STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENT
PREPARED BY: ENGR. NESLYN E. LOPEZ
1
INTRODUCTION
2
STREAMFLOW
Represented as the runoff
phase of the hydrological cycle
is the most important basic
data for hydrological studies.
It is the only part of the
hydrologic cycle that can be
measured accurately.
It is measured in the units of
discharge (cum/s).
3
STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENT
Streamflow techniques can be broadly classified into two categories:
1. DIRECT DETERMINATION
(a) Area-velocity methods (b) Dilution Technique
(c) Electromagnetic method. (d) Ultrasonic method
2. INDIRECT DETERMINATION
(a) Hydraulic structures, such as weirs, flumes and gated structures
(b) Slope-area method
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MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
The stage of the water is defined as its water-surface elevation
measured above a datum.
The datum can be the mean-sea level (MSL) or any arbitrary
datum connected independently to MSL.
MANUAL GAUGES, AUTOMATIC STAGE RECORDERS & STAGE
DATA
5
MANUAL GAUGES:
STAFF GAUGE
The simplest of stage measurements are made by notting
the elevation of the water surface in contact with a fixed
graduated staff.
The staff is made of a durable material with low coefficient
of expansion with respect to both temperature and moisture.
It is fixed rigidly to a structure, such as an abutment, pier,
wall, etc.
Sectional gauge - the gauge is built in sections to different
locations to read the entire range of water-surface elevations
of a stream
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MANUAL GAUGES:
STAFF GAUGE
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MANUAL GAUGES:
WIRE GAUGE
It is a gauge used to measure the water-
surface elevation from above the surface
such as from a bridge or similar structure.
A weight is lowered by a reel to touch the
water surface.
A mechanical counter measures the
rotation of the wheel which is proportional
to the length of the wire paid out.
The operating range of this kind of gauge is
about 25 m.
8
AUTOMATIC STAGE RECORDERS:
FLOAT-GAUGE RECORDER
It is the most common type of automatic stage
recorder in use.
A float operating in stilling wells balanced by means of
a counterweight over the pulley of a recorder.
Displacement of the float due to rising or lowering of
the water-surface elevation causes the angular
displacement of the pulley and hence of the input shaft
of the recorder .
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AUTOMATIC STAGE RECORDERS:
FLOAT-GAUGE RECORDER
Mechanical linkages convert this angular displacement to
the linear displacement of a pen to record over a drum
driven by clockwork.
The pen traverse is continuous with automatic reversing
when it reaches the full width of the chart.
A clockwork mechanism runs the recorder for a day, week or
fortnight and provides a continuous plot of stage vs time.
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AUTOMATIC STAGE RECORDERS:
FLOAT-GAUGE RECORDER
The intake pipes that communicate with the
river and flushing arrangement to flush
these intake pipes off the sediment and
debris occasionally.
The water-stage recorder has to be located
above the highest water level expected in the
stream to prevent it from getting inundated
during floods.
Water depth recorder Water depth recorder is found to be more
expensive.
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AUTOMATIC STAGE RECORDERS:
BUBBLE GAUGE
Compressed air or gas is
made to bleed out a very
small rate through an
outlet placed at the
bottom of the river.
A pressure gauge
measures the gas
pressure which in turn is
equal to the water
column above the outlet.
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AUTOMATIC STAGE RECORDERS:
BUBBLE GAUGE
A small change in the water-
surface elevation is felt a
change in pressure from the
present value at the pressure
gauge and this in turn is
adjusted by a
servomechanism to bring the
gas to bleed at the original
rate under the new head.
The pressure gauge reads the
new water depth which is
transmitted to a recorder.
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AUTOMATIC STAGE RECORDERS:
BUBBLE GAUGE
Advantages:
1. There is no need for costly stilling wells
2. A large chance in the stage, as much as 30cm, can be measured
3. The recorder assembly can be quite far away from the sensing
point
4. Due to constant bleeding action there is less likelihood of the
inlet getting blocked or chocked
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STAGE DATA
It is often presented in the form of a plot stage against chronological time known
as stage hydrograph.
In addition to its use in the determination of stream discharge, a stage data itself
is of importance in design of hydraulic structures, flood-warning and flood-
protection works.
15
STAGE DATA
Reliable long-term stage
data corresponding to
peak flood can be
analyzed statistically to
estimate the design peak
rive stages for use in the
design of hydraulic
structures such as
bridges, weirs, etc.
16
MEASUREMENT OF
VELOCITY
Current Meters, Calibration, Field Use, Sounding Weights &
Velocity Measurement by Floats
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MEASUREMENT OF
VELOCITY
Current meter - a mechanical device consisting
essentially of a rotating element is probably the most
common used instrument for accurate determination
of the stream-velocity field.
