Washington and Lee Law Review

Volume 14 | Issue 2 Article 4

Fall 9-1-1957

Case Comments

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220 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

CASE COMMENTS
CONTRACT s-AcCEPTANCE OF OFFER BY FAILURE TO NOTIFY OFFEROR OF
REJECTION. [Federal]
It is a popular maxim that silence implies assent, or as Oliver
Goldsmith once stated, "silence gives consent."u Since the development
of the contract as a legal instrument, there have been repeated attempts
to gain contractual advantages by asserting as a comparable legal rule
that failure to express a rejection of an offer may constitute an accept-
ance of it.2 The recent case of Russell v. The Texas Company3 stands
as one of the relatively infrequent instances in which this contention
has been upheld in the courts. Plaintiff was the owner of certain prop-
erty (referred to as section 23) in which defendant owned the mineral
rights and had the right to use such of the surface as might be necessary
for the mining of minerals. During 1952, defendant had been con-
ducting extensive mining operations on section 23, and also had been
using the surface of section 23 in connection with mining operations
on lands other than that section. On October 30, 1952, plaintiff sent
defendant an offer for a revocable license to cover the use of section 23
in connection with mining operations on adjacent lands for $150 per
day, the offer stating expressly that "your continued use of the road-
way, water and/or materials will constitute your acceptance of this
revocable license." 4 Without making any response, defendant continued
to use section 23 until November 22, 1952, and in December, 1952,
defendant sent plaintiff a rejection of the offer. In an action for dam-
ages for use of the surface, the district court5 found that plaintiff's offer
for a revocable license had been accepted by defendant, and accord-
ingly, plaintiff was awarded $150 per day from the receipt of the offer
by defendant to the time defendant ceased his wrongful conduct, to-
gether with damages for the use and occupancy of plaintiff's property
during that time. 6 The Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit affirmed

'Goldsmith, "The Good Natured Man," Act II.

2
Such assertions have given rise to confusion in the law of contracts, the courts
being faced with a situation similar to the truism of Paulus in the Pandects of Jus-
tinian: "He who remains silent certainly does not speak; but nevertheless it is true
that he does not deny." Digest, L, 17, 142 (Paulus).
'238 F. (2d) 636 (C. A. 9th, 1956).
'238 F. (2d) 636, 641 (C. A. 9th, 1956).
5
United States District Court for the District of Montana.
0
The damages for use and occupancy which plaintiff sought were not in the
nature of double compensation with the $x5o per day, but rather were due under the
19571 CASE COMMENTS 221

the finding that defendant's use of section 23 was tortious and that
defendant's conduct amounted to an acceptance of the offer for a re-
vocable license. 7 By way of dictum, the court indicated that there
still would have been a valid contract formed here had defendant's
conduct not been tortious. "But even in the absence of a tortious use,
the true test would be whether or not the offeror was reasonably led to
believe that the act of the offeree was an acceptance, and upon the
facts of this case it seems evident that even this test is met."8
Contrary to the implications of the principal decision, it may be
stated as a general rule that an offeror cannot bind the offeree by a
stipulation that silence or inaction on the part of the offeree will con-
stitute an acceptance of the offer.9 Of course, that rule does not cover
the distinguishable situation in implied-in-fact contract cases, where
the obligations of the parties arise "from mutual agreement and in-
tent to promise but where the agreement and promise have not been
expressed in words."'10 In that situation, meaning is given to the acts
of the parties "in relation to the previous usage and conduