Music Theory

Fundamentals
High-Yield Music Theory, vol. 1

Mark Feezell
[Link]
 iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword: What is high-yield music theory? ............................................................................................ v!
Chapter 1: Music Notation .................................................................................................................7!
1.1 Staves and Clefs........................................................................................................................................ 8!
1.2 The Chromatic Scale and the Piano .................................................................................................... 10!
1.3 All About Octaves .................................................................................................................................. 12!
1.4 Rhythmic Values .................................................................................................................................... 14!
1.5 Time Signatures in Simple Meter ....................................................................................................... 16!
1.6 Compound and Asymmetric Meter .................................................................................................... 18!
1.7 Tuplets/Grouplets .................................................................................................................................. 20!
1.8 Repeat Signs and Repeated Sections.................................................................................................. 22!
1.9 Dynamics, Articulations, Slurs, Tempo Markings .......................................................................... 24!
1.10 Summary of Notation Guidelines..................................................................................................... 26!
Chapter 2: Major and Minor Scales and Keys ..............................................................................29!
2.1 Major Scales ............................................................................................................................................ 30!
2.2 The Circle of Fifths ................................................................................................................................ 32!
2.3 Learning Major Key Signatures .......................................................................................................... 33!
2.4 Minor Scales: Two Roads ..................................................................................................................... 34!
2.5 Key Signatures Self-Study Tips .......................................................................................................... 36!
2.6 Scale Degree Names............................................................................................................................... 38!
2.7 Major and Natural Minor Scales for Piano ....................................................................................... 39!
Chapter 3: Intervals and Transposition .........................................................................................41!
3.1 Introduction to Intervals ....................................................................................................................... 42!
3.2 Mastering Intervals 1 ............................................................................................................................. 44!
3.3 Mastering Intervals 2 ............................................................................................................................. 46!
3.4 Transposition .......................................................................................................................................... 48!
Chapter 4: Triads and Seventh Chords ..........................................................................................51!
4.1 Introducing Triads ................................................................................................................................. 52!
4.2 The Major Triads: Spell Them Quickly............................................................................................. 54!
4.3 Spelling Triads in Four Steps .............................................................................................................. 55!
4.4 Seventh Chords....................................................................................................................................... 56!
4.5 Common Chord Reference Chart ........................................................................................................ 57!
4.6 Basic Lead Sheet Symbols .................................................................................................................... 58!
Chapter 5: Introduction to Harmonic Analysis ............................................................................59!
5.1 Texture in Music..................................................................................................................................... 60!
5.2 Roman Numerals.................................................................................................................................... 62!
5.3 Harmonic progression ........................................................................................................................... 64!
5.4 Harmonic Analysis 1: Homophonic Texture..................................................................................... 66!
5.5 Nonchord Tones 1 .................................................................................................................................. 68!
5.6 Nonchord Tones 2: Suspensions ......................................................................................................... 70!
5.7 Second Inversion Triads ....................................................................................................................... 71!
5.8 Harmonic Analysis 2: Polyphonic Texture........................................................................................ 73!
Appendices: Solfège and Rhythmic Syllables .............................................................................75!
Appendix 1: Solfège Syllables ................................................................................................................... 76!
Appendix 2: Rhythmic Counting Syllables ............................................................................................ 78!
Postlude: Review, Resources, Index ...............................................................................................81!
Remember-Forever Review: Music Theory Fundamentals.................................................................. 82!
Music Theory Fundamentals: More Resources ...................................................................................... 85!
Index ............................................................................................................................................................... 86
 v

Foreword:
WHAT IS HIGH-YIELD MUSIC THEORY?

Philosophy The core principles guiding high-yield music theory are:

1. Assume no prior knowledge.
2. Build one concept at a time.
3. Get to the POINT!

Volumes The latest editions of this study reference are available at [Link].
Eventually there will be multiple volumes, covering Music Theory
Fundamentals; Harmony; Jazz, Pop, and Contemporary Music Theory
(including Twentieth-Century Music); and Form in Music.

Format The format for each volume is consistent:

1. The left column lists terms to help you organize your study and find
topics quickly.
2. Bold indicates key concepts.
3. Each volume ends with a Remember-Forever Review and More
Resources.

Students: how to Students can…

use this guide …read it before or after your primary text for a music theory course.
…use it as an efficient review before entrance exams, barriers, etc.
…use it as a theory reference book by looking up terms in the index.
…use it to quiz or tutor your fellow students.
…check out the great resources listed under “More Resources.”

Teachers: how to Teachers can…

use this guide …use it as a class lecture outline along with your favorite theory text.
…use it as a review guide after presenting the material with your
favorite text.
…use the Remember-Forever Review section before final exams.
…require students to purchase one or more volumes for extra study.
…use it as a primary textbook alongside your favorite workbook or
music anthology.
Chapter 1
MUSIC NOTATION

1.1 Staves and Clefs: elements of music, staff, note names, clef, treble clef, bass clef, ledger lines,
grand staff, C clefs, alto clef, tenor clef

1.2 The Chromatic Scale and the Piano: piano keyboard diagram, pattern of piano keyboard, half
step, accidentals, whole step, natural half steps, enharmonic notes, scale, chromatic scale

1.3 All About Octaves: octave, middle C, ledger lines between the staves, American Standard octave
designations, Helmholtz octave designations, ottava, quindicesima, octave clef

1.4 Rhythmic Values: duration, rhythmic value, rhythm, notehead, stems, flags, beams, rests, ties,
augmentation dots, double-dotted notes

1.5 Time Signatures in Simple Meter: beat, measure, bar, barline, time signature, beat unit, simple
time signature, duple, triple, quadruple, beat division and subdivision, cut time, alla breve, common
time, anacrusis, downbeat, strong beat, weak beat, stress patterns

1.6 Compound and Asymmetric Meter: compound time signatures, tempo and meter, asymmetric
time signatures, anacrusis and stress patterns in compound meter, summary of time signatures

1.7 Tuplets/Grouplets: tuplets, grouplets, triplets, quintuplets, sextuplets, septuplets, brackets,

duplets and quadruplets (compound time signatures), duplets and quadruplets as dotted values

1.8 Repeat Signs and Repeated Sections: simple repeats, first and second endings, D.C. al fine, D.S.
al coda, D.S. al fine, D.C. al coda, repeated beat, repeated measure, two-measure repeat

1.9 Dynamics, Articulations, Slurs, Tempo Markings: dynamics, articulations, slurs, bowings,
fermatas, breath marks, caesura/grand pause, crescendo, diminuendo, decrescendo, tempo, BPM,
M.M., Italian tempo indications

1.10 Summary of Notation Guidelines: staves, system, clefs, noteheads, accidentals, stems, beams,
rhythm and meter, key signatures
8 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 1.1
STAVES AND CLEFS
Elements of The fundamental elements of music are pitch (the highness/lowness of the
music notes), duration (how long the notes last), timbre (overall type of sound
such as trumpet versus clarinet), and dynamics/loudness. Some authors
add frequency (the speed of the physical vibration making the sound) and
texture (see 5.1 Texture in Music).

Staff A staff (plural: staves) uses five parallel lines to notate (write down) the
pitch aspect of music. Higher-pitched notes are written higher on the staff.
Note names Staff lines are numbered 1 to 5, starting from the bottom line. Note names
from low to high are the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, then repeating A, B, C…

Clef A clef indicates which note names go on which lines (and spaces between
Treble clef the lines) on the staff. Clefs are written at the start of the staff. Treble clef
designates the second line from the bottom as G. The lines in treble clef
represent the pitches E, G, B, D, and F. The spaces are F, A, C, and E.

treble clef
w w w w w ww line 5
staff
& w w w w w
G, so... D E F G A B C D E F G line 1

w w w w
F-A-C-E spells face

& w w w w
Every Good Boy Does Fine
& w w w
lines: E G B D F spaces: D F A C E G

Bass clef Bass clef designates the fourth line from the bottom as F. The lines in bass
clef represent the pitches G, B, D, F, and A. The spaces are A, C, E, and G.