Approximate stream velocity can be determined by
floats.
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
CURRENT METERS
It consists essentially of a rotating element which rotates due to the
reaction of the stream current with an angular velocity proportional to
the stream velocity.
Robert Hooke (1963) invented a propeller-type current meter to
measure distance traversed by a ship.
The present-day cup-type instrument and the electric make-and-
break mechanism were invented by Henry (1868).
Main types of current meter:
1. Vertical-axis meter
2. Horizontal-axis meter
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
CURRENT METERS
VERTICAL-AXIS METERS
- It consists a series of conical
cups mounted around vertical
axis.
- The cups rotate in a
horizontal plane and a cam
attached to the vertical axis
spindle records generated
signal proportional to the
revolutions of the cup
assembly.
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
CURRENT METERS
VERTICAL-AXIS METERS
- Typical Instruments:
Price Current Meter Gurley Current Meter
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
CURRENT METERS
VERTICAL-AXIS METERS
- The normal range of velocities is from 0.15 to 4.0 m/s.
- The accuracy of these instruments is about 1.50% at the threshold
value and improves to about 0.30% at speeds in excess of 1.0 m/s.
-Disadvantage: it cannot be used in situ actions where there are
appreciable vertical components of velocities. (Example the
instrument shows a positive velocity hen it is lifted vertically in still
water)
22
MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
CURRENT METERS
HORIZONTAL-AXIS METERS
- It consist of a propeller mounted at the end of horizontal
shaft.
- It has a wide variety of size with propeller diameters in the
range 6 to 12 cm, and can register velocities in the range of
0.15 to 4.0 m/s.
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
CURRENT METERS
HORIZONTAL-AXIS METERS
- Typical Instruments:
Ott-type current meter
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
CURRENT METERS
HORIZONTAL-AXIS METERS
- Fairly rugged and are not affected by oblique flows
of as much of 15.
- The accuracy of these instruments is about 1% at the
threshold value and is about 0.25% at a velocity of
0.30 m/s and above.
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
CURRENT METERS
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
CURRENT METERS
Smaller meters of 5 cm diameter cup assembly called Pigmy meters
run faster and are useful in measuring small velocities.
The values of the meter constants for them are the order of.
Further, each instrument has a threshold velocity below which Eq.4.1
is not applicable.
The instruments have a provision to count the number of revolutions
in a known interval of time.
The revolutions per second is calculated by counting the number of
each signals in a known interval time, usually about 100 s.
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
CALIBRATION
The relation between the stream velocity and revolutions per
second of the meter as in Eq.4.1 is called the calibration
equation.
Calibration equation is unique to each instrument and is
determined by towing the instrument in a special tank.
A towing tank is a long channel containing still water with
arrangements for moving a carriage longitudinally over its
surface at a constant speed.
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
CALIBRATION
The instrumented to be calibrated is mounted on the carriage with the
rotating element immersed to a specified depth in the water body in
the tank.
The carriage is then towed at a predetermined constant speed and the
corresponding average value of revolutions per second of the
instruments determined.
This experiment is repeated over the complete range of velocities and
a best-fit linear relation in the form of Eq.4.1 obtained.
The instruments are designed for rugged use and hence the
calibration once done lasts for quite sometime.
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
FIELD USE
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
FIELD USE
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
FIELD USE
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
FIELD USE
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
FIELD USE
In small streams of shallow
depth the current meter is held
at the requisite depth below the
surface in a vertical by an
observer who stands in the
water. The arrangement, called
wading is quite fast but is
obviously applicable only to
small streams.
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
FIELD USE
In rivers flowing in narrow
gorges in well-defined channels
a cableway is stretched from
bank to bank well above the
flood level. A carriage moving
over the cableway is used as the
observation platform.
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
FIELD USE
Bridges, while hydraulically not the best
locations, are advantageous from the pint
of view of accessibility and transportation.
Hence, railway and road bridges are
frequently employed as gauging stations.
The velocity measurement is performed
downstream portion of the bridge to
minimize the instrument damage due to
drift and knock against the bridge piers
36
MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
FIELD USE
For wide rivers, boats are the
most satisfactory aids in current
meter measurement. A cross-
sectional line is marked by
distinctive land markings and
buoys. The position of the boat is
determined by using two
theodolites on the bank through
an intersection method. Use of
total station simplifies the work
considerably.
37
MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
SOUNDING WEIGHTS
Current meters are weighted down by lead weights called sounding
weights to enable them to be positioned in a stable manner at the
required location in flowing water.
These weights are of streamlined shape with a fin in the rear and are
connected to the current meter by a hangar bar and pin assembly.
