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ÐThe Epic of Gilgamesh and the Homeric EpicsÑ

TZVI ABUSCH

Published in Melammu Symposia 2:

R. M. Whiting (ed.),
Mythology and Mythologies.
Methodological Approaches to Intercultural Influences.
Proceedings of the Second Annual Symposium of the Assyrian and
Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project. Held in Paris, France,
October 4-7, 1999 (Helsinki: The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus
Project 2001), pp. 1-6.
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 ABUSCH G ILGAMESH AND THE HOMERIC E PICS

T ZVI A BUSCH Brandeis

The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Homeric Epics

M
y purpose in this study is to relate opments and structures in the hope of pro-
a few of the results that I have ducing a provocative argument rather than
previously reached regarding the definitive results.
Epic of Gilgamesh (GE) to the Homeric I shall carry out the comparison of the
corpus. This is not an unreasonable under- Akkadian and Greek materials in two parts.
taking, for it has been suggested more than 1) First, I shall look at the Homeric materi-
once that the Iliad and the Odyssey were als to see if these works reflect some of the
influenced by the Epic of Gilgamesh. Paral- same issues and stages that I have postu-
lels and connections between the Epic of lated elsewhere for the Epic of Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh, on the one hand, and the Iliad and if they thus provide some support for
and the Odyssey, on the other, have been the ideological constructions that I have
noticed and established by a number of posited. 2) Then, I shall suggest that some
scholars. Limiting myself to classicists, I of the literary developments that I have
note particularly the work of Burkert, 1 the noted in the Epic of Gilgamesh may have
recent book by West, 2 and the earlier obser- been operative also in the construction of
vations and sustained arguments by such the Odyssey. Finally, I shall leave the
others as Beye, 3 Crane, 4 Gresseth, 5 Page, 6 reader with an unresolved question, in line
Webster, 7 and Wilson. 8 Accordingly, in this with the rabbinic dictum that “You are not
study, I shall take the connection for obliged to finish the task, but neither are
granted and try to link together larger devel- you free to neglect it.” (Pirkei Avot 2:21)

I.
First, then, to the ideological stages. 9 But significant differences in mood and tone
before examining these, I would be remiss between the Akkadian and Greek epics, and
if I did not acknowledge that there are also these affect the manner in which we experi-

1
See especially W. Burkert, The Orientalizing Revo- Classical Journal 70/4 (1975), 1-18.
6
lution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the D. Page, Folktales in Homer’s Odyssey (Cambridge,
Early Archaic Age (Cambridge, Massachusetts and Lon- Massachusetts, 1973), 51-69, esp. 59-60.
7
don, 1992). T. B. L. Webster, From Mycenae to Homer (London,
2
M. L. West, The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic 1964).
8
Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth (Oxford, 1997). J. R. Wilson, “The Gilgamesh Epic and the Iliad,”
3
C. R. Beye, “The Epic of Gilgamesh, the Bible, and Echos du Monde Classique/Classical Views 30, n. s. 5,
Homer: Some Narrative Parallels,” in Mnemai: Classical no. 1 (1986), 25-41.
9
Studies in Memory of Karl K. Hulley, ed. H. D. Evjen I have written about these stages in my essay, “The
(Scholars Press, 1984), 7-19. Development and Meaning of the Epic of Gilgamesh: An
4
G. Crane, Calypso: Backgrounds and Conventions of Interpretive Essay,” which will appear elsewhere; a popu-
the Odyssey, Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie 191 lar version has appeared as “Gilgamesh: Hero, King, God
(Frankfurt am Main, 1988). and Striving Man,” in Archaeology Odyssey, vol. 3, no.
5
G. K. Gresseth, “The Gilgamesh Epic and Homer,” The 4 (July/August 2000), 32-42, 58-59.
R.M. Whiting (ed.)
MELAMMU SYMPOSIA II (Helsinki 2001)
ISBN 951-45-9049-X 1
ABUSCH GILGAMESH AND THE HOMERIC EPICS