? w w w w w
bass clef
w w w
w w w w
staff

F, so... F G A B C D E F G A B
All Cars Eat Gas
w w w
All Cows Eat Grass
? w ? w
Good Boys Do Fine Always

w w w w
w w
lines: G B D F A spaces: F A C E G B
 Chapter 1: Music Notation 9

Ledger lines Ledger lines are small lines that extend the staff higher and lower. They
can be used with any clef. Ledger lines belong to a single note; they never
connect to ledger lines for surrounding notes.

B w
w w
A w
C D ledger lines
w w
D w
EC wF
& w ?
w w w w w w w
C B A E D C B
G

Grand staff A grand staff is a treble clef staff and bass clef staff connected with a brace.
Piano music uses a grand staff, along with instruments such as harp and
marimba. Sometimes vocal (choir) music is also notated using a grand staff.

w w w w
E F G B D D F A C
E G
& w w w w w
brace
w w
w w
grand
staff
? w w w w
w w w w w
G B D F A F A C E G B

C clefs All C clefs indicate where C is on the staff. Alto clef is a C clef centered on
Alto clef the third line from the bottom, designating it as C. Parts for the viola (a
string instrument in the violin family) almost always use alto clef.

w w w w w
alto clef
B w w w w
w w w
staff

C, so... E F G A B C D E F G A

Tenor Clef Tenor clef is a C clef centered on the fourth line from the bottom,
designating it as C. Bassoon and trombone music occasionally uses tenor
clef, although both instruments more commonly read bass clef.

B w
tenor clef
w w w w w w w
w w w w
staff

C, so... C D E F G A B C D E F
10 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 1.2
THE CHROMATIC SCALE AND THE PIANO
Pattern of the This section uses the piano, but the concepts apply to other instruments
piano keyboard and voice also. The piano repeats a pattern: groups of two black keys
alternate with groups of three. Every white key just to the left of a group of
two black keys is labeled as C. After G, the letter names start over with A.

2 black keys 3 black keys 2 black keys 3 black keys

C D E F G A B C D E F G A B

Half step A half step is the distance from one piano key to the next closest (whether
it happens to be white or black). E to F is a half step, because E and F are
next to one another. Similarly, B to C is a half step. E to F and B to C are the
Natural half steps only natural half steps because they use letter names without accidentals.

Accidentals The black keys use the letter of an adjacent white key plus a modifier called
an accidental. The most common accidentals are:
Flat, natural, 1. b = flat; one half step lower than (left of) a white key
sharp
2. § = natural; cancels other accidentals; indicates white notes on a piano
3. # = sharp; one half step higher than (right of) a white key

C# D# F# G# A# C# D# F# G# A#
or or or or or or or or or or
Db Eb Gb Ab Bb Db Eb Gb Ab Bb

C D E F G A B C D E F G A B

Enharmonic Enharmonic notes are different names for the same piano key. For
notes example, the black key called C sharp is one half step above C, but also one
half step below D. C sharp is enharmonic with D flat. White keys also have
enharmonic names: B raised one half step with a sharp is the white key C.
 Chapter 1: Music Notation 11

Double flat A double flat lowers a flat note by another half step, keeping the same
letter name. Double flats are thus two half steps lower than the white key
Double sharps (natural) note. Similarly, a double sharp (looks like an x) raises a sharp
note by another half step, keeping the same letter name. Double sharps are
two half steps higher than the white key (natural) note.

Db D# Cº C#

Dº D DX Cb C CX

All enharmonics The piano keyboard below shows all the enharmonic names for the keys.

C# D# F# G# A# C# D#
Db Eb Gb Ab Bb Db Eb
BX Fº EX Cº BX Fº
C D E F G A B C D E
B# CX DX E# FX GX AX B# CX DX
Dº Eº Fb Gº Aº Bº Cb Dº Eº Fb

Whole step A whole step is two half steps. For instance, for C up to D, the two half
steps are C to C# and C# to D.

Scale A scale (from the Italian word for ladder) is a series of notes from low to
high (or high to low) following some pattern of whole steps and half steps.
Chromatic scale A chromatic scale lists all the notes (white and black keys) in order, usually
from C to the next C above or below. Chromatic scales use only half steps.
Ascending chromatic scales use sharps for black piano keys. Descending
chromatic scales use flats for black piano keys.

w #w w #w w w
Ascending chromatic scale (uses sharps for black keys)
& w #w w w #w
w #w
C C# D D# E F F# G G# A A# B C

& w w bw w bw w bw w w bw w bw w
Descending chromatic scale (uses flats for black keys)

C B Bb A Ab G Gb F E Eb D Db C
12 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 1.3
ALL ABOUT OCTAVES
Octave An octave is the distance from a note up or down to the next note with the
same name. For example, from the pitch A up to the next A is one octave.
Octaves span eight letter names: A-B-C-D-E-F-G-A = 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8.

Middle C Middle C is the C just to the left of center on the piano keyboard; it is near
the “middle” of the piano. In treble clef, middle C is one ledger line below
the staff. In bass clef, middle C is one ledger line above the staff. On C clefs,
including alto clef and tenor clef, middle C is at the center of the clef sign.
All of the notes below represent exactly the same piano key (middle C).

middle C
& w _____ B w B w ? w
middle C middle C middle C
_____ ___ ______ ___

Middle C on the In a grand staff, middle C is notated differently depending on whether it is

grand staff in the treble or bass clef. Middle C is literally the “middle” ledger line, one
line below the treble clef and one line above the bass clef.

middle C
& w
? w

Ledger lines Ledger lines may occur between the staves to make it clear whether the
between the notes are in the treble clef (or right hand) part or bass clef (left hand) part.
staves
melody in treble clef staff = same pitches
in bass clef staff
& w w w &
w = w
w
? w w
middle C
?
middle C
 Chapter 1: Music Notation 13

American In American Standard (or Scientific) Pitch Notation, The octaves are
Standard octave numbered, with middle C being C4. Every C begins a new octave number,
designations so the B just below C4 is B3, and the D just above C4 is D4. Accidentals
don’t change the octave; B# 4 = C5, and Cb5=B4.

w
w
w
middle C
& w
?
C1 C2 C3
w
C4 (C4) C5 C6 C7
w
w
w

Helmholtz octave Helmholtz pitch notation is used widely in Europe and older science
designations publications. Middle C is c’ (read “one-line C”). Octaves are C,, (“subcontra
C”); C, (“contra C”); C (“great C”); c (“small C”); c’ (“one-line C”=Middle
C); c’’ (“two-line C”); c’’’ (“three-line C”); and c’’’’ (“four-line C”).

Ottava The ottava symbol (8va) raises a note by one octave, while the ottava bassa
(8vb) lowers a note by one octave. Ottava always appears above the staff,
Quindicesima and ottava bassa appears below the staff. Similarly, quindicesima (15ma)
raises a note two octaves; quindicesima bassa lowers a note two octaves.

“” ? w
ottava: ottava bassa:
? w
& w
“‘
& = =
w =8ve up =8ve down

◊ÿ w
? w
quindicesima: quindicesima bassa:
?
◊Ÿ
& w = & =
=two 8ves up w
=two 8ves down

Octave clef The octave clef lowers the music an octave; it is often used for tenor voice.

