M ATERIALS OF C ONSTRUCTION

D IVISION 2 - S ITEWORKS
1. EARTHWORKS

1.1. ACRONYMS
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ANSI American Nurserymen’s Specifications Institute
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
DPWH Dept. of Public Works and Highways (Phil Government)
USCS Unified Soil Classification System

1.2. DEFINITIONS, STANDARD TESTS

AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM - classifies Inorganic soils for suitability as
subgrade materials in terms of good drainage and bearing capacity.

AASHTO defines particle sizes as:

a. Boulders – above 75mm
b. Gravel – 75mm to No.10 sieve
c. Coarse Sand – No.10 to No.40 sieve
d. Fine Sand – No.40 to No.200 sieve
e. Silt-Clay Particles – passing No.200 sieve

ATTERBERG LIMITS are tests performed on soils passing the No.40 sieve as follows:
a. Liquid Limit (LL) - the moisture content at which a soil changes from the liquid state to the
plastic state, measured when soil in a shallow dish flows to close a 12.5 mm groove after
25 drops from 1 cm.
b. Plastic Limit (PL) - the water content at which a silt or clay material will just begin to
crumble when rolled into a tread approx 3.2mm (1/8 inch) in diameter.
c. Plasticity Index (PI) - is defined as the Liquid Limit minus the Plastic Limit: LL – PL = PI,
that is the range of water content over which sediment behaves.

1.3. FILL MATERIALS

a. Fill materials - soil, crushed stone, and sand used to raise
an existing grade, or as a man-made-deposit, generally
used under spread footings, pavers, or concrete slabs on
grade. They are classified under the United Soil
Classification System (USCS) as:

 GW, GM, GP – Gravels with > 50% retained on No.

200 sieve, and > 50% of coarse fraction retained on
No.40 sieve.
  SW, SM –Sands with > 50% retained on No. 200 sieve,
and 50% or more of coarse fraction passes No.40
sieve.

b. Granular Fill or Filters - soil materials

conforming to above General Fill requirements
and to ASTM C 33, size 67, with a sand
equivalent of not < than 50%, used to prevent the
movement of fine particles out of soils and other
natural materials through seepage.

c. Borrow Fill - soil materials suitable as fill or subgrade,

selected laboratory-approved pit-run gravel, disintegrated
granite, sand, shale, cinders or other similar materials with
not more than 35% fraction passing the No. 200 sieve.

d. Base Course Materials are hard durable fragments of stone and a filler of sand or other
finely divided mineral matter, free from vegetable matter and lumps of clay, complying
with the following AASHTO METHODS T-11 and T-26 Grading Requirements:

Sieve Designation Percent Weight Passing

U.S. Standard Sieve Type "B" Base Course
1 - 1/2" 100
1" 85 – 100
No. 4 20 – 45
No. 200 5 – 12

Local Borrow Fill materials:

a. BANDA Y BANDA
b. ESCOMBRO P5,000 per 15 16 cum
c. ESCOMBRO –
BULIK (for Rip-rap)

1.4. RIPRAP (ROCK LINING)

A constructed layer or facing of

stone, placed to prevent erosion,
scouring or sloughing of a structure
or embankment; also is frequently
defined as the stone used to
construct such a lining; a special
class of very large aggregate, ranging in diameter from 50mm (2 inches) to 1148mm (42 inches).
 Because it is subject to significant energy, it is important that it be sound and free from defects or
entrained substances such soil shale or organic materials.

The resistance of riprap is a function of the weight, size, and shape of the stone, the geometry of the
channel or bank it is protecting, and the filter blanket over which the rip rap is placed.

1.5. GABION SYSTEMS

Wire-enclosed riprap consisting of mats or baskets

fabricated from wire mesh, filled with small riprap,
and anchored to a slope. Wrapping the riprap
enables the use of smaller rocks for the same
resistance as larger unwrapped riprap; also
particularly advantageous when constructing rock
lining in areas inaccessible to trucks or large
construction equipment. The wire baskets also allow steeper (i.e., vertical) channel linings to be
constructed.

