1st Semester

2019 - 2020

Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

University of Duhok
College of Engineering
Civil Department

Soil Mechanics-I 3rd Year Students

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Elements of Earth
!
8-35 km crust % by weight in crust

O = 49.2
Si = 25.7 82.4%
Al = 7.5
Fe = 4.7
Ca = 3.4
Na = 2.6
K = 2.4
Mg = 1.9
other = 2.6
12500 km dia

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 2

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Composition of clay minerals

The word 'clay' is generally understood to refer to a material composed of a mass
of small mineral particles which, in association with certain quantities of water,
exhibits the property of plasticity.

According to the clay mineral concept, clay materials are essentially

composed of extremely small crystalline particles of one or more members of a
small group of minerals that are commonly known as clay minerals. These
minerals are essentially hydrous aluminum silicates, with magnesium or iron
replacing wholly or in part for the aluminum, in some minerals. Three important
clay minerals are: Kaolinite , Montmorillonite, Illite. Other common clay
minerals generally found are chlorite, halloysite, vermiculite, and attapulqite.

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 3

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Structure of clay minerals

Two fundamental building blocks are involved in the formation of clay mineral
structures. They are:

1. Tetrahedral unit. 2. Octahedral unit.

hydroxyl or
oxygen oxygen

aluminium or
silicon magnesium

0.26 nm
0.29 nm

Silicon tetrahedron
Aluminum Octahedron

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 4

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Tetrahedral sheet
Tetrahedron unit
Each tetrahedron unit consists of
!
four oxygen atoms surrounding silicon
atom the combination of tetrahedral
silica units gives silica sheet .Three
oxygen atoms at the base of each
tetrahedron are shared by neighboring
tetrahedral.

Si
Si

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 5

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Octahedral unit Octahedral sheet

The octahedral units consist of six Hydroxyls
!
surrounding an Aluminum atom. And the
combination of the octahedral Aluminum
Hydroxyl units gives an octahedral sheet. (This
is also called a gibbsite sheet) sometimes
Magnesium replaces the Aluminum atoms in
the octahedral units; in this case, the octahedral
sheet is called a Brucite sheet.

Al

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 6

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

In a silica sheet, each silicon atom with a positive charge of four is linked
to four oxygen atoms with a total negative charge of eight. But each oxygen
!
atom at the base of the tetrahedron is linked to two silicon atoms. This means
that t he top oxygen atom of each tetrahedral unit has a negative charge of one
to be counterbalanced. When the silica sheet is stacked overt the octahedral
sheet, these oxygen atoms replace the hydroxyls to balance their charges.

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 7

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

In octahedral sheet, the Al ion has 3 positive charges and each hydroxyl ion
divides its -1 charge with two other neighboring units. This sharing of negative
!
charge with other units leaves a total of 2 negative charges per unit [(1/3) * 6].
The net charge of a unit with an Aluminum ion at the center is +1. Sometimes,
Magnesium replaces the Aluminum atoms in the octahedral units in this case;
the octahedral sheet is called a Brucite sheet.

Al, Mg or Fe
OH

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 8

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Formation of Minerals

The combination of two sheets of silica and gibbsite in different arrangements

and conditions lead to the formation of different clay minerals.

In the actual formation of the sheet silicate minerals, the phenomenon of

isomorphous substitution frequently occurs. Isomorphous substitution consists of
the substitution of one kind of atom for another with no change in the crystalline.

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 9

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Different types Clay Minerals

1:1 clay minerals: 2:1 clay minerals:

Smectite – Montmorillonite, Beidellite,
Kaolinite, Halloysite, Nacrite,
Nontronite, Vermiculite, Illite
Dickite

Si Si
G G
Si

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 10

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Kaolinite Mineral
The building blocks of gibbsite and silica sheets are arranged as shown in
Figure to give the structure of the Kaolinite layer. The structure is composed
of a single tetrahedral sheet and a single alumina octahedral sheet combined
in units so that the tips of the silica tetrahedrons and one of the layers of the
octahedral sheet form a common layer.
G
Typically 70-100 Si
layers G
Si 0.72 nm
G
joined by strong H-bond Si
no easy separation G
Si
- Platy shape
- The bonding between layers are van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds.
- very small amount of isomorphous substitution.
- there is no interlayer swelling
Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 11
 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Montmorillonite Mineral
Montmorillonite is the most common mineral of the montmorillonite group.
The structural arrangement of this mineral is composed of two silica tetrahedral
sheets with a central alumina octahedral sheet. All the tips of the tetrahedra point in
the same direction and toward the center of the unit. The silica and gibbsite sheets
are combined in such a way that the tips of the tetrahedrons of each silica sheet and
one of the hydroxyl layers of the octahedral sheet form a common layer. The atoms
common to both the silica and gibbsite layer become oxygen instead of hydroxyls.

Si
G
Si
Si
G 0.96 nm
Si
Si
joined by weak G
van der Waal’s bond Si

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 12

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Soils containing a considerable amount of montmorillonite minerals will exhibit

high swelling and shrinkage characteristics. In montmorillonite, there is
isomorphous substitution of magnesium and iron for aluminum.