&w = &w
‹ octave clef treble clef
14 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 1.4
RHYTHMIC VALUES
Duration Duration is how long a note lasts. A rhythmic value is a symbol indicating
Rhythmic value relative duration (see table below). A rhythm is a series of rhythmic values.
Rhythm

Rhythmic values Rhythmic values indicate relative duration, not absolute duration. Each
rhythmic value is half the duration of the next longer value. Shorter note
values (64th notes, etc.) are also possible.

breve W

whole w whole = half of a breve w

note
etc.
half ˙ half = half of a whole
˙
note
quarter = half of a half note OR
quarter = one quarter of a whole
quarter
note œ œ œ œ
8th = half of
a quarter OR
8th = 8th of
a whole note
eighth
note œ œ
etc.
œ œ œ œ œ œ

16th
note œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

32nd
note œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Notehead The oval part of the note is called the notehead. Notes shorter than whole
Stems notes have a stem attached to the notehead. Notes shorter than quarters
Flags have flags or beams, depending on the rhythmic context (see 1.10
Beams Summary of Notation Guidelines). Eighth notes have one flag (or beam),
sixteenth notes have two flags (or two beams), and so on. The position of
the notehead on the staff indicates the pitch of the note.

Flag
Stem
Notehead ee = iq Beam
(2 eighth notes with flags) = (2 eighth notes beamed together)
 Chapter 1: Music Notation 15

Rests Rests are similar to notes, but indicate lengths of silences. A breve rest is
twice as long as a whole rest, a whole rest is twice as long as a half rest, and
so on. Remember that a whole note looks like a “hole” in the ground.

Ú
breve whole half quarter eighth sixteenth thirty-second
∑ Ó Œ ‰ ≈ ®

Ties A tie combines rhythmic values together. For example, two eighth notes
tied together make a rhythmic value equal to one quarter note. Ties connect
notes of the same pitch. Ties never connect rests.

e( e = q and x( x( x( x = q and q( q = h etc.

Tie

Augmentation An augmentation dot on any note or rest adds half the duration. The
dots (dotted rhythmic value is said to be “dotted.” For example, a dotted half note
rhythmic values) equals a half note plus a quarter note, since a quarter note is half of a half
note. Similarly, a dotted quarter note equals a quarter note plus an eighth
note, since an eighth note is half of a quarter note.

h. (dotted half note) = h + q = q + q + q

q. (dotted quarter note) = q + e = e + e + e

Double-dotted A second augmentation dot (if present), adds half the first dot’s value.
notes Rhythmic values with two dots are “double-dotted.” For example, a
double-dotted half note equals a half note plus a quarter note (for the first
dot) plus an eighth note (half of a quarter note, for the second dot). Double-
dotted notes are 1.75 times as long (1+0.5+0.25) as the undotted value.

h.. (double-dotted half note) = h + q + e

q.. (double-dotted quarter note) = q + e + x
16 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 1.5
TIME SIGNATURES IN SIMPLE METER
Beat A beat is a repeating musical pulse. Listeners sense the beat when they tap
Measure their feet or clap their hands in time with the music. Musicians group beats
Bar, Barline into units called measures or bars. Every measure ends with a barline. A
Final barline special final barline indicates the end of the movement or piece.

measure or bar measure or bar measure or bar

& œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ ˙
barline final barline

Time signature A time signature (or meter signature) indicates how many beats there are
in one measure and what rhythmic value gets one beat (this value is called
Beat unit, Simple the beat unit). For time signatures in simple meter, the top number is the
time signature number of beats in each measure, and the bottom number is the beat unit.
Time signatures are not fractions, so there is no line between the numbers.

& 44 œ œ œ œ
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
œ œ ˙ œ œ ˙
44 = 4 beats in each measure
= q gets one beat

Duple, Triple, Meters (that is, time signatures) with two beats per measure are duple,
Quadruple those with three beats are triple, and those with four beats are quadruple.

Duple meter: Triple meter: Quadruple meter:

& 24 œ œ & 43 œ œ œ & 44 œ œ œ œ

1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4

42 == q2 gets
beats
beat 43 == 3q gets
beats
beat
44 = 4 beats
= q gets beat

Beat division and Each beat in simple meter divides into two equal beat divisions, or four
subdivision equal beat subdivisions. Below, one quarter note beat equals two eighth
notes or four sixteenth notes; see 1.4 Rhythmic Values.

Beat units: Beat divisions: Beat subdivisions:

& 24 œ œ __ & 4 œ œ œ œ __
2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
&4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
_ _
 Chapter 1: Music Notation 17

Other beat units The bottom number in a simple time signature indicates the beat unit: two
means half note, four means quarter, eight means eighth, and so on. The
Cut time first time signature below is also called cut time or alla breve. The second
Alla breve time signature is common in Baroque music; sometimes the eighth notes
are written with flags instead of beamed together. The last time signature is
Common time sometimes called common time.

2
&2 ˙
1
˙
2
3
&8 œ œ
œ
1 2 3
4
&4 œ
1
œ
2
œ
3
œ
4

22 = 2 beats 38 = 3 beats 44 = 4 beats

22 is sometimes written
= h gets beat
C = e gets beat
44 is sometimes written
= q gets beat
c

Anacrusis An anacrusis (or pickup measure) is a partial measure that begins some
Pickup measure pieces. An anacrusis is often one beat long, but not always. If there is an
anacrusis, the final measure will be shortened so that the anacrusis and the
final, shortened measure together equal the length of one regular measure.

4
1 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3

&4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
anacrusis shortened final bar
(pickup) (because of the anacrusis)

Downbeat The downbeat is the first beat of each measure. The downbeat is
Strong beat fundamental and stable (a strong beat) because it initiates each new group
Weak beat of beats. The last beat of each measure is unstable (a weak beat) because it
pulls forward to the following measure. The last beat of a measure often
seems to have more energy than the downbeat, because it propels the
rhythm forward to the more stable, stronger downbeat.

Stress patterns The following stress patterns for beats are common:
1. Duple meters: Meters with two beats follow a STRONG-weak stress
pattern for the two beats.
2. Triple meters: Meters with three beats follow a STRONG-weak-weak
stress pattern for the three beats.
3. Quadruple meters: Meters with four beats follow a STRONGEST-
weak-STRONG-weak pattern for the four beats.
18 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 1.6
COMPOUND AND ASYMMETRIC METER
Compound time Beats in compound time signatures divide into three division notes, not
signatures two. The top number indicates the number of division notes per measure.
The bottom number indicates the division rhythmic value (not the beat
unit). It takes three division notes (not two) to make one beat.

68 = 6 division notes
1 2
Ϫ Ϫ
& 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ
= e is division of beat
One beat = e + e + e = q.
2 beats (Duple)

Decoding A time signature with 6, 9, 12, or 15 on top is compound. To get the

compound time number of beats, divide the top number by three. The beat unit is a dotted
signatures rhythmic value one larger than the bottom number; sixteen on the bottom
means a dotted-eighth beat unit, eight on the bottom means a dotted
quarter, and so on. Compound time signatures can be duple, triple,
quadruple, or even quintuple (five beats).

j 2j 3j
1 1 2 3 4
Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ
9
& 16 œ œœ œœœ œ œœ 12
&8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
9 = 9 division notes 12
8 == 12
16 = x is division of beat
division notes
e is division of beat
One beat = x + x + x = e. One beat = e + e + e = q.
3 beats (TRIPLE) 4 beats (QUADRUPLE)

Tempo and Meter Sometimes tempo can make a normally compound time signature into a
simple time signature, or a normally simple time signature into a
compound one. This is especially common if the top number is six or three.

1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6
Very fast˙™ ˙™ Very slowœ
œ œ œ œ œ
6
&4 œ œ œ œ œ œ OR...
6
&4 œœœœœœœœœœœœ
46 == q6 isdivision notes (2 beats)
division of beat 46 = 6 beats
= q is beat unit
One beat = q + q + q = h.
Compound Duple Simple Sextuple
 Chapter 1: Music Notation 19

Asymmetric time Asymmetric time signatures have a mixture of two and three-part beat
signatures divisions. The top number indicates the number of division notes per
measure (often 5, 7, or 11, but varies). The bottom number indicates the
division rhythmic value (not the beat unit). The beaming indicates beat
groupings for individual beats.