Criteria for Gabion Thickness

Maximum
Bank Minimum Required Mattress
Bank Soil Type Velocity (feet
Slope Thickness (inches)
per second)
Clays, heavy
10 <1:3 9
cohesive soils
13-16 <1:2 12
any >1:2 18+
Silts, fine sands 10 <1:2 12
Shingle with gravel 16 <1:3 9
20 <1:2 12
any >1:2 18+
1.6. GEOSYNTHETICS

Construction materials consisting of synthetic components made for use with or within earth materials
generally are referred to as geosynthetics. Geosynthetics can be further categorized into the following
components:

 Geotextiles  Geonets and

 Geomembranes  Geocells
 Geocomposites

a. Geotextiles - the most common geosynthetics, consist of woven or nonwoven fabric

made from polymeric materials such as polyester or polypropylene generally used for :

 Reinforcement
- when the geotextile fabric lends its tensile strength to low load-bearing soil to
increase the overall design strength and decrease the amount of sub-base and base
course materials.

 Separation

- when the geotextile is

placed between dissimilar
materials to prevent
migration of one of the
materials into the other.
 Filtration
- when the geotextile is used to prevent the
movement of fine particles from soil
through which seepage occurs.
Filtration has three separate categories:

o Subsurface Drainage—Subsurface
drainage geotextiles are those
employed in subsurface drainage
applications, such as filters around
underdrains or edge drains.

o Erosion Control—Erosion control

geotextiles are those employed to
protect cut slopes or drainage features.
They would be used in conjunction with
a stone lining or rip rap, and as such,
would serve a secondary function of
separation.

o Sediment Control—Sediment control geotextiles are exclusively those used for

silt fence applications. While they serve the purpose of "filtering" runoff, the
mechanism by which they function is different than subsurface drainage or
erosion control applications.

 In-Plane Drainage/Transmission
- in-plane flow capacity of a geotextile is sometimes described in terms of its
transmissivity or when the geotextile allows liquids or gases to be carried or
transmitted within its plane. This function is often associated with geocomposites,
particularly those that incorporate a drainage net or a permeable core bonded on one
or both sides by a geotextile. The thick-needled nonwoven geotextiles have sufficient
in-plane flow capacity for use as flow conduits in certain applications. Geotextiles
used in these applications must be selected on the basis of the hydraulic designs.
b. Geomembranes - continuous polymeric sheets that are impermeable; the most frequently
used for ground applications and pond lining are thermoplastic products manufactured from
high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). For membrane roofing
applications, ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) is frequently used.

Different types of geomembranes have different properties: strength, longevity, resistance to

ultraviolet light, thermal expansion and contraction, chemical resistance, and ease of
installation.Membranes should generally be designed so as not to be subjected to tensile
stresses and should be treated gently during installation and subsequent use.

Uses: Lining of ponds, lagoons, landfill, canals, reservoirs, roads, and waterproofing of
structures.

c. Geocomposites - a combination of geosynthetic

components, usually sheet or edge drains
consisting of a prefabricated core to which a
geotextile filter is bonded. The core provides void
space to which water can flow in-plane while the
geotextile filter keeps soil from filling the voids
created by the core.

d. Geonets - consist of a continuous extrusion of polymeric ribs, forming void space through
which provide in-plane flow capacity; available with or without bonded geotextile filters.
Geonets with bonded geotextile filters are sometimes called composite drainage nets (CDNs).
 e. Geocells - three-dimensional prefabricated polymeric systems ranging from 100mm to
200mm high. The geocell systems are collapsed for delivery to the site, spread open and
filled to form a three-dimensional reinforced mattress upon arrival at a site. Originally
developed to rapidly stabilize soft subgrades for mobilization of large equipment, they are now
frequently used for protection and stabilization of steep slope surfaces and protective linings
for channels.

1.7. SLOPE-EROSION PROTECTION MATERIALS

Used for both temporary and permanent erosion
protection. Temporary materials consist of open mesh
polymeric systems, biodegradable mesh system (e.g.,
jute), or a combination of polymeric and biodegradable
mesh. The open mesh systems serve as semi-
permanent mulch, anchoring seeds and soil particles
subject to erosive flows in channels. Greater flow rates
and volumes usually require denser mesh and more
durable construction.

2. TERMITE & BUKBOK PROOFING (Section 02280)

2.1. TERMITE PROOFING: There are two

types:
a. Physical barriers: physical barrier that
prevents termites from accessing the
wood in a home. There are a variety of
methods.

