GEOLOGY

It is the natural science that studies both the internal and superficial composition and structure of

planet Earth, and the processes by which it has evolved throughout geological time.

It offers essential testimonies to understand plate tectonics, the history of life through paleontology,

and how it evolved, in addition to past climates. At present, geology is of fundamental importance

in the exploration of mineral deposits (mining) and hydrocarbons (oil and natural gas), and the

evaluation of underground water resources (hydrogeology). It also has fundamental importance in

the prevention and understanding of natural phenomena such as mass removal in general,

earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, among others.

It provides key knowledge in solving environmental pollution problems, and provides information

on past climate changes. It also plays an important role in geotechnics and civil engineering.

Geology includes branches such as geophysics, tectonics, structural geology, stratigraphy, historical

geology, hydrology, meteorology, geomorphology, oceanography and edaphology.

As a science of the Earth, it shares a common trunk with many disciplines that have been managed

from it, or shared field, such as paleontology, volcanology, seismology or geomorphology and

therefore, part of its history is common with those and some branches more of science

The study of geology is generally divided into two parts:

 Historical Geology: it is the branch of geology that studies the

transformations that the Earth has undergone since its formation, some

4570 million years ago, to the present. This number of changes has been

recorded since its consolidation, which are studied through paleontology

(fossils) and stratigraphy (sedimentary rocks).

 1. Stratigraphy: It deals with the study and interpretation of stratified

sedimentary, metamorphic and volcanic rocks, and the identification,

description, sequence, both vertical and horizontal, mapping and

correlation of stratified rock units

2. Paleontology: interprets the past of life on Earth through fossils. It is

part of the natural sciences, it has its own body of doctrine and

shares fundamentals and methods with the geology and biology with

which it is closely integrated. It is subdivided into paleo biology,

taphonomy and biochronology, and provides necessary information to

other disciplines (study of the evolution of living beings,

biostratigraphy, paleogeography or paleoclimatology, among others),

 Physical Geology: Study the materials that make up the earth and seek to

understand the different processes that act below and above the earth's

surface logically precedes the study of the history of the Earth, because,

before trying to reveal its past, we must first understand how the Earth

works.
 1. NUCLEO: It is the central part of the earth formed by metals, mainly iron and

nickel. These metals are at high temperatures and pressures.

2. MANTO: It is formed by solids and has an approximate thickness of 2,900

kilometers. It constitutes most of the volume of the Earth (more than 80%) and

slightly less than 70% of its total mass. It is mainly composed of magnesium

silicate, sodium silicate and iron silicate

3. THE ASTENOSPHERE: It is the major division of the planet Earth that is

made up of viscous material, susceptible to deformation much more easily and that

would be the seat of movements of important material, this is on the mantle.

4. THE LITHOSPHERE: it is the outer layer of the Earth and is formed by solid

materials, it includes the continental crust, between 20 and 70 km. thick, and the

oceanic crust or surface part of the consolidated mantle, about 10 km thick

5. BARK: It is composed of silicates such as quartz and feldspar. It has an average

thickness of about 40 kilometers but varies from a minimum of about 5 kilometers

in the ocean floor to a maximum of up to 100 kilometers in the great mountain

ranges.

6. THE LAND BARK: It is divided into irregular portions called plates that move

on the surface of the mantle. Their movements give rise to migration or drift from

the continents.

Branches of geological engineering:

  Crystallography: it is the science that studies crystals. Most minerals, organic

compounds and numerous materials, adopt crystalline structures when favorable conditions

have occurred. Crystallography includes the study of the growth and geometry of these

crystals, the structure of the constituent particles of the crystal, and their chemical

composition. Structure studies rely heavily on the analysis of diffraction patterns that arise

from a crystalline sample by irradiating it with an X-ray beam, neutrons or electrons

 THE SEDIMENTOGEOLOGY: Study the deposits that are formed on the surface of

the earth and at the bottom of the sea since parts of them depend on the physical and

chemical actions present in the transition of the rock - atmosphere, or rock - water these

processes are called exogenous.

 Objectives of sedimentology:

 The economic interest, especially salt, coal, gravels, sand and countless metal deposits with

sedimentary origin

 It is the key science in understanding the environment - especially the manifestation of

pollution in rivers and oceans.

 Geotechnics - especially soil stability is today an extremely important field in the face of

any civil works. The high technical complexity of many works.

 Geological risks are frequently associated with sedimentary processes. Floods and erosion

by torrential waters in natural or channeled rivers are phenomena of greater importance.