ence the different ideological construc- finds a meaningful context within the
tions. Thus, Homer is more pessimistic and bosom of the family, begetting children
his heroes do not resolve their conflicts who represent him in the future. In the
with the decisiveness and finality of Gilga- eleven-tablet version, he becomes a respon-
mesh: rather than going home, Achilles sible ruler who rules his community with
dies; Odysseus, for his part, must look for- wisdom and creates human cultural
ward to further journeys after his homecom- achievements that outlast his own reign and
ing. are passed down to future generations. In
As a literary form, the epic draws upon the twelve-tablet version, he readies him-
and grows out of songs of lament and songs self to become a normal god who judges
of praise. But the grand epics like Gilga- dead human beings for eternity.
mesh or the Iliad, whether oral or written, The struggles between the desires of the
introduce a note of tragedy; they view her- warrior and those of the normal man (Old
oism not from the perspective of the battle, Babylonian version) seem to find their par-
as if it were now taking place, but from a allel in the Iliad. That work is less about the
time after the war, and they explore the Trojan War and more about Achilles. Achil-
inevitable conflict that the new circumstan- les stands apart from his social and literary
ces call forth. Thus, the epic is often a medi- environment, and the work describes his
tation upon and an exploration of the inevi- emotional journey. It is thought that his
table conflict between, on the one hand, the story forms a discrete and late strand in the
forces represented by the absolute commit- evolution of the Iliad. It has been noticed
ment by the powerful and heroic male to that Near Eastern themes and influences are
energy and battle and, on the other, the particularly evident in the Achilles story
forces that represent newly emerging social and that a significant number of parallels
structures and value systems. exist between Achilles and Gilgamesh. Ac-
Gilgamesh is an epic hero, and in his epic cordingly, it has been suggested that the
we find a constant conflict between the he- Epic of Gilgamesh had a part in the forma-
roic values that the warrior Gilgamesh rep- tion of the Achilles story.
resented and those other values that define For us, it is significant that Achilles ex-
Mesopotamian culture, values that appear periences some of the deepest human emo-
in the form of Gilgamesh’s various iden- tions. In his story, we see a struggle in the
tities. For, in addition to being a hero, Gil- person of the hero between his commitment
gamesh is also a man, a king, and a god, and to the absolute values of the hero and the
he must come to terms with these several need to compromise; that is, a struggle be-
identities. The basic conflict is that between tween the vengeful warrior and the empath-
the extraordinary and the normal. In the Old ic human being. Although Achilles’ com-
Babylonian version of the Epic, the conflict mitment to absolutes defines the course of
is that of hero vs. man; in the eleven-tablet public events, his human side – his accep-
version, it is that of hero vs. king; and in the tance of his self as one who experiences
twelve-tablet version, it is that of hero vs. normal sympathies – defines the private
god. In each version, the heroic identity evolution of his character. He stands apart,
breaks down as an approach to life because but, in the end, his love of Patroclus, his
of the occurrence of an event, and a new reconcilation with Priam, and his thoughts
solution must be found in order to resolve about his father represent the ascendancy of
the conflict that (re)emerges thereupon. In his human side, of his identification with
the Old Babylonian version, Gilgamesh the human family.