 Termite Resistant Sand

A layer of sand with uniform size
particles, area must be large enough to
prevent the termite from moving through
it or prevents its use in "tunnel"
construction.
A sand barrier would be more uniform, more effective than a chemical barrier, would not
require reapplication as chemical barriers often do, are environmentally friendly and
would help to greatly reduce the load of toxic chemicals in the urban environment.
Furthermore, a sand barrier would likely contribute to the water-proofing of basement
foundations.
  Termite Mesh
Steel mesh product that is fine enough to keep even tiny termites from passing through it.
Termite Mesh is used in slab construction, also used to wrap pipes and other access
areas.

 Home Construction
Employ construction details to physically separate the home from the distance termites
can travel from their colony.

b. Chemical Barriers: The objective is to establish a continuous termiticide barrier between

soil access routes and the structure, either killing or repeling subterranean termites that
attempt to reach the structure. A termiticide is a type of chemical used to control termites.

 Pre-construction chemical barriers

Almost always applied during construction to the soil and foundation; or the use of termite
resistant building products, from drywall to floor joists treated with borates before use in
home construction.

 Vertical barriers
Applied by rodding or trenching around the base of foundations,
plumbing, utility entrances, expansion joints, and where two
slabs will join, applying 4 gallons of termiticide per 10 linear
feet; each foot of depth should receive 4 gallons per 10 linear
feet; for trenches no wider than 6 inches, apply termiticide to
the trench, and mix with backfill. Hollow block voids of
foundations should also be treated with 4 gallons of termiticide
per 10 linear feet.

 Horizontal barriers
 Applying one gallon of termiticide per 10 square feet, usually by coarse spray at low
pressure. All termite treatments to slab construction should include horizontal barriers,
which are relatively easy to apply.

o Slab treatment - involves drilling through the

slab floor and injecting termiticides into the soil at
regular intervals.

o Basements and Crawl Spaces - trenches are

dug around the foundation, termiticide applied
and the trench filled back in. Chemicals may also
be injected into the soil in the crawl
space/basement and around the foundation.

c. Bait System: The objective is to continuously attract the termite workers to forage on a
slow-acting insect-growth regulator (IGR) called hexaflumuron to eliminate the entire
workers population and the entire colony. The system employs baits and monitoring
devices installed where evidence of infestation is found.

3. ROADS AND PARKING (Section 02500)

Roads and parking design require the following materials suited to horizontal structures:

3.1. SUBGRADE AND BASE COURSE

MATERIALS

a. Borrow Material (See 1.03 c.)

b. Base Course Material (1.03 d.)
c. Choker Aggregate
A filter layer of finer material laid over a
coarse road base material in order to provide
a stable foundation of fine aggregate for the
construction of a pavement.

3.2. SURFACE PAVING MATERIALS

a. Concrete (see Div 03 Concrete)
b. Bituminous Surfacing

 HOT MIX ASPHALT or ASPHALTIC

CONCRETE – A dark brown to black
 cementitious material, solid or semi-solid, composed of bitumens which occur in
nature but are obtained artificially in refining petroleum, and which when mixed with
graded aggregates is used as paving material by placing, shaping, and compacting
while hot over a prepared base.

 COLD MIX ASPHALT OR ASPHALTIC CONCRETE– asphaltic concrete prepared

with a relatively light and slow-curing asphalt, placed over a prepared surface without
heat; hardens to a state that is less firm and durable than hot-mix asphaltic concrete.

 ASPHALTIC MACADAM –formed by grading and compacting layers of crushed

stone or gravel, then binding the top layer with asphalt to stabilize the stone, provide
a smoother surface, and seal against water penetration.

 ASPHALT OVERLAY – when one or more courses or layers of asphalt an asphalt

leveling course made of an asphalt and aggregate mixture of variable thickness to
correct the contour of existing surface, are placed on existing pavement.

Specifications:
Sub-base: Selected Borrow Base Course, ITEM 200 of Department of Public Works
and Highways (DPWH) Standard Specifications for Roads and Highways.
Base Course: Gravel, Crushed Gravel, Crushed Stone Base Course, ITEM 201
DPWH specifications.
Asphalt: Bituminous Macadam Pavement (Hot Asphalt) 2-1/4", ITEM 306 or DPWH specifications