1 2
j 2j 3j 1 1 2 3 4
œ™ œ œ™ œ œ œ™ œ™ œ™ œ
5 7 11
& 8 œ œ œ œœ & 16 œœœ œœ œœ & 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
58 = 5 division notes 16 7 = 7 division notes 118 = 11 division notes
= e is division of beat = x is division of beat = e is division of beat
2 beats (DUPLE) 3 beats (TRIPLE) 4 beats (QUADRUPLE)

Performing For time signatures in asymmetric meter, beats with three division notes
asymmetric time will be longer than beats with two division notes. The length of the division
signatures note value, not the beat, must remain constant. In the left example below,
the eighth note pulse remains constant, while in the right example the
quarter note pulse remains constant. See 1.7 Tuplets/Grouplets for an
explanation of the triplets in the right example.

1 2 1 2
œ™ œ œ œ
5
&8 œ œ œ œ œ ...sounds 2
&4 œ œ œ œ œ
different than...
3

Anacrusis and Music in compound meter may also include an anacrusis. If so, the last
stress patterns in measure will be shortened by the amount of the anacrusis, as in simple
compound meter meter. Stress patterns for duple, triple, and quadruple compound time
signatures match those given at the end of 1.5 Time Signatures in Simple
Meter.

Summary of time Simple time signatures are simple: the top number is the number of beats,
signatures and and the bottom is the beat unit. Compound time signatures nearly always
meter have 6, 9, 12, or 15 on top, indicating the number of division notes; the
bottom number indicates the division rhythmic value. Asymmetric
signatures have beats with unequal lengths. Like compound time
signatures, asymmetric time signatures indicate the rhythmic value for one
beat division, not the beat unit.
20 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 1.7
TUPLETS/GROUPLETS
Tuplets The standard rhythmic values divide into 2 parts, then 4 parts, then 8 parts,
Grouplets and so on (see 1.4 Rhythmic Values). Tuplets (also called grouplets) fill in
the gaps between these ratios. The word tuplets may be pronounced
“tuplets” or “tooplets.”

Triplets Triplets divide a rhythmic value into three equal parts, rather than two or
four. The triplet uses the rhythmic value for a two-part division, the next
longer duration. In the example below, the eighth note (a two-part
division) is the next longer duration, so the triplet uses eighth notes.

triplet
quarter note 2 parts 3 parts 4 parts
œ œ œ œœœ œœœœ
_ _ _
3

Quintuplets In simple time signatures (see 1.5 Simple Meter), tuplets/grouplets

Sextuplets always use the next longer rhythmic value. Quintuplets (five equal parts),
Septuplets sextuplets (six equal parts), and septuplets (seven equal parts) all use the
rhythmic value for a four-part division.

Read each staff left to right to see all the divisions.

triplet quintuplet sextuplet septuplet
3 parts 5 parts 6 parts 7 parts
1 part 2 parts 4 parts 8 parts
w ˙˙ ˙˙˙ œœœœ œœœœœ œœœœœœ œœœœœœœ œœœœœœœœ
3 5 6 7
whole
note:

˙ œœ œœœ œœœœ œœœœœ œœœœœœ œœœœœœœ œœœœœœœœ

3
half
note:
5 6 7

quarter
note:
œ œœ œœœ œ œ œ œ œœœœœ œœœœœœ œœœœœœœ œœœœœœœœ
3 5 6 7

Tuplet brackets Tuplet brackets should be used with the number on the notehead side
when there isn't a beam (half notes, quarter notes, whole notes). Only
tuplets that use half note and quarter note rhythmic values in the example
above have brackets.
 Chapter 1: Music Notation 21

Duplets and In compound time signatures (see 1.6 Compound and Asymmetric
quadruplets Meter), duplets and quadruplets look like the corresponding simple meter
(compound time beat division.
signatures)
Duplets:
q = beat unit
68q.œ= beat unit
œ œ œ looks 24 œ œ œ œ
like...
2 2

Quadruplets:
q = beat unit
68 q.œ =œbeat
œœœœœœ
unit
looks 24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
like...
4 4

Duplets and Duplets and quadruplets in compound time signatures may also be
quadruplets as notated as ordinary dotted rhythmic values. In the example below, six
dotted values sixteenths per beat divided into two halves gives three sixteenths for each
half of the beat.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ = 8 œ ™ œ™ œ ™ œ™ = 8 œ œ œ œ
68 6 6
2 2

Groups of 3 tied sixteenths = dotted eighths = duplet eighths

Nonstandard Nonstandard tuplets or tuplets that may be unclear are sometimes

tuplets indicated with an explicit ratio. Extremely rarely, tuplets may also be
nested.

5:4 = 5 in the space OR showing the

normally taken by 4 rhythmic value ( 5:4q ):
44 œ œ
5:4
œ œ œ 44 œ œ œ
5:4q
œ œ
22 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 1.8
REPEAT SIGNS AND REPEATED SECTIONS
Simple repeats The end repeat sign tells the performer to go back one time to the start
repeat sign, or, if there is no start repeat, the beginning of the movement.

& 4 ˙ ˙ ™™ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ ™™ œ œ œ Œ
#4 start repeat sign end repeat sign

1st and 2nd First and second endings indicate different music to be played the first and
endings second times. “2x only” (not shown below) means play that music the
second time only. Third and higher endings are also possible.

#4 œ œ œ ™
& 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ œ œ œ Œ œ Œ ™ œ œ œ œ ˙™ Œ
1. 2.

D.C. al fine D.C. (da capo, “from the head”) means repeat back to the start of the piece.
(Da capo al fine) Al fine means after repeating back, play to the fine marking. Traditionally,
musicians skip over any first endings after they go back for a D.C. (or D.S.)
repeat. The numbers in the example below indicate: (1) play through the
first ending; (2) repeat back to measure 1; (3) jump to the second ending; (4)
play to the last written measure; 5) D.C. to the “head” (start); and
(6)/(7)/(8) play through to the Fine, skipping any first endings and
stopping at the end of the measure with the Fine marking.

‚ ·
5
# 2 œ œ 1. ™™ œ œ œ ˙ j œ œj œ Œ
2. Fine D.C. al fine
& 4 ˙ œ
‰
„
# 2 œ œ 1. ™™ œ œ œ ˙
2. 5
j œ œj œ Œ
Fine D.C. al fine
& 4 ˙ œ
Â5 Á
Ê
™™ œ œ œ ˙
2. 5
# 2 œ œ 1. Fine
j
D.C. al fine
& 4 ˙ j Œ
œœ œ œ
Ë
 Chapter 1: Music Notation 23

D.S. al coda D.S. (dal segno) means repeat back to a special sign (see example below;
Dal segno al coda segno means sign) and al coda means after repeating back, play to the coda
mark, then jump to the coda (coda means tail). The numbers in the example
below indicate: (1) play from the start to the D.S. al coda break; (2) repeat
back to the sign (dal segno); (3) play until the “jump to coda” symbol; and
D.S. al fine (4)/(5) jump to the coda and play to the end. D.S. al fine (not al coda) and
D.C. al coda D.C. al coda (not al fine) are also common possibilities.

‚
· 5
#2 œ œ $
to Coda Ø D.S. al coda Ø Coda
#
& 4 ˙ œ œ œ œ Œ œj œ œj œ Œ & œ œ œ ˙

„ ‰
5Â
#2 œ œ $
Ø Coda
# œ
to Coda Ø D.S. al coda
& 4 ˙ œ Œ j
œ œœ œ œ œ œ j Œ & œ œ ˙

Repeated beat The repeated beat symbol is used only in handwritten music and parts for
rhythm instruments such as guitar, drums, or sometimes piano.

& 43 œœœ ? ? = & œœœ œœœ œœœ

Repeated The repeated measure/bar is used only for drums, piano, or guitar.
measure

& 24 œ œ ‘
2
= &4 œ œ œ œ

Two-measure The two-measure repeat is used only for drums, piano, or guitar. Four-
repeat measure repeats are also possible; they use four slashes and the number
four, not two. To repeat more than four measures, use a simple repeat sign.

2
& 43 ˙ ™ œ œ œ • = & 43 ˙ ™ œ œ œ ˙™ œ œ œ
24 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 1.9
DYNAMICS, ARTICULATIONS, SLURS,
TEMPO MARKINGS
Dynamics Dynamics are used to indicate relative loudness:
ppp = pianississimo = very, very soft
pp = pianissimo = very soft
p = piano = soft
mp = mezzo-piano = medium-soft
mf = mezzo-forte = medium-loud
f = forte = loud
ff = fortissimo = very loud
fff = fortississimo = very, very loud
fp = forte followed suddenly by piano; also mfp, ffp, etc.
sfz = sforzando = a forceful, sudden accent
fz is forceful but not as sudden as sfz

Articulations Articulations specify how notes should be performed, either in terms of

duration or stress. Staccatissimo means extremely shortened duration.
Staccato means shortened duration. Tenuto has two functions: it can mean
full duration OR a slight stress or emphasis. Accent means stressed or
emphasized (more than tenuto). Marcato means extremely stressed. An
articulation of duration (staccatissimo, staccato, or tenuto) may combine
with one of stress (tenuto, accent, or marcato).

articulations of duration
œÆ œ. -œ >œ œ^
&
staccatto tenuto accent marcato
staccattisimo
articulations of stress

Slurs Slurs are curved lines connecting different pitches. Slurs can mean: (1.)
Bowings connect the notes as a phrase; (2.) for string instruments: play with one
motion of the bow (up or down); (3.) for voice: sing with one syllable, or
(4.) for wind instruments: don’t tongue between the notes.

? bb 24 œ œ œ œ ˙
 Chapter 1: Music Notation 25

Fermatas Fermatas indicate that the music stops and holds the note until the
conductor or soloist moves on. Musical context, style, and taste determine
Breath marks how long a fermata actually lasts. Breath marks indicate a quick break, or
Caesura for a wind instrument like trumpet or voice, a breath. The caesura
Grand pause (sometimes “grand pause” or G.P.) indicates a full stop and pause before
the music continues.

U
œ ≈
œ √
œ , œ "
&
short long breath caesura
fermata fermata fermata mark

Crescendo Crescendo signs and diminuendo signs indicate a gradual increase or

Diminuendo decrease in loudness, respectively. The words crescendo (cresc.),
Decrescendo diminuendo (dim.), or decrescendo (decresc.) are sometimes written
instead.

crescendo sign = gradually louder

? bb 24 œ œ œ œ ˙
q = 60
? bqb=2460œ œ œ œ ˙
=
p f p cresc. f
decrescendo sign = gradually softer

? b 24 œ œ œ œ ˙
q = 60
? qb=2460œ œ œ œ ˙
b = b
f p f dim. p

Tempo Tempo is the speed of the beat, usually given in beats per minute (BPM).
BPM / M.M. Sometimes BPM is labeled M.M. for Maelzel’s metronome. (Johann Maelzel
promoted and improved the metronome in the 1800s.) The
crescendo/diminuendo examples above show a tempo label of 60 quarter
notes per minute, or one quarter note each second.

Italian tempo Musicians use many Italian terms for tempo. Some of the more common, in
indications order from slowest to fastest, are: Grave (solemn), Largo (very slow and
broad), Lento (very slow), Adagio (slow), Andante (walking pace,
moderately slow), Moderato (moderate), Allegro (fast), Vivace (lively), and
Presto (very fast).
26 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 1.10
SUMMARY OF NOTATION GUIDELINES
Disclaimer This is only an introduction to standard notation practice. For exhaustive
guidelines, see the affordable and excellent book The Essential Dictionary
of Music Notation by Tom Gerou and Linda Lusk (Alfred Publishing,
1996).

Staves Guidelines for clefs and staves:

1. Lines and spaces are numbered from bottom to top. Lines: 1 to 5;
Spaces: 1 to 4.
System 2. The plural of staff is staves. One line of music in a score is a system,
which may have many staves for the individual musicians.
Clefs 3. The treble clef always circles around the "G" line (2nd line).
4. The two dots in the bass clef always surround the "F" line (4th line).
5. The center of any C clef always indicates middle C (C4).

?
z z
1 3 4 5

z z
? ?
4
5
3
4
& & ? B
1
2
3
1
2 &
lines spaces Yes NO! NO! Yes
Yes NO! NO!

Noteheads Guidelines for noteheads and accidentals:

6. Noteheads should be as tall as 1 space.
7. Noteheads should be oval and slightly slanted (see figure).
8. Whole notes are oval but do not slant.
Accidentals 9. Normally, accidentals immediately precede the notehead to which
they apply.
10. If a chord requires 2 accidentals on notes closer than a sixth, write the
upper accidental directly to the left of its notehead, and the lower
accidental by its notehead staggered to the left (see 10 below).
11. For > 2 accidentals, stagger them as shown in figure 11 below.

#œ
& œ zå ™ ˙ w #Jœ zJœ# zœJ # œœ
# #œ ##œœœ z #œ
##œœœ # #œœ ####œœœœ ####œœœœ
10 11

z
6 7 8 9

z
#œ
Yes NO! NO! Yes Yes Yes NO! NO! Yes NO! NO! Yes Yes Yes
 Chapter 1: Music Notation 27

Stems Guidelines for stems on notes:

12. 3rd line and above - stems down; below 3rd line – stems up. If two
parts are in one staff, use stems up for the higher part, down for the
lower.
13. Stems down go on the left of the notehead, stems up on the right of the
notehead.
14. Stem length is normally one octave.
15. Stems for notes using ledger lines extend to the 3rd line, regardless of
how high or low they are.
16. When notating seconds, the higher pitch goes on the right. If the stem
goes up, it connects to the lower pitch. If the stem goes down, it
connects to the higher pitch. However, if there are two voices on one
staff stating a 2nd, the higher pitch's notehead goes on the left (see the
last example for item 16 below).

œ œ 16
z œœœzì œìzœ œœœœœœ œœ
15

z
œ œœ ì œ œ
13 14

z
12

ì
œ
z œ zœ œ z œ œ
œ œ œ œœ œœ
& œ zœ
YesYesYesYes NO!NO! Yes NO!YesNO! YesYes NO!NO! YesYesNO! Yes YesNO! NO! Yes Yes Yes

Beams Guidelines for beams on notes:

17. For beamed notes, stems should go up or down based on the note
farthest from the middle line.
18. Beam notes in the same beat together (see also item 22, next page).
19. Beams should be about twice the thickness of stems and may slant
slightly if the notes ascend or descend.

NO! œz
I I I
18

™ œ 4 J œœœœœ ™œzœœ
I
17 Yes
œ œ
NO-Beats unclear;

œ œ œ
Yes
œœ œ œ œ œ 4 œœœ œ œœ œ œ œ œ 4 œœ œ
hard to read
& œ œ NO! 4
z Yes - Beams follow beats z z
9 I œ œ œ I œ œ œ Iœ œ œ œ 9 œNO-Beats œ œ œ œœœœœ œ
unclear; hard to read
œ œ
z z
&8 8
z
J
Yes - Beams follow beats

zœ zœ
19
& œ œ œ œ
Yes NO! NO!
28 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Rhythm and Guidelines for rhythmic notation and meter:

meter 20. Observe the usual position of rests within the staff (may be adjusted
when there are two parts in one staff).
21. Dots for dotted rhythmic values are never placed on a staff line. If the
notehead itself is on a staff line, the dot is put to the right of the note
but in the space above it.
22. Always attempt to use rhythmic notation to clarify the placement of
beats in the meter. Use ties if needed.

I∑
& Ú
Whole rest="hole" in the ground
20
Ó Œ ‰ ≈ ®Ù
Take note of vertical positioning

œ™ œ™ œœ ™™ œœ ™™ œœj ™ œœj ™™
& œ™ z œœ ™™ œœ ™™™ œœ ™™
21

Yes Yes NO! Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

4œ ™ œJ œ ™ œ œ œ 4œ ™ z œ œ œ™ œ
I I I I
22 1 2 3 4
NO-Beats unclear; where

&4 &4
are 2, 3, 4? Hard to read.

R J J
Yes - Beats are clear

I œ ™ œ œ œI œ œ œ ™ œ toœread. œ œ œ
1 2

œ Hard
NO-Where is beat 2?

& 68 6
z
&8
Yes - Beats are clear

Key signatures Guideline for key signatures:

23. Key signatures must be written correctly for the given clef.

23
## # b ? #### # ? b b b
& # ## # & b bbbbb ## bbbb

B ####### B bbbbbb B ####### B bbbbbbb

b
Chapter 2
MAJOR AND MINOR SCALES AND KEYS

2.1 Major Scales: major scale, key of C major, C major scale, tetrachord, G major scale, key signature,
D major scale, A major, E major, F major, circle of fifths

2.2 The Circle of Fifths: circle of fifths, enharmonic keys, flats and sharps, circle of fifths diagram

2.3 Learning Major Key Signatures: flats/sharps on the staff, pairs add to seven (shortcut)

2.4 Minor Scales: Two Roads: minor scale, relative keys, relative minor method, relative minor with
adjustment, parallel key method, melodic minor, harmonic minor

2.5 Key Signatures Self-Study Tips: order of flats in key signatures, order of sharps in key
signatures, finding the key given a key signature, Frank/Metz key signature tool, the ultimate
shortcut

2.6 Scale Degree Names: scale degrees, caret, tonic, dominant, subdominant, mediant, submediant,
supertonic, leading tone, subtonic

2.7 Major and Natural Minor Scales for Piano: major scales, natural minor scales
30 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 2.1
MAJOR SCALES
C major scale The white piano keys from C to C form a C major scale. These eighth notes
(C, D, E, F, G, A, B, and then C again) divide into two four-note scale
Tetrachord segments called tetrachords:

w w
C D E F G A B C
& w w w w w w
whole whole half whole whole whole half
lower tetrachord upper tetrachord

Major tetrachord The lower tetrachord and the upper tetrachord each follow the major
tetrachord pattern: W-W-h, with a whole step between them. To visualize
the whole step/half step pattern shown above, review 1.2 The Chromatic
Scale and the Piano. Remember that E to F and B to C are natural half
steps (no accidentals needed).

Key of C major A piece of music that uses the C major scale for its melodies and harmonies
is in the key of C major. The major scale can also start on notes other than
C, as long as it follows the correct pattern of whole steps and half steps: W-
G major scale W-h, then W, then W-W-h again. A G major scale requires F sharp to create
the E-F sharp whole step, since E to F is a natural half step.

G A B C
w
D
w
E
#wF# w
G
& w w w w
W W h W W W h
lower tetrachord upper tetrachord

Key signature A key signature indicates the accidentals for the key at the start of each line
of music instead of next to each note.

The sharp is in the key signature,

G major key signature so we don't need it here.
# G A B C D
w
E
w
F#
wG w
& w w w w
W W h W W W h
 Chapter 2: Major and Minor Scales and Keys 31

D major scale G is the fifth scale note in C major, and the G major scale has one more
sharp than C major. Changing the key to the fifth scale note of a particular
scale always adds a sharp (or takes away a flat). Since D is the fifth scale
note of G (G, A, B, C, D), the D major scale uses two sharps. The added
sharp is always one scale note below the new key.

D major key signature (2 sharps)

D E F# G A
w w w
B
w
C#
w
D
# w w
&#w
W W h W W W h

A major Continuing “up 5, add a sharp,” A major has three sharps, E major has
E major four, and so on. Again, the new sharp in the key signature is always one
scale note below the new key.

A major key signature

##
A B C# D
w
E
w w
F#
w
G#
w
A

&# w w w
W W h W W W h

E major key signature

#### F# G# A B C#
w w
D#
w
E
w
E
& w w w w
W W h W W W h

F major Similarly, counting down five scale notes takes away a sharp (or adds a
flat). For instance, C, B, A, G, F = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Since F is the fifth scale note
down starting from C, F major has one more flat than C major. All flat keys
follow the same pattern: counting down five scale notes adds a flat.

F major key signature (1 more flat than C major)

G A Bb C D E
w w w wF
&b w w
F
w w
W W h W W W h
Bb major key signature (1 more flat than F major)
b G A Eb F G A Bb
&b w
Bb

w w w w w
w W
w W h W W W h
32 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 2.2
THE CIRCLE OF FIFTHS
Circle of fifths The circle of fifths is a common way to arrange the keys so each key
moving clockwise starts on the fifth note of the preceding key. Major keys
are listed outside the circle, with minor keys inside. (For minor keys, see 2.4
Enharmonic keys Minor Scales: Two Roads.) Enharmonic keys are written differently, but
played the same on the piano keyboard, like B and C flat. Enharmonic keys
share a box in the circle of fifths diagram.

Flats and sharps Moving clockwise moves up five scale notes and adds a sharp (or takes
away a flat), while moving counterclockwise moves down five notes and
adds a flat (or takes away a sharp). Always count the starting note as one.

Circle of fifths
counterclockwise C major clockwise
&
diagram adds one flat adds one sharp
P P P a minor L L L
F # G
&b &
d e

b ## D
&b g
Bb
b &
Circle
b of ##
Eb & b b c f# & # A
Fifths
b
& b bb f c# & ####
Ab E

bbb
bb #### #a# ####g# ab
b
& b & ##
b & # & bbbbb
b
Db (enharmonic) C# B (enharmonic) Cb

###d#
eb
b #
& b bbbb & ##
Gb (enharmonic) F#
Enharmonic keys share a box.
 Chapter 2: Major and Minor Scales and Keys 33

Section 2.3
LEARNING MAJOR KEY SIGNATURES
Flats / sharps on The order of flats on the staff is B-E-A-D-G-C-F, or BEAD-Greatest
the staff Common Factor. The order of sharps on the staff is F-C-G-D-A-E-B, or Fat
Cats Go Down Alleys Eating Birds.

Pairs add to For each letter name, there is a flat key and a sharp key. Only one will have
seven (shortcut) an accidental in the key name (except C flat/C/C sharp). The total number
of accidentals for the two keys always adds up to seven. For instance, G
flat major has 6 flats, and G major has 1 sharp. See 2.5 Key Signatures Self-
Study Tips for more tips.

FLAT KEYS SHARP KEYS

## #
C C#
C/C# & 0 flats + & # ## # 7 sharps =7
## #
F F#
F/F# &b 1 flat + & # ## 6 sharps =7
##
Bb B
b
Bb/B &b 2 flats + & # ## 5 sharps =7
##
Eb E
b
Eb/E &b b 3 flats + &## 4 sharps =7
##
Ab A
b
Ab/A & b bb 4 flats + &# 3 sharps =7
D
b
Db
#
Db/D & b bbb 5 flats + &# 2 sharps =7
G
bb
Gb
#
Gb/G & b b bb 6 flats + & 1 sharp =7
Cb C
b
Cb/C & b bbbbb 7 flats + & 0 sharps =7
34 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 2.4
MINOR SCALES: TWO ROADS
Minor scale The most common minor scale, the natural minor scale, follows the pattern
of half steps and whole steps formed by the white piano keys from A up to
the next A: whole, half, whole; then whole; then half, whole, whole.

A B C D
w w
E
w
F
w
G
w
A

& w w w
W h W W h W W
lower tetrachord upper tetrachord

Relative keys Relative keys are any major scale and natural minor scale that share a key
signature. The third note of the minor scale is the first note of the relative
major with the same key signature. For example, C is the third scale note of
A minor. C major and A minor are relative keys sharing a key signature
with no flats or sharps. Remember: Relatives at a family reunion look
alike, and relative key signatures “look alike” also.

major scale on C (starts on third scale note of A minor)

A B C D E
w
F
w
G
w
A
w
B w
C

w w w w
& w
natural minor scale on A (relative major is C major)

Road one: There are two roads to find key signatures for minor scales: relative and
relative minor parallel. The example below illustrates the relative minor method for
spelling E minor.
STEP 1: Count up three letter names to find the relative major.
STEP 2: Spell the relative major key signature.
STEP 3: Adjust if necessary to match the minor scale you want.

1. Count up 2. G major 3. G major includes E§, so

three letters. has one sharp. E minor also has one sharp.

ww w _ # #
& w __
w
& w w w w w w w
E F G E F# G A B C D E

& _
1 2 3 _ G _ W h W W h W W
 Chapter 2: Major and Minor Scales and Keys 35

Relative minor Sometimes counting up three letters gives a major key that doesn’t fit
with adjustment with the minor key you want. C minor is a good example. Counting up
from C gives E: C, D, E. E major has four sharps, including C sharp. Since
we want C natural, not C sharp, we need to use the key signature for E flat
major (three flats) instead of E major.

1. Count up 2. E major 3. E major includes C#, not C§, so

##
three letters. has four sharps. use the Eb major key sig. instead.

& w w __ & # # w __
C D w b C D Eb F G Ab Bb C
&b b w w w w w w w w
E

1 2 3 _ _

Road two: Parallel keys share the same starting note (called the tonic). To find the
parallel minor natural minor notes using the parallel key, write a major scale on the same
note, then lower 3, 6, and 7 using accidentals. Although the parallel and
relative methods both work, minor keys should be memorized.

E major = 4 # E minor = 1 #

& w #w #w w w #w #w
w _ & w #w nw w w nw nw
w
E F# G# A B C# D# E E F# G§ A B C§ D§ E

_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 _ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Lower steps 3, 6, and 7 with accidentals.

Melodic minor Melodic minor is natural minor with steps 6 and 7 raised going up, but
like natural minor going down. Notice the F sharp in the key for E minor.

# w w nw nw w
C# D# D§ C§
& w w w w w #w #w
E F# G A B E E B A G F# E
w w w w
6 7 7 6

Harmonic minor Harmonic minor is natural minor with step 7 raised (only) both up and
down. Again, the F sharp reflects the key signature for E natural minor.

# w w #w w w w
D# D#
& w w w w w w #w
E F# G A B C E E C B A G F# E

w w w
7 7
 Chapter 2: Major and Minor Scales and Keys 39

Section 2.7
MAJOR AND NATURAL MINOR
SCALES FOR PIANO
Major scales Right hand fingerings above, left hand fingerings below; thumbs are 1;
enharmonic keys are listed only once.

4
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1

C &4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ
5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
&b œ œ œ œ œ
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1

F œ œ œ
5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5

b
2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 2

&b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Bb

3 2 1 4 3 2 1 2 1 2 3 4 1 2 3

b œ
&b b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ
2 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 2

Eb
œ œ
3 2 1 4 3 2 1 2 1 2 3
1 2 3 4

bb
2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 1 3 2 1 4

&b b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ3 œ2 œ1 œ4 œ3 2 1 2 œ œ
Ab

1 2 3 4
1 2 3

## #
4 1 2 1 4 3 2 1 3 2

& # ## # œ œ œ
2 3 1 2 3
œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
C#

3 2 1 4 3 2 1 2 1 2 3 4 1 2 3

# ## # œ œ œ œ œ œ
&# # œ œ œ œ œ œ
2 3 4 1 4 3 2
2 3 1 2 1 3 2 1

F# œ œ œ
4 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4

##
& # ##
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
B

4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

# ## œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
&#
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1

E
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
5 4 3 2 3 4 5
1 3 2 1 2 3 1 2

##
&#
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ5 œ4 œ3 œ2 œ1 3 2 1 œ œ
A

2 3 1 2 3 4 5

#
œ œ œ
4 3 2 1 3 2 1

&# œ œ œ œ œ
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
D

5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5

# œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1

œ œ œ œ œ œ
G & œ
5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
40 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Natural minor Right hand fingerings above, left hand fingerings below; thumbs are 1;
scales enharmonics keys are listed only once.

b
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1

&b b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
C

5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5

bb œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1

F &b b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5

b
& b bbb
2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 2

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ1 4 3 2 œ œ
Bb

3 4 1 2
2 1 3 2 3 1 2

bb œ œ œ œ œ œ
& b b bb œ œ œ œ œ œ
2 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 2

Eb œ œ œ
2 1 4 3 1 3 2 4 1 2
2 3 1 2 3

bb
3

& b b bbb
2 3 1 2 3 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 4 1

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ3 œ2 œ1 œ4 3 2 1 2 œ œ
Ab
1 2 3 4
1 2 3

####
3 1 2 3 2 1 3 2 1 4 2

œ œ œ œ
2 3 1 2

& œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
C#
œ œ 3 2 1 2 1 2 3 4
œ œ
3 2 1 4 1 2 3

## œ œ œ œ œ œ
&# œ œ œ œ œ œ
2 3 1 2 1 4 2
3 1 2 3 2 1 3 2

F# œ œ œ
4 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4

#
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1

&# œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ
œ
B

4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

# œ
& œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
1 2 3 1 3 2 1
2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1
E
œ œ
5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 4 5
2 3 1 2
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1

A &
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ
œ5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 3 1 2
3 4 5

&b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
4 3 2 1 3 2 1

œ œ œ œ œ
1 2 3 1
5 2 3 4
D
œ œ
5 4 3 2 3 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
1

œ3 œ4 œ œ4 œ3 œ2 œ1 œ
1

b œ
1 2 3 3 2 1

œ
5
b œ
2

G & œ œ œ œ
5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
Chapter 3
INTERVALS AND TRANSPOSITION

3.1 Introduction to Intervals: interval definition, major and perfect intervals, minor intervals,
diminished, augmented, consonant intervals, perfect and imperfect consonances, dissonant intervals,
perfect fourth, simple and compound intervals

3.2 Mastering Intervals 1: major and minor seconds, pattern for seconds, pattern for thirds, pattern
for fourths, pattern for fifths, pattern for sixths, pattern for sevenths, summary of core intervals

3.3 Mastering Intervals 2: harmonic versus melodic intervals, spelling descending intervals, interval
inversion, using inversion for sixths and sevenths, identifying intervals, summary of interval types

3.4 Transposition: transposition of notes, transposition of chords, transposition of key signatures,

transposing a melody, transposing instruments, common transpositions
Chapter 4
TRIADS AND SEVENTH CHORDS

4.1 Introducing Triads: triad, root, third, fifth, major triads, minor triads, diminished triads,
augmented triads, spelling minor triads, spelling diminished triads, spelling augmented triads, root
position, first inversion, second inversion, voicing and inversion

4.2 The Major Triads: Spell Them Quickly: overview, stack of thirds, BEAD raise third, B bumps
both

4.3 Spelling Triads in Four Steps: spelling triads given the third or the fifth, examples given the
third, examples given the fifth

4.4 Seventh Chords: seventh chords, major seventh chord, minor seventh chord, major-minor
(dominant) seventh chord, half-diminished seventh chord, fully-diminished seventh chord,
inversions

4.5 Common Chord Reference Chart: reference chart listing triads and seventh chords

4.6 Basic Lead Sheet Symbols: lead sheet symbols for triads, lead sheet symbols for seventh chords,
vertical and horizontal slashes
52 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 4.1
INTRODUCING TRIADS
Triad A triad is a three-note chord built of two third intervals stacked on top of
Root, Third, Fifth each other. The three notes are called root, third and fifth from bottom to
top. In the chord below, the two third intervals are C to E and E to G.

& w
w
fifth
w third
root

Major triads A major triad has a major third on the bottom and a minor third on top.
The chord that occurs on the first step of a major key is a major triad.