2
 ABUSCH G ILGAMESH AND THE HOMERIC E PICS

In any case, I would suggest that the first stage of development, the version which
stage of development of the Epic of Gilga- focuses upon the struggle between the
mesh, that stage which centers upon the values of the warrior and those of the king
conflict between standing apart and being a (a version in which also Gilgamesh must
member of a human family and leading a learn self-control), finds its parallel in the
normal life, parallels the story and journey wanderings of Odysseus.
of Achilles, and thus finds its reflection Thus, the first two stages of development
(and our construction perhaps finds some of the Epic of Gilgamesh seem to find their
support) in the Iliad. parallel (and our construction some sup-
For the second stage of the development port) in the Homeric materials. But when
of the Epic of Gilgamesh, I suggest that we we examine the Homeric materials in light
turn to the story of Odysseus. Again, paral- of the third stage of development of the
lels have been found between the two ac- Epic of Gilgamesh, we are led to wonder
counts, and the influence of the Epic of whether in this instance the Greek materials
Gilgamesh has often been noticed. For our might not reflect a different process of de-
purposes, it is therefore significant that the velopment. In the third stage, Gilgamesh
wanderings of Odysseus tell the story of the attains immortality by first resisting but
warrior-king who after a war wanders for then assuming the cultic role as judge of the
ten years and experiences many adventures netherworld by means of Enkidu’s descent
prior to returning to a peaceful milieu and ascent in Tablet XII. But whereas in the
wherein he resumes the social responsi- Epic of Gilgamesh, the cultic vision seems
bilities of a king. True, the Odyssey seems to define the third and last stage of develop-
sometimes to be primarily about Odys- ment of the epic itself, it has been asserted
seus’s homecoming and the resumption of that the Greek hero attains actual immor-
his role as master of his household and hus- tality through cult10 and not through epic. I
band of his wife. But clearly, the theme of refer to Nagy’s argument that Greek cult
kingship and the regaining of the kingship and epic treat the hero in two separate ways.
by Odysseus have been incorporated into The hero is both human and divine. Epic
this tale. For he is the ideal leader; he must asserts the hero’s humanity; through fame
therefore learn self-control and struggle and praise, he achieves a human form of
against temptations and his own impulses in immortality. But it is in cult and not in epic
order to hold the course and return to his that he becomes a divinity and thereby at-
kingdom and kingship. Thus, our second tains actual immortality. 11

II.
Perhaps the Greek materials do not provide lem and especially about the relationship of
a parallel to the cultically oriented third GE Tablet XII to the Greek material, I note
stage that I have posited for the Epic of that Book 11 of the Odyssey, Odysseus’
Gilgamesh. But in thinking about the prob- visit to the netherworld, appears to parallel

10
Needless to say, Gilgamesh attains immortality also the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry (Baltimore/London,
through the actual cult. 1979), x-xi (Forword by J. M. Redfield) and 114-17.
11
See G. Nagy, The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of

3
ABUSCH GILGAMESH AND THE HOMERIC EPICS

Tablet XII of the Epic of Gilgamesh, at least was suppressed, and she became only one
on a thematic and structural level. This ob- more stop on the way to Utnapishtim. 13
servation suggests a specific connection be- 3. Into this new version, the Ishtar episode
tween the Akkadian and Greek epics and of Tablet VI was inserted. 14
points to the possibility that some literary
developments that took place in the Epic of 4. Finally, during the last stage of the devel-
opment of the Epic, Tablet XII was added
Gilgamesh may also have taken place in the after the visit to Utnapishtim and in re-
Odyssey. And at this juncture, it is espe- sponse to Tablet VI. 15
cially gratifying to observe a concrete liter-
Turning to the Odyssey, we may recall
ary connection, for however interesting the
the oft-made observations that:
comparison of ideological stages may be,
they sometimes suffer (as here perhaps) 1) The netherworld scene in Book 11 dis-
from too much abstraction and generaliza- rupts the Circe episode, causing Odysseus to
tion. leave and then to return to Circe.
This, then, brings me to my second topic, 2) The Circe episode itself is a doublet of
the suggestion that some literary develop- sorts to that of Calypso.
ments may be common to both the Epic of
It has been argued repeatedly that Book
Gilgamesh and the Odyssey. For this pur-
11 of the Odyssey is an insertion into the
pose, I shall make use of some well-known
text. Note, for example, the elegant argu-
observations made by classicists about the
ment offered by Page. 16 This conclusion
Odyssey together with my own conclusions
seems reasonable; moreover, it parallels
about the history of the Epic of Gilgamesh,
and finds support in the generally accepted
conclusions originally reached without re-
opinion that also Tablet XII, which centers
course to the Odyssey.
on a visit to and report about the nether-
First, the historical conclusions about the
world, constitutes a late addition to the Epic
Epic of Gilgamesh.
of Gilgamesh. On a structural level, there-
1. In the original Epic, Gilgamesh’s wander- fore, we should compare Book 11 and Tire-
ings ended with Siduri. She informed Gilga- sias to GE Tablet XII and Enkidu, rather
mesh that he could not attain immortality by than to (or in addition to) GE Tablet XI and
remaining with her and advised him to live
Utnapishtim. Accordingly, there can be
a human life of celebration and family rela-
tionship. She then sent him with the boat- little doubt that Odysseus’s encounter with
man directly back to Uruk. The Epic did not Circe and his trip to the netherworld in
originally include a section dealing with Ut- Book 11 parallel Tablets VI and XII of the
napishtim.12 Epic of Gilgamesh. And should further sup-
2. Subsequently, the Utnapishtim episode
port be necessary for the link that I posit
was developed in Tablet XI, and Siduri’s between Tablets VI and XII, then the juxta-
role was diminished. Her famous speech position of the Circe episode and Book 11

