Polarization
Rafael Costa
September 25, 2019
1 Electromagnetic Waves
Maxwell’s Equations (dielectric)
~
~ ×B
∇ ~ = µ0 ∂ D (1)
∂t
~
~ ×E
∇ ~ =− B∂
(2)
∂t
~ ~
∇·D =0 (3)
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0 (4)
Where,
~ = 0 E
D ~ + P~ = k0 E
~
is the electric displacement field, P~ is the polarization density and k is the
dielectric constant.
If we take solutions that only depend on a coordinate (z) and time, we have:
~ = Vx (z, t)x̂ + Vy (z, t)ŷ → ∇
V ~ = − ∂Vy x̂ + ∂Vx ŷ
~ ×V
∂z ∂z
So,
2 2
~ × (∇
∇ ~ ) = − ∂ Vx x̂ − ∂ Vy ŷ
~ ×V
∂z 2 ∂z 2
By equation (2) we have:
2 2
~ × (∇
∇ ~ = − ∂ Ex x̂ − ∂ Ey ŷ = − ∂ (∇
~ × E) ~ × B) ~ =
∂z 2 ∂z 2 ∂t
∂2D~ 2
∂ Ex ∂ 2 Ey
= −µ0 2 = −k0 µ0 x̂ + ŷ
∂t ∂t2 ∂t2
We know that v = √ 1 , so Ex and Ey satisfy the wave equations:
k0 µ0
∂2f 1 ∂2f
− =0
∂z 2 v 2 ∂t2
The same equations can be found for Bx and By .
1
2 Real and Complex Poynting Vector
Inside a dielectric the densityof electrict energy increases by a factor of k. The
total density of eletromagnetic energy is given by:
~ 2 ~ 2 ~ 2
U=
1 ~ 2 + 1 |B| = 1 |D| + 1 |B|
k0 |E| (5)
2 2 µ0 2 k0 2 µ0
Using Maxwell’s equations:
∂U D~ ∂D~ ~ ∂B
B ~ ~
E ~
= · + · = · (∇ ~ − B · (∇
~ × B) ~ × E)
~ =
∂t k0 ∂t µ0 ∂t µ0 µ0
~ ~
~ · E×B
−∇
µ0
Where,
~= 1E
S ~ ×B
~
µ0
is the Real Poynting Vector, that represents the directional energy flux. We can
write the energy conservation law locally as:
~ + ∂U = 0
~ ·S
∇
∂t
For a solution of Maxwell’s equation; a plane wave propagating in the z
direction:
~ = Ex (z − vt)x̂ ; B
E ~ = By (z − vt)ŷ
From Maxwell’s equations:
n2 v E0
∂By ∂Ex
(1) − = −By0 = µ0 k0 = −(kv/c2 )Ex0 = − 2 Ex0 = − x
∂z ∂t c v
∂Ex ∂By 1
(2) = Ex0 = − = vBy0 → By = Ex
∂z ∂t v
that is,
~ = 1 ẑ × E
B ~ ; v= c
v n
For a monochromatic plane wave that propagates in one direction û (any):
~ = 1 û × E
~ = k0 µ0 û × E
~
p
B (6)
v
What gives us:
~ 2
|B| 1
UM = ~ 2 = UE
= k0 |E|
2µ0 2
This result tells us that in a monochromatic plane wave the densities of
electric and magnetic energy are equal.
2
~
Rewriting S:
s
~ 2
k0 |E|
~= 1 E
S ~ × (û × E)
~ = k0 ~ 2
|E| û = √ û
vµ0 µ0 k0 µ0
~ = vU û
S
This result is analogous to J~ = ρ~v ; S
~ is the density of the flux of energy, U
is the density of energy that propagates with velocity ~v = vû.
2.1 Complex Notation
~ r, t) = Re[E(~
E(~ ~ r)e−iωt ]
(7)
~ r, t) = Re[B(~
B(~ ~ r)e−iωt ]
Let ”a” and ”b” be two time-independent complex numbers and < f (t) >
the time average of f (t) over n periods.
< Re(ae−iωt )Re(be−iωt ) >
Z t0 +nT
1 2π
< f (t) >≡ f (t)dt ; T ≡
nT t0 ω
So, we have:
1 ∗ iωt 1 1
Re(ae−iωt )Re(be−iωt ) = (a e +ae−iωt )· (b∗ eiωt +b−iωt ) = (a∗ b+ab∗ +a∗ b∗ e2iωt +abe−2iωt )
2 2 4
But,
±4inπ
!