 Groundwater: The behavior of groundwater layers coincides mainly with some sediment

logical parameters. Today, not only does abundance matter, but also the quality of that

natural resource.
 Geomorphology: It focuses on the study of the shapes of the relief, but

since these are the result of lithospheric dynamics that in general

integrates, as inputs, knowledge of other branches of physical

geography, such as climatology, hydrography, pedology, glaciology, and

other sciences, to cover the incidence of biological, geological and

anthropic phenomena, in the relief. Geomorphology is a science related

both to human geography (because of natural hazards and the average

man relationship) and to mathematical geography (because of

topography)

 Climatic geomorphology: it represents different speeds in the

evolution of the cycle, as is the case of arid climates with slower

evolutionary rhythm and very humid climates with higher

evolutionary rhythms, as well as climate represents the predominant

type of modeling; glacial, wind, river, etc. This knowledge is

synthesized in what is called "morphoclimatic domains.

 River Geomorphology: it is the specialized branch of

geomorphology that is responsible for the study of geographical

accidents, shapes and reliefs caused by river dynamics. This subfield

usually overlaps with the hydrography field.

  Slope geomorphology: it is one that studies the phenomena

produced on the slopes of the mountains, as well as studies mass

movements, slope stabilization, etc. It is related to the study of

natural risks.

 Wind Geomorphology: is the one in charge of studying the

processes and forms of wind origin, especially in the morphoclimatic

domains where wind action is predominant, for example in coastal

areas, hot and cold deserts, and polar areas .

 Glacier geomorphology: is responsible for studying the

formations and processes of geographical accidents, forms and

glacial and periglacial reliefs. This branch is intimately linked with

glaciology.

 Structural Geomorphology; prioritizes the influence of geological

structures in the development of the relief. This discipline is very

relevant in areas of marked geological activity where, for example,

failures and folds predetermine the existence of summits or creeks,

or the existence of bays and capes is explained by the differential

erosion of more or less resistant rock outcrops. This branch is closely

related to geology.

 Geophysics: study the Earth from the point of view of physics. Its object

of study covers all phenomena related to the structure, physical

 conditions and evolutionary history of the Earth. Being a mainly

experimental discipline, it uses physical quantitative methods for its

study, such as the physics of reflection and refraction of mechanical

waves, and a series of methods based on the measurement of gravity,

electromagnetic, magnetic or electric fields and radioactive phenomena.

In some cases these methods take advantage of natural fields or

phenomena (gravity, earth magnetism, tides, earthquakes, tsunamis,

etc.) and in others they are induced by man (electric fields and seismic

phenomena)

 Tectonics: Study the geological structures produced by deformation of the

earth's crust, which the rocks acquire after they have formed, as well as

the processes that originate them.

The mechanics and dynamics of the lithosphere are analyzed, to explain

the deformations (folds and faults) and structural formations such as

tectonic plates. Study the mega deformations at cortical levels in

continental and oceanic environments to understand the formation of

the Earth and how it constantly evolves. The study of tectonics is

diversified in other areas of science such as paleomagnetism,

seismology or the internal thermodynamics of the Earth.

The structures of the rock formations are of two kinds

1. Original structures: They are the structures that are formed at the same time as the rock,

by the same petrogenetic processes that form the rocks. For example, in sedimentary rocks

the typical original structure is in the form of strata

 2. Deformed structures: These are structures altered by the natural application of directed

forces (forces) on pre-existing rock formations. The corresponding deformations alter the

previous arrangement of the materials, which could in turn be an original type structure or

be already the result of some previous deformation.

 Mineralogy: studies the physical and chemical properties of the minerals found on the

planet in their different states of aggregation. A mineral is an inorganic solid of natural

origin, which has a defined chemical composition. Minerals provide the human being with

the essential chemical elements for their industrial activities.

The study of minerals can be divided into six large groups:

General mineralogy: study the structure, crystallography, and properties of minerals.

Determining mineralogy: applies the physicochemical and structural properties to the

determination of mineral species.

Mineralogenesis: studies the conditions of mineral formation, how the deposits in nature

and exploitation techniques are presented.

Descriptive mineralogy: studies minerals and systematically classifies them according to

their structure and composition.

Economic mineralogy: develops the applications of mineral matter; as its economic,

industrial, gemological, etc. utility.

Topographic mineralogy: studies the mineral deposits of a given region or country,

describing the species present and also the cultural and historical events associated with

them and their exploitation.

 Volcanology: study volcanism and all its manifestations, such as volcanoes, geysers,

fumaroles, volcanic eruptions, magmas, lavas, tephras, etc. A major research path is the

prediction of eruptions; There is currently no way to make these predictions, but

forecasting volcanic eruptions, as well as predicting earthquakes, can save many lives.