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
SOUNDING WEIGHTS
39
MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
VELOCITY MEASUREMENT BY FLOATS
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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
VELOCITY MEASUREMENT BY FLOATS
This method of measuring velocities while primitive still
finds applications in special circumstances, such as:
1. A small stream in flood
2. Small stream with rapidly changing water surface
3. Preliminary or exploratory surveys
41
MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
VELOCITY MEASUREMENT BY FLOATS
A simple float moving on stream surface is called
surface floats.
Rod floats which are cylindrical rod is weighed so that
it can float vertically.
42
AREA-VELOCITY METHOD
Calculation of Discharge & Moving Boat Method
43
AREA-VELOCITY METHOD
This method of discharge measurement consists essentially
of measuring the area of cross-section of the rives at selected
section called the gauging site and measuring the velocity of
flow through cross-sectional area.
The gauging site must be selected with care to assure that
the stage-discharge curve is reasonably constant over a long
period of about few years.
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AREA-VELOCITY METHOD
Towards this the following criteria are adopted.
The stream should have a well-defined cross-section
which does not change in various seasons
It should be easily accessible all throughout the year
The site should be in a straight, stable reach
The gauging site should be free from backwater effects in
the channel.
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AREA-VELOCITY METHOD
At the selected site the section line is
marked off the permanent survey
markings and the cross-section
determined.
Towards this depth at various locations
are measured by sounding rods or
sounding weights.
46
AREA-VELOCITY METHOD
When the stream depth is large or
when quick and accurate depth
measurement are needed, an
electroacoustic instrument called
echo-depth recorder is used.
In this a high frequency sound
wave is sent down by a transducer
kept immersed at the water surface
and the echo reflected by the bed is
also picked up by the same
transducer.
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AREA-VELOCITY METHOD
By comparing the same
interval between the
transmission of the signal
and the receipt of its echo,
the distance to the bed is
obtained and is indicated or
recorded in the instrument.
Echo-depth recorders are
particularly advantageous in
high-velocity streams, deep
streams and in streams with
48 soft or mobile beds.
AREA-VELOCITY METHOD
For purposes of discharge
estimation, the cross-section is
considered to be divided into a
large number of subsections in
vertical.
The average velocity in these
sections subsections are measured
by current meters or floats.
The accuracy of the discharge
estimation is increases with the
49 number of subsections.
AREA-VELOCITY METHOD
Guidelines to select the number of segment.
The segment width should not be greater than 1/15 to 1/20mof the
width of the river.
The discharge in each segment should be less than 10% of the total
discharge.
The difference of velocities in adjacent segments should not be
more than 20%.
• Note: In natural rivers the verticals of the velocity measurement is
not necessarily equally spaced.
• The area-velocity method as above using current meter is often called
as the standard current meter method.
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AREA-VELOCITY METHOD:
CALCULATION OF DISCHARGE
Stream Section for Area-velocity Method
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AREA-VELOCITY METHOD:
CALCULATION OF DISCHARGE
Eq.4.9
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AREA-VELOCITY METHOD:
CALCULATION OF DISCHARGE
53
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
CALCULATION OF DISCHARGE
Distance from the left
0 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 12.0
of water edge (m)
Depth (m) 0 1.1 2.0 2.5 2.0 1.7 1.0 0
Revolutions of a
current meter kept at 0 39 58 112 90 45 30 0
0.6 depth
Duration of
0 100 100 150 150 100 100 0
observations (s)
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SOLUTION:
CALCULATION OF DISCHARGE
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SOLUTION:
CALCULATION OF DISCHARGE
The calculation of discharge by the mid-section method is shown in tabular form below:
Distance from
the left water Depth y (m)
edge (m)
0 0 0 0.0000
1 2 1.10 0.390 0.2289 0.5036
3 2 2.00 0.580 0.3258 1.3032
5 2 2.50 0.747 0.4110 2.0549
7 2 2.00 0.600 0.3360 1.3440
9 2 1.70 0.450 0.2595 0.8823
11 2 1.00 0.300 0.1830 0.3660
12 0 0.00 0.0000
SUM = 6.4593
Discharge in the stream = 6.4593 m3/s 56
AREA-VELOCITY METHOD:
MOVING BOAT METHOD
• Discharge measurement of large alluvial rivers, such as the Ganga, by
the standard current meter method is very time consuming even
when the flow is low or moderate.
• When the river is in spate, it is almost impossible to us the standard
current meter technique due to the difficulty of keeping the boat
stationary on the fast-moving surface of the stream for observation
purposes.
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AREA-VELOCITY METHOD:
MOVING BOAT METHOD
58
AREA-VELOCITY METHOD:
MOVING BOAT METHOD
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AREA-VELOCITY METHOD:
MOVING BOAT METHOD
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AREA-VELOCITY METHOD:
MOVING BOAT METHOD
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AREA-VELOCITY METHOD:
MOVING BOAT METHOD
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