has not successfully mitigated the impacts of hierarchy. A regional working group for mangrove management
floods. Fig. 3 provides an illustration of continued flooding from (Kelompok Kerja Mangrove Daerah) oversees the program of
Morosari Hamlet in Bedono in the context of mangrove planting. mangrove planting for coastal protection in Demak.
Government bodies in the larger region are also planting man-
groves and conducting awareness and alternative livelihoods 3.2. Availability of social capital
training. Some programs related to mangrove planting and training
are conducted through the head of the village by involving 3.2.1. Bonding social capital
mangrove groups. Some other coastal protection programs that are 3.2.1.1. Between community members not participating in mangrove
more technocratic such as building breakwaters and dams are groups. Governing actors can use social capital to combat coastal
conducted directly by relevant government bodies, mainly at the erosion (Marfai and Hizbaron, 2011; Triyanti, 2013; Marfai et al.,
district level. These bodies include the Agency of Marine and 2015) (see Table 2). We notice that since there are two types of
Fisheries Affairs, the Environmental Office, as well as the Agricul- communities in these areas e those within mangrove groups and
tural Office. Some programs are meant to trigger public participa- those outside, it is important to examine the nature of the bonding
tion, by involving mangrove groups and fisher groups (described capital of both groups. Rural settlements outside of the mangrove
below). groups in this region have common histories, geographical prox-
However, in Demak district, the Indonesian government and imity, kinship relations, and common activities (Semedi, 2001). Our
OISCA focus on mangrove-based protection as opposed to other study points out that local people outside of the mangrove groups
protective options (Tonneijck, 2016; Triyanti and Chu, 2016) in Demak are closely bonded, as entry is determined by kinship and
because this strategy is expected to: (1) be cost-effective and more patronage. The survey results reveal that the score of bonding social
affordable than building hard structures; (2) provide supporting capital is medium to high (see Table 2). One would, therefore,
and regulating services to buffer destructive waves and enhance expect that the mangrove planting programs taking place in Demak
sedimentation to address erosion; (3) ensure provisioning services would make use of the high levels of bonding capital within the
such as fish breeding and enhanced fish productivity; (4) generate local groups outside the mangrove groups.
other products, including mangrove syrup, mangrove chips and
fruits; and (5) garner the support of local leaders. Fig. 4 presents the
3.2.1.2. Between community members of each mangrove group.
organizational structure of the mangrove planting program in
Our assessment of the bonding social capital existing within
Demak. The mangrove groups in the hamlets of Demak are engaged
mangrove groups leads us to conclude that: first, mangrove groups
in planting mangroves. They are supported by NGOs and govern-
were established after the initiation of the mangrove planting
ment departments; the latter are nested in an administrative
program by OISCA in 2004 and are relatively young. Second, the
membership of mangrove groups consists of both old and young
men, and largely overlaps with the membership of fisher groups.
2
This data has been collected from the focus group discussions and in-depth Mangrove groups are generally built around local elites such as the
interviews with the head of the mangrove groups in each hamlet. heads of hamlets. Furthermore, their relatives (e.g. their children,
8 A. Triyanti et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 150 (2017) 3e11

Fig. 4. The current structure of governance in the mangrove planting program.