The main objective of this science is to understand the origin and functioning of volcanoes

and assimilated phenomena to establish a diagnosis (for a defined period) on the risks and

dangers incurred by populations and human activities. The studies and investigations are

initially carried out in the field to collect information in the form of observations,

measurements and samples and, for the second time, in the laboratory to analyze and

interpret the data and samples.

 Geomology: is dedicated to the study, identification, analysis and evaluation of precious

stones or gems, the central task of this branch is to make available rigorous methods and

procedures that allow to distinguish natural gems from their imitations and synthetic

versions.

There are different instruments and devices whose physical properties are:

*beauty
 *Durability

*Rarity, oddity, peculiarity, strangeness, oddness, scarcity

There are two types of geomology that are:

* Classic Gemology

* Gemology, law and economics

 Seismology: It is responsible for the study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic

(seismic) waves that are generated in the interior and the surface of the Earth, as well as

tectonic plates. Studying the propagation of seismic waves includes the determination of

the hypocenter (or focus), the location of the earthquake and how long it lasted. A

phenomenon that is also of interest is the process of breaking rocks, since this is the cause

of the release of seismic waves.

Its main objectives are:

 The study of the propagation of seismic waves through the interior of the Earth in

order to know its internal structure;

 The study of the causes that give rise to tremors;

 Seismic damage prevention;

 Alert society about possible damage in the given region.

There are 3 types of seismic waves.

The P and L waves: They are the producers of Tsunamis) propagate across the globe,

and the first, longitudinal and understanding-decompression, do so in all media.

The S waves: Transverse to the direction in which they propagate, are only

transmitted in solid media.

 Paleontology: Study and interpret the past of life on Earth through fossils.1 It is framed

within the natural sciences, has its own body of doctrine and shares fundamentals and

methods with the geology and biology with which it integrates closely. It allows us to

understand the current composition (biodiversity) and distribution of living beings on Earth

(biogeography) —before human intervention—, has provided indispensable evidence for

the solution of two of the greatest scientific controversies of the last century, the evolution

of living beings and the drift of the continents, and, in the face of our future, it offers tools

for the analysis of how climatic changes can affect the entire biosphere.

Paleontological principles:

 Biological actualism: beings from the past were governed by the same physical and

biological laws, and had the same needs as the current ones. It allows this principle,

for example, to affirm that the Silurian fish had gills, because the current fish have
 them (although they are not the same); and that dinosaurs laid eggs, such as

crocodiles, which has subsequently been corroborated by finding egg fossils, and

nests, preserved in some fields.

 Compared anatomy: It allows placing extinct organisms in their proper place in the

general picture of living beings, thus obtaining the point of necessary reference to be

able to apply the principle of organic correlation. Although fossils only provide us

with a small anatomical part of an extinct taxon, the comparative anatomy allows us

to infer and complete certain anatomical or physiological characteristics absent from

them.

 Principle of organic correlation: Postulated by Cuvier. Each organic being forms a

set whose parts complement each other, determining all others and therefore can be

recognized by any fragment, ultimately a piece of bone is sufficient to identify it.

 IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
In civil engineering, he faces a wide variety of problems, in which knowledge of geology is

necessary. You will undoubtedly learn more geology in the field and in practice than what you can

teach in classrooms or in a school's laboratory. But this learning will be easier and faster and its

application more effective, if the basic principles of geology have been included in its engineering

courses. Some specific advantages that some of them will develop with more pause through work

deserve special mention.

This science is of great importance in civil engineering since it is responsible for the study of rocks,

soils and other materials of nature and that are used for the construction of any magnitude and this

is resistant.

 Soil mechanics: In engineering, soil mechanics is the application of the laws of physics

and natural sciences to the problems that involve the charges imposed on the surface layer

of the earth's crust.

It is responsible for studying the forces or loads that are established on the earth's surface

and their behavior to determine the material applied and the soil used in the landfill.
Soil mechanics studies the behavior and physical properties of the soil when external

forces and agents act in the soil mass.

The importance of Soil Mechanics studies lies in the fact that if the limits of the resistant

capacity of the soil are exceeded or if, even without reaching them, the deformations are

considerable, secondary stresses can occur in the structural members , perhaps not taken

into consideration in the design, producing in turn important deformations, cracks, cracks,

warping or collapses that can produce, in extreme cases, the collapse of the work or its

uselessness and abandonment

Types of soils:

* Sandy soils: They do not retain water, have very little organic matter and are

not suitable for agriculture.