A highly reactive (expansive) clay

(OH)4Al4Si8O20.nH2O swells on contact with water

high affinity to water

•Film-like shape
•There is extensive isomorphous substitution for silicon and aluminum by other
cations, which results in charge deficiencies of clay particles.
•The interlayer bonding is by van der Waals forces (weak bonding).

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 13

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Illite
The basic structural unit of illite is similar to that of montmorillonite except
that some of the silicons are always replaced by aluminum atoms and the resultant
charge deficiency is balanced by potassium ions. The potassium ions occur
between unit layers.

•Flaky shape. Si
•Some of the Si4+ in the tetrahedral sheet G
are replaced by the Al3+, and some of the K+ Si
Al3+ in the octahedral sheet are substituted
by the Mg2+ or Fe3+. Those are the origins Si
of charge deficiencies. G 0.96
Si nm
•The bonds with the nonexchangeable K+
ions are weaker than the hydrogen bonds, Si
but stronger than the water bond of
montmorillonite. Illite, therefore, does not G
swell as much in the presence of water as Si
does montmorillonite.

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 14

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Common methods for Identifying Clay Minerals

1-Scanning Electron Microscope

2-X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
3-Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

Specific Surface area: smaller the grain, higher the

surface area per unit mass (m2/g) specific surface

e.g., soil grain with specific gravity of 2.7

10 mm cube 1 mm cube
spec. surface = 222.2 mm2/g spec. surface = 2222.2 mm2/g

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 15

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Typical
Specific surface
Mineral thickness
(m2/g)
(nm)

Kaolinite 50-2000 10-20

Illite 30 80-100
Montmorillonite 3 800

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 16

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

-ve charge of clay particles

The clay particles carry a net negative charge on their surface. This is the result of
both isomorphous substitution and of a break in the continuity of the structure
at its edges. Larger negative charges are derived from larger specific surfaces.
some positively charged sites also occur at the edges of the particles.

positively charged edges

+ + + +_
+ _
_ _ _ _ negatively charged
+ _ _ _
_ faces
+ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _
_
_ _ _ _

Clay Particle with Net negative Charge

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 17

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Clay particle-water relations

In dry clay, the negative charge is balanced by exchangeable cations like
Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+ surrounding the particles being held by electrostatic
attraction. When water is added to clay, these cations and a few anions float
around the clay particles. This configuration is referred to as a diffuse double
layer. The cation concentration decreases with the distance from the surface of
the particle.

Concentration od ions
Cations

Anions

Surface of clay particle Distance from the clay particle

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 18

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

 Water molecules are polar. (a water

molecule has a positive charge at one
side and a negative charge at the other
side, it is known as a dipole).

1&2

-
 Dipolar water is attracted both by

- - - - -
the negatively charged surface of

Clay Surfaces
the clay particles and by the cations
in the double layer. The cations, in
turn, are attracted to the soil
particles.
-
-

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 19

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

 A third mechanism by which water is attracted to clay particles is hydrogen

bonding, where hydrogen atoms in the water molecules are shared with
oxygen atoms on the surface of the clay. Some partially hydrated cations in
the pore water are also attracted to the surface of clay particles. These cations
attract dipolar water molecules.

Hydrogen bonding H
O O
(Sharing of Hydrogen atom H H
of water between Oxygen
Clay Surfaces

Adsorbed layers Free water

atom of clay and water)

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 20

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Adsorbed water???

Relative sizes of adsorbed water layers on sodium montmorillonite and

sodium kaolinite
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 21

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Cation Exchange Capacity (c.e.c)

The negatively charged clay particles can attract cations from the water. These
!
cations can be freely exchanged with other cations present in the water. For
example Al3+ can replace Ca2+ and Ca2+ can replace Mg2+.
known as exchangeable cations

 capacity to attract cations from the water (i.e., measure of the net negative
charge of the clay particle)
 measured in meq/100g (net negative charge per 100 g of dry clay)
,
meq: milliequivalents

For example,

Na Na Na Na Ca Ca
+4CaCl2  +8NaCl
Na Na Na Na Ca Ca

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 22

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

•The types of adsorbed cations depend on the depositional environment.

For example, sodium and magnesium are dominant cations in marine clays
!
since they are common in sea water. In general, calcium and magnesium
are the predominant cations.

The ease of cation replacement depends on the

1. Valence (primarily)
Higher valence cations can replace cations of lower valence.

2. Ion size ( this is become important factor for ions with the same valence)
Cations with larger non-hydrated radii or smaller hydrated radii have
greater replacement power.

 The replacement power is greater for higher valence and larger cations.
Al3+ >> Ca2+ > Mg2+ >> NH4+ > K+ > Na+ > Li+

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy 23

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-I
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Typical
Mineral thickness
Specific surface
(m2/g)
C.E.C
(meq/100g)
!
(nm)
Kaolinite 50-2000 10-20 3-10
Illite 30 80-100 20-30
Montmorillonite 3 800 80-120

Engineering Applications

 Lime treatment for the swelling clay

The swelling clay such as Na-montmorillonite beneath the foundation is
potentially harmful to the light structure. Adding lime (CaO) into such soil
can effectively reduce the swelling potential due to Ca2+ displacing Na+
(since Ca+2 has a greater replacing power than Na+), and can increase the
strength by dehydration of soils and cementation.

Chapter 2: Clay Mineralogy End 24