Source: Authors

siblings, cousins) have often also been made members, thereby prioritized Demak for coastal protection. Mangrove groups in
allowing them to share in the resources provided. Some of the Demak have high access to NGOs. Overall, actors interact frequently
members are directly impacted by coastal erosion and inundation, at the district level, especially when activities have reached the
and some not. Membership is felt to have various advantages, implementation phase. Mangrove groups at the village level con-
including social status and access to new financial and employment tact the relevant governmental agencies once a month or more,
opportunities. Third, in terms of the existence of rules and regu- depending on their needs or the availability of project tenders. This
lations, there is no specific rule or regulation to set the direction gives them an overall high linking score. Having said that, the
and goals of these mangrove groups. The only regulation existing is mangrove groups compete with each other and this may reduce
the village regulation made by local people in consensus with their ability to optimally use their networks (see Table 4).
village leaders, which prohibits local people from cutting man- Informants suggest that the communication and coordination
groves and damaging coastal ecosystems. Our assessment reveals between NGOs and government, as well as among government
that the bonding capital of communities within the mangrove bodies and offices at the district and local levels can be improved.
group is lower than the community outside of mangrove group, The case study of Bedono shows that there are discrepancies in the
which is low to medium (see Table 2). way projects are distributed between hamlets. Government officers
argue that this occurs because of variations in community initiative
3.2.2. Bridging social capital and enthusiasm. NGO personnel suggest that discrepancies are the
3.2.2.1. Relations between members of mangrove groups and com- result of projects being in different phases of implementation.
munity members not belonging to these groups. In relation to Although the Regional Working Group for Mangrove Management,
bridging social capital, our survey suggests that over half of the which involves all governmental bodies at the district and pro-
people in Demak believe that the community members are being vincial levels, is supposed to coordinate and ensure an even level of
excluded by the mangrove groups. Thus, the recruitment of new coastal protection for the whole region, this entity is not yet fully
members is relatively rare. The synergism parameters analysed are operational as of September 2017.
from in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. These pa-
rameters examined the relationships, accessibility, network fre- 4. Assessing the effectiveness of coastal protection in Demak
quency and choice of networks between the local groups within
and outside the mangrove groups and concluded that these are This paper has assessed the workings of ecosystem-based
relatively low. (see Table 3). coastal protection in the context of Indonesia. Assuming that so-
cial capital plays a potentially constructive role in the governance of
3.2.3. Linking social capital coastal protection (Whiteley, 2015), we have examined the patterns
3.2.3.1. Between hamlets populations (external and internal to of bonding, bridging and linking social capital as they prevail in
mangrove groups), NGOs, and government agencies. Findings from Demak District. Four conclusions emerge. We link these to the four
in-depth interviews and focus group discussions demonstrate that normative principles of interactive governance mentioned in sec-
the linking social capital in terms of the connection and networks tion 2.2.
between communities outside of mangrove groups and govern- Matching scales and the rationality principle. The geograph-
mental bodies is adequate. Social capital is firmly anchored in ical scales of the governing system and the system-to-be-governed
mutually supporting motives of achieving a safe and protected in Demak are imperfectly matched. This issue of ‘fit’, must e ac-
coastal area using the benefits of mangrove ecosystems. However, cording to a rationality principle - match with the level of the
hamlet populations have less access to international NGOs working system-to-be-governed. However, given that even if it is possible to
on mangroves. In terms of the connection and networks between match the administrative system to the communities, it is impos-
mangrove groups and governmental bodies, the linking social sible to match the administrative system to the different ecological
capital is in general also fairly good as both wish to protect the systems as each has different boundaries. The challenge is how to
coastal area. Government officers support the program and offer govern even when there is no good fit. The challenge is to under-
incentives and direct assistance for project implementation to local stand how the different groups whether in mangrove groups or
mangrove groups and are easily accessible as the government has outside mangrove groups can be better involved to enhance coastal
 A. Triyanti et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 150 (2017) 3e11 9

Table 4
Parameters and results of linking social capital assessment in Demak3.

Indicator linking social Between community external to mangrove groups Between community internal to mangrove groups in
capital- Network scorea and the NGOs and governmental bodies different hamlets and the NGOs and governmental bodies

Analysis Result Analysis Result

Relation of supra-community Local people are connected well High Mangrove groups, NGOs, and High
with both NGOs and government agencies have
government agencies good relations
Accessibility It is not easy for local people to Low It is very easy for mangrove Very high
make contact and interact with groups to contact and interact
NGOs and government agencies with the NGOs and government
agencies
Network frequency There are meetings, Low Networking and interactions Medium
discussions, and consultation with NGOs and government
sessions with NGOs and agencies are not regular and
government agencies, but with mostly in an informal way
only selected elite people in the
village
Choice of network Anchored in mutually beneficial Very high There are competing interests Low
motives to protect the coastal and funding source in selecting
area from disaster networks among different
mangrove groups, among
different NGOs, and among
different governmental bodies
Mean result on network Medium High, but competition within mangrove groups may reduce
the effectiveness of the linking capital
a
The standard of network assessments is based on the hypotheses: the higher the quality of relations of (1) supra-community (i.e. among community in the village with
NGOs and government), the higher the social capital score; (2) The higher the accessibility (i.e. perception on the access to NGOs and governmental bodies), the higher the
social capital score; (3) The higher the network frequency (i.e. meetings, discussion session and consultation), the higher social capital score; (4) The higher the mutual benefits
achieved from selecting networks, the higher the social capital score.
Source: Fieldwork data conducted by first author