* Limestone soils: They have an abundance of calcareous salts, are white, dry

and arid, and are not good for agriculture.

* Silty soils: retain water for longer, as well as nutrients. Its color is dark brown,

silts are composed of a mixture of fine sand and clay

* Humiferous or black earth soils: They have abundant organic matter in

decomposition, dark in color, retain water well and are excellent for cultivation.

* Clay soils: They are formed by fine grains of yellowish color and retain water

forming puddles. If they are mixed with humus, which is the substance composed

of certain organic products, they can be good for cultivation.

* Stony soils: Formed by rocks of all sizes, they do not retain water and are not

good for cultivation.

 * Peat soils: its ability to retain water in the dry months and its ability to protect

the roots from low temperatures in winter.

* Saline soils: accumulate soluble salts in the root zone. They are usually

recognized by the cultivation of weak and stunted plants and by the presence of

white salt crusts on the surface.

 Rock mechanics:

 Rock mechanics is responsible for the theoretical and practical study of the properties

and mechanical behavior or rock materials, and their response to the action of forces

applied in their physical environment.

  The purpose of the mechanics of Rocks is to know and predict the behavior of rock

materials the performance of internal and external forces that are exerted on them.

 Rock Mechanics is responsible for the theoretical and practical study of the properties

and mechanical behavior of rock materials, and their response to the action of forces

applied in their physical environment.

 The purpose of Rock Mechanics is to know and predict the behavior of rock materials

before the action of internal and external forces exerted on them.

Rock mechanics application

The different fields of application of rock mechanics are grouped into:

1) When the rocky material constitutes the structure (excavations of tunnels, slopes, etc.).

2) When the rock is the support of other structures (building foundations, dams, etc.).

3) When rocks are used as building material (embankments, gabions, fillings, etc.).

 Seismology: It is the science that studies earthquakes or earthquakes. It implies the

observation of the natural vibrations of the terrain and of the seismic signals generated

artificially, with many theoretical and practical ramifications. As a branch of geophysics,

seismology has made essential contributions to the understanding of plate tectonics, the

structure of the Earth's interior, earthquake prediction and is a valuable technique in the

search for minerals.

1) The investigation of the causes and modalities of the seismic phenomena oriented

towards their possible forecast and control in order to limit the serious damages and the

number of victims they produce.

 2) The study of the propagation of seismic waves inside the Earth, in order to know the

structure of our planet.

 HYDROLOGY: Hydrology is the science that studies water and its manifestations in the

atmosphere, above and below the earth's surface, also studies its properties and its natural

interrelations

The use of Hydrology in Civil Engineering is essential for the planning, design and

operation of hydraulic projects.

It is accepted that hydraulic engineering is the branch of civil engineering that deals with

the planning, design and construction of hydraulic works, with the understanding that it is

these that will fulfill the function of capturing, regulating and protecting us from water.
HYDROLOGY- IN HYDRAULIC WORKS:

Geology is used in various ways in hydraulic works among which we can

mention the following:

• Wells of uptake: They are made to extract groundwater. The wells are

large diameters (more than one meter) and shallow (rarely reach 10 and

12 meters). The wells are covered with hollow brick or concrete rings

that have holes for water to pass through.

• Underground hydroelectric power plants: Hydroelectric power plants

use the potential energy derived from the difference in dimensions

between two points, this differential pressure causes a mechanical energy

in the turbine that, through the generator, is converted into electrical

energy.
 • Dam foundation: In engineering, a barrier made of stone, concrete or

loose materials is called a dam or dam, which is usually built in a closed

or gorge over a river or stream.

• River control work: River hydraulics studies the intervention of man on

rivers, either for the adaptation to the system of use of water resources,

the reduction of risks of flood damage, or the intersection of the river

with a work of infrastructure (road, rail, pipelines, etc.).

GEOLOGY IN CIVIL WORKS:To carry out all types of works, it is

accessible to make a study of the soil of the land that will be used for these

works. Now we will see some examples where geology is applied in civil

engineering

• Perforation of Ports: One of the most specialized parts in open

excavations is the drilling of ports for the access of tunnel works, the

drilling of ports is a construction operation shared by engineers and those

of mines.

• Foundation of Bridges: As a necessary background, the great importance

of geology in the foundation of bridges should be emphasized. However

scientifically a column of a bridge is designed, the total weight of the

bridge and the loads it supports must rest on the support ground.

• The airfields: they are modern they have to be very large areas and quite

flat and without impediments to fly in the surroundings

• Roads: It is the most used for the mechanics of soils to be able to make a

road a study of soil or sub-soil has to be done.