Z t0 +nT ±2iωt0
z }| {
1 e ±2iωT
< e±2iωt >= e±2iωt dt = e −1 =0
nT t0 e±2iω
So,
1 ∗ 1
< Re(ae−iωt )Re(be−iωt ) >= (a b + ab∗ ) = Re(a∗ b)
4 2
In particular for (7):
1 ~ 2
< UE (~r, t) >= k0 |E|
4
1 ~ 2 (8)
< UM (~r, t) >= |B|
4µ0
And for the Poynting vector:
1 ~
~
< S >= E × B = Re(S~+ )
~
µ0
3
Where S~+ is the Complex Poynting Vector, defined as:
1 ~
S~+ = E × B~∗
2µ0 v
For a monochromatic plane wave that propagates in an arbitrary direction û:
s
1 1 k0 ~ 2 ~ >= v k0 |E|
S~+ = ~ × (û × E~∗ ) =
E |E| û → < S ~ 2 û
2µ0 2 µ0 2
3 Polarization
A general plane wave propagating in the z direction has the following form:
Ex = f (z − vt) ; Ey = g(z − vt)
~ = 1 ẑ × (Ex x̂ + Ey ŷ) = 1 (−Ey x̂ + Ex ŷ)
B
v v
So,
1 1
Bx = − g(z − vt) ; By = f (z − vt)
v v
The time dependence has the form e−iωt ; as z −vt = −v(t−z/v) the dependence
on z has the form eikz .
Where,
ω ω
k = = n = nk0
v c
k0 is the reduced wave number (vacuum). Soon, the more general monochro-
matic plane wave that propagates in the direction û ≡ ẑ is:
Ex = aeiδx · ei(kz−ωt) = vBy
(9)
Ey = beiδy · ei(kz−ωt) = −vBx
Where ”a” and ”b” are the real amplitudes of transversal components; ”δx ” and
”δy ” are the phase constants.
By properly choosing the origin of z or t we can do δx = 0. Changing to real
notation and defining δ ≡ δy − δx :
Ex = acosφ
Ey = bcos(φ + δ) (10)
φ = kz − vt
~ varies with time (φ = −ωt). By (10)
If we take a plane parallel to z=0; E
we see that |Ex | ≤ a and |Ey | ≤ b. Therefore, the curve described is contained
in a rectangle of sides 2a and 2b. To determine the curve we eliminate φ from
(10):
Ey
= cos(φ + δ) = cosφcosδ − sinφsinδ
b
4
s 2
Ex Ex
= cosφ sinφ = ± 1 −
a a
Subtraindo a de cima da de baixo:
s 2
Ey Ex Ex
− cosδ = ± 1− sinδ
b a a
2 2 2
Ey Ey Ex Ex 2 2 Ex
−2 cosδ + cos δ = sin δ 1 −
b b a a a
(
2 2
Ey Ey Ex Ex
→ −2 cosδ + = sin2 δ
b b a a
We note that this is the equation of an ellipse that can degenerate into a line
or circumference. (Ellipse shape depends on δ).
3.1 Linear Polarization
δ = nπ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, ...)
2 2
Ey n+1 Ey Ex Ex
+ 2(−1) · + =0
b b a a
We will have two cases, ”n” even or ”n” odd. For ”n” even:
2
Ey Ex Ey b
− =0→ =
b a Ex a
and for ”n” odd: 2
Ey Ex Ey b
+ =0→ =−
b a Ex a
Both are equations of straight lines on a plane parallel to z=0.
3.2 Circular Polarization
π
a=b ; δ = nπ + (n = 0, ±1, ±2, ...)
2
Ex = a cos φ Ey = b cos(φ + nπ + π/2) = (−1)n+1 · a sin φ (11)
φ = −ωt
Ex = a cos(ωt) ; Ey = (−1)n a sin(ωt)
5
~ can
The difference between ”n” even or ”n” odd is in the direction of travel. E
be represented on the complex plane by: Ex + iEy .
If ”n” even (the direction is counterclockwise):
Ex + iEy = aeiωt
and if ”n” odd (direction clockwise):
Ex + iEy = ae−iωt
We can rewrite (11):
Ex = aeiφ Ey = aei(φ+nπ+π/2) = iaeinπ eiφ = (−1)n iaeiφ
So that:
~ = Ex x̂ + Ey ŷ = aeiφ (x̂ ± iŷ)
E (12)
(+ if ”n” even ; - if ”n” odd)
φ ≡ kz − ωt
We define two vectors:
1 1
ˆ+ = √ (x̂ + iŷ) ; ˆ− = √ (x̂ − iŷ)
2 2
So,
~ + = aeiφ ˆ+ → polarized light on the left
E
~ − = aeiφ ˆ− → polarized light on the right
E
We can rewrite the unit vectors as:
1 −i
x̂ = √ (ˆ+ + ˆ− ) ; ŷ = √ (ˆ
+ − ˆ− )
2 2
So, the equation (12) can be rewrite:
~ = √1 (Ex − iEy )ˆ
E
1
+ + √ (Ex + iEy )ˆ
− (13)
2 2
This result shows us that any arbitrary monochromatic plane wave can be
represented as the superposition of a wave circularly polarized on the right with
another wave circularly polarized on the left.