protection. collaboration as a prerequisite before state funding is available.

Social capital and the representation principle. The mangrove While the Regional Working Group for Mangrove Management is
planting program in Demak District is monopolized by local entrusted with this task, it faces difficulties in doing so due to
mangrove groups dominated by local elites, competing amongst unclear mandates, limited resources and structural differences
each other for resources. Other local inhabitants feel excluded from between participating agencies. Agencies have different objectives,
the coastal protection program - their ‘voice’ in the planning and priorities, rules, and regulations, which are difficult to overcome
implementation of the program is limited. As a result, they also feel and integrate.
that coastal protection is limited to areas where the mangrove Social capital and the responsiveness principle. While the
groups are functioning, and that this does not help reduce the mangrove program as a whole is trying to respond to the felt needs
exposure to coastal inundation in other areas. Representation as of coastal protection, for it to be truly effective, government
‘substantive acting for others’ (Dryzek, 2010: 44) of mangrove agencies must play a stronger role in coordinating and promul-
groups has been undertaken informally through family relations gating a shared vision. It would help overcome the weaknesses that
and other forms of social connectedness. Our study suggests that currently exists in extending bonding to bridging and linking cap-
most local inhabitants do not feel part of the mangrove planting ital. Governing actors need to be responsive by reacting to the
program, nor represented by local mangrove groups. They also do needs that emanate from the system-to-be-governed. In Demak,
not feel that the mangrove planting program has succeeded in local government bodies at the district level such as the Agricul-
reducing their exposure to coastal inundation yet. Such local groups tural Office, Environmental Office, Agency of Marine and Fisheries
need to invest significantly more in building their bridging and Affairs, Regional Development Planning Agency, as well as Regional
linking capital in order to be able to compete more effectively with Agency for Disaster Management are collaborating with commu-
the mangrove groups and to ensure that their areas are also nities through separate networks. However, governance effective-
protected. ness requires that agencies extend their involvement and
Social capital and the performance principle. The coordina- collaborate to define the public interest so as to achieve an inclusive
tion of mangrove planting activities in the region is weak as shown and integrated coastal protection program. This can be done
by (a) unequal distribution of funding for projects, thus (b) trig- through initiatives aimed at social mobilization and more effective
gering conflicts of interest among government bodies, local com- bridging and linking of communities, NGOs, and governmental
munities and NGOs within and between hamlets. Given limited bodies in their coastal protection program.
resources, there will always be competition for the use of these
resources. However, with effective use of bridging capital local
people outside of mangrove groups can enhance their collaboration 5. Conclusions
with those in the mangrove groups. If this is difficult because of the
unwillingness of the mangrove groups, the state can require such We commenced this paper with the observation that coastal
protection is an important imperative. An ecosystem-based
approach to coastal protection, such as through the (re-) planting
3
This is based on data collected from 75 surveys and an in-depth interview with
of mangroves, constitutes one useful approach. This approach is
the heads of mangrove groups, village authorities, NGOs representatives, and applied singularly or in combination with hard or hybrid measures
government authorities. to protect larger coastal regions in the tropics. We have
10 A. Triyanti et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 150 (2017) 3e11

concentrated our attention on a part of the Indonesian coastline Dinas Kelautan dan Perikanan Provinsi Jawa Tengah, 2007. Laporan akhir penyu-
sunan rencana strategis pengelolaan pesisir dan laut terpadu di Kabupaten
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