& w
w
w minor 3rd on top
major 3rd on bottom

Minor triads A minor triad has a minor third on the bottom and a major third on top.
The chord that occurs on the first step of a minor key is a minor triad.

& bw
w
w major 3rd on top
minor 3rd on bottom

Diminished A diminished triad is a stack of two minor thirds.

triads

& bbw
w
w minor 3rd on top
minor 3rd on bottom

Augmented An augmented triad is a stack of two major thirds.

triads

& #w
w
w major 3rd on top
major 3rd on bottom
 Chapter 4: Triads and Seventh Chords 53

Spelling minor To spell a minor triad, start with a major triad, then lower the 3rd using
triads an accidental to make a minor triad.

& w & bw
F major F minor
w
w
lower 3rd w
w

Spelling To spell a diminished triad, start with a major triad, then lower the 3rd
diminished triads and 5th to make a diminished triad. Another option is to start with a major
triad, then raise the root to make a diminished triad.

& w & bbw

F major F dim.
w
w
lower 3rd, 5th w
w

& w & #w
F major F# dim.
w
w
raise root w
w

Spelling To spell an augmented triad, spell a major triad, then raise the 5th (only) to
augmented triads make an augmented triad.

& w & #w
F major F aug.
w
w
raise 5th w
w

Root position Root position means the root is the lowest note. When the third is the
First inversion lowest note, the triad is in first inversion. When the fifth is the lowest note,
Second inversion the triad is in second inversion.

w
& w & w
root position 1st inversion 2nd inversion
& w
w
w root w
w w
third on bottom fifth on bottom

Voicing and Chord voicing refers to the ordering of the notes (root, third, fifth) above
inversion the lowest note. Changing the chord voicing does not change the inversion.

w 2nd inversion w
w
w w w
& w w
2nd inversion 2nd inversion
w (OR) & w (OR) & w etc.
fifth on the bottom fifth on the bottom fifth on the bottom
56 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 4.4
SEVENTH CHORDS
Seventh chords A seventh chord is a four-note chord built using stacked thirds. The four
notes are the root, third, fifth and seventh from bottom to top. There are
Major seventh, five basic types. A major seventh chord has a major triad and a major
Minor seventh seventh. A minor seventh chord has a minor triad and a minor seventh.

M7 & www
major third on top
+ & w
w =& w
w
w
w
major 7th
chord major triad major seventh M7 chord
minor third on top

m7 & bwww + & bw

w = & bbw
w
w
w
minor 7th minor triad minor seventh m7 chord
chord

Major-minor A major-minor seventh chord has a major triad and a minor seventh.
(dominant) Mm7 chords function as dominant chords. “Mm7…dominant?”
seventh

+ & bww = & bwwww

minor third on top
& w
Mm7 w
w
major triad minor seventh Mm7 chord

Half-diminished A half-diminished seventh has a diminished triad and a minor seventh. A

Fully-diminished fully-diminished seventh chord is a diminished triad plus a diminished
seventh. Fully-diminished seventh chords are a stack of all minor thirds.

¯ 7 & bw & ¯bbbw

dim. triad minor seventh 7 chord
& bbw
w + = w
w
w w w major third
half-dim.

°
& ∫w & bb∫w
minor third
& bbw w
7
fully-dim.
w
w
dim. triad
+ w =
diminished seventh
w
w
° 7 chord

Inversions Inversions may be root position (root on bottom), 1st inversion (3rd on
bottom), 2nd inversion (5th on bottom), or 3rd inversion (7th on bottom).
See 5.2 Roman numerals and Volumes 2 and 3 for more study.
58 [Link] High-Yield Music Theory, Vol. 1: Music Theory Fundamentals

Section 4.6
BASIC LEAD SHEET SYMBOLS
Lead sheet Lead sheet symbols are written above a melody and indicate the chords to
symbols for play underneath. They show the root of the chord and the chord quality.
triads For triads, the common chord qualities are major, minor, diminished, and
augmented.

C C- or Cmin Cdim or Cminb5 or Cº Caug or Cmaj#5

& w
w
w & bw
w
w & bbw
w
w & #w
w
w
Major Minor Diminished Augmented

Lead sheet The symbols for seventh chords work similarly:

symbols for
seventh chords C7 C^ or Cmaj7 C-7 or Cmin7
& bw
w
w & w
w
w & bbw
w
w
w w w
Mm7 Major 7th Minor 7th
("Dominant" 7th)
Cmin7b5 or CØ7 Cº7 or Cdim7
& bbbw
w
w & bb∫w
w
w
w w
Half—dim 7th Diminished 7th
(Bº often spelled A§)

Vertical and A vertical slash indicates the note that should be played lowest. A
horizontal horizontal slash indicates one chord on top of another chord (often, two
slashes different triads).

E
_
#w
G7/B D
w
w w
w E major triad
& w
w & #w
w
w
w B on bottom D major triad

See also See Volume 3: Jazz and Popular Music Theory and Jazzology by Rawlins
and Bahha. For roman numerals, see 5.2 Roman Numerals.
Chapter 5
INTRODUCTION TO HARMONIC ANALYSIS

5.1 Texture in Music: harmonic analysis, texture, texture types, monophonic texture, unison,
polyphonic texture, homophonic texture, homophonic: homorhythmic accompaniment, homophonic:
blocked chord accompaniment, homophonic: Alberti bass accompaniment, homophonic: broken
chord accompaniment, heterophonic texture

5.2 Roman Numerals: roman numerals, roman numerals and chord quality, triad roman numerals in
major keys, seventh chord roman numerals in major keys, triad roman numerals in minor keys,
seventh chord roman numerals in minor keys, variations in minor keys, inversion numbers

5.3 Harmonic Progression: harmonic progression, V—I (V—i), circle of fifths, sequence, downward
thirds, subdominant progressions, the plagal progression, the deceptive progression, the subtonic in
minor keys, harmonic progression diagram (major keys), harmonic progression diagram (minor
keys)

5.4 Harmonic Analysis 1: Homophonic Texture: harmonic analysis, harmonic rhythm, pitch
inventory, harmonic analysis: homorhythmic textures, resolving ambiguities: consider progressions
and assume the fifth is missing, harmonic analysis: blocked chord and arpeggiated accompaniments,
nonchord tones, finding the root

5.5 Nonchord Tones 1: nonchord tones, consonance, dissonance, passing tones, neighbor tones,
neighbor group, cambiata, appoggiaturas, escape tones, retardations, anticipations, pedal tones,
pedal point

5.6 Nonchord Tones 2: Suspensions: suspensions, preparation, suspension, resolution, suspension

types, chain of suspensions

5.7 Second Inversion Chords: four types of second inversion triads, C-PAP, cadential, passing,
arpeggio, pedal, summary: tips for identification

5.8 Harmonic Analysis 2: Polyphonic Texture: Analysis of Menuet from French Suite No. 2, J.S. Bach
Appendices
SOLFÈGE AND RHYTHMIC SYLLABLES

Appendix 1: Solfège Syllables: standard syllables, chromatic syllables, fixed do versus moveable do,
moveable do: do-based and la-based minor, singing with numbers, sample melody

Appendix 2: Rhythmic Counting Syllables: rhythmic counting systems, simple time: notes on the
beat, simple time: upbeats, simple time: the second fourth of the beat, simple time: other notes,
compound time: two systems, compound time: notes on the beat, compound time: the second third of
the beat, compound time: the last third of the beat, compound time: other notes, other notes
Postlude
REVIEW, RESOURCES, INDEX

Postlude 1: Remember-Forever Review: Music Theory Fundamentals: components, staffs, clefs,

accidentals, middle C, rhythmic values, time signatures, meter, tuplets/grouplets, repeats, dynamics,
articulation, tempo, major scale, major keys and key signatures, minor scales and minor keys, scale
degrees (steps), intervals, triads, seventh chords, solfège, rhythmic counting, texture types

Postlude 2: Music Fundamentals: More Resources: about the resources, websites, books

Postlude 3: Index of Music Theory Terms