12
See my “Gilgamesh’s Request and Siduri’s Denial. 1-79,” History of Religions 26 (1986), 143-87, esp. 179ff.
15
Part 1: The Meaning of the Dialogue and Its Implications Ibid., pp. 183-187.
16
for the History of the Epic,” in The Tablet and the Scroll: D. Page, The Homeric Odyssey (Oxford, 1955), 21-51.
Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William W. Hallo, ed. For a unitarian position, see, e.g., A. Heubeck and A.
M. E. Cohen et al., (Bethesda, Maryland, 1993), 1-14, Hoekstra, A Commentary on Homer’s Odyssey (Oxford,
esp. 9-13. 1989), vol. 2, 75-77; cf., e.g., C. Sourvinou-Inwood,
13
Ibid., p. 12. ‘Reading’ Greek Death: To the End of the Classical
14
See my “Ishtar’s Proposal and Gilgamesh’s Refusal: Period (Oxford, 1995), 70-76, for a recent discussion
An Interpretation of The Gilgamesh Epic, Tablet 6, Lines which takes a middle position.

4
 ABUSCH G ILGAMESH AND THE HOMERIC E PICS

provides it. In any case, if my relative chro- let XII. Parallel to this, the Circe account is
nology regarding Tablets VI and XII is cor- added to the series of tales recited by Odys-
seus and, subsequently, the descent to the
rect, we may suggest that an analogous de-
netherworld of Book 11 is inserted into that
velopment took place in the Odyssey, name- account.
ly, the late addition of the Circe scene to
This historical reconstruction seems to
Odysseus’ narration and the subsequent in-
me to be useful in several regards. It may
sertion of Book 11 into that scene. This is
provide an additional set of tools for the
supported by the fact that while Circe has
analyst of the Odyssey. In any case, it
been compared to Siduri, she has also been
should resolve a set of apparent contradic-
compared to and seems actually to be more
tions that I have noticed in the secondary
like Ishtar. Hence, the functional parallel
literature regarding the relationship be-
Calypso//Siduri belongs to an earlier ver-
tween the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odys-
sion and is supplemented by a later
sey. It is obvious that Ishtar and Siduri have
Circe//Ishtar parallelism. 17
very different natures and functions. All the
More generally, we may ask our classi-
same, Circe is compared by some to Ishtar,
cists to test the Odyssey in light of the
by others to Siduri, and sometimes to both.
following historical scheme suggested by
Utnapishtim and Enkidu and their environs
the Epic of Gilgamesh.
are surely different from each other, as are
1. Originally, the early version of the Epic Alcinous and Tiresias. And yet, Utnapish-
of Gilgamesh reaches its climax in Gilga- tim has been compared by some to Alcinous
mesh’s visit to Siduri, followed immediate- and the Phæacians and by others to Tiresias
ly by his journey home. Parallel to this
and the netherworld setting, as has Enkidu.
stage, an early version of the Odyssey
presented the wanderings of Odysseus as It may therefore be suggested that the draw-
having ended with his visit to Calypso, fol- ing of contradictory parallels between the
lowed by his journey home to Ithaca. two works may sometimes be simply a re-
sult of the fact that as the Odyssey de-
2. Subsequently, the Utnapishtim episode is
added in the Epic of Gilgamesh between veloped, later patterns were imposed on or
Gilgamesh’s departure from Siduri and his introduced alongside earlier ones, and new
arrival in Uruk; following this, the actual characters took their place alongside older
re-telling of the flood story is inserted into ones. In this sense, also the Odyssey is a
that episode. Parallel to this, the Phæacian palimpsest or, rather, a mosaic.
episode is added between Odysseus’s depar-
ture from Calypso and his arrival in Ithaca, I am not certain whether the develop-
and an account of some of the earlier wan- ments that seem to be common to both the
derings is subsequently inserted. 18 Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey reflect
actual contact or are in the nature of parallel
3. Finally, the encounter with Ishtar is in-
serted in GE Tablet VI, to which is then
developments, whether the parallels be-
added the account of Enkidu’s descent to tween the Epic of Gilgamesh and (the Iliad
and ascent from the netherworld in GE Tab- and) the Odyssey are an indication of simi-

17
Note that the role of Siduri is downplayed in later supports the argument that Calypso belongs to an earlier
Akkadian versions and therefore her impact on an early layer of the Odyssey than does Circe.
18
stage of development of the Greek tradition is more Note the occurrence in both the Phæacian and Utnap-
plausible than her impact on later materials. Moreover, ishtim episodes, of the literary device of re-telling past
the later Circe would more likely have been modeled on events (Odysseus’s earlier wanderings : the flood ac-
Ishtar, who similarly became important only at a later count).
stage of the development of the Epic of Gilgamesh. This

5
ABUSCH GILGAMESH AND THE HOMERIC EPICS

lar developments, thereby providing ma- the Odyssey surely contains parallels to its
terial for arguments by analogy, or whether earliest version. So given that several con-
they indicate actual contact and influence of tacts seems problematic, as does the appar-
one work on the other. Parallel independent ent mixing of early and late in the Greek
development seems unlikely because the sim- materials, perhaps the Homeric works and
ilarities are much too specific, and thus we the Epic of Gilgamesh initially developed
should probably assume actual contact. If independently, though they may have
so, then presumably the Epic of Gilgamesh drawn upon a common narrative tradition.
influenced the Odyssey rather than the But, at a later stage, the Homeric tradition
reverse. But if that is the case, then we may came into contact with the developed Gil-
have to consider the possibility that contact gamesh account, a contact that allowed for
took place at the several stages of literary the assimilation of the developed pattern or
development that we have suggested. structure of the twelve-tablet version.
But multiple contacts seem very unlikely. I usually hesitate to make suggestions in
The difficulty of assuming multiple con- fields in which I am not a specialist, but
tacts may not be unrelated to the fact that comparison often requires just that, and I
different levels of the Epic of Gilgamesh have welcomed the opportunity to compare
seem to show up alongside each other in the Akkadian and Greek materials, both because
individual Homeric works. Thus, as noted the comparison of materials from the Clas-
earlier, the story of Achilles seems to par- sical and the Mesopotamian worlds is meth-
allel the first stage of development of the odologically valid and because the results
Epic of Gilgamesh, the conflict between the of such comparison may be significant for
warrior and the man, and the story of Odys- our understanding of the history of Western
seus seems to parallel the second stage. Yet, culture. So I am happy to end by apologiz-
the Achilles story is said to contain parallels ing to my classical colleagues and leaving
to the latest version of the Epic as well, and the resolution of this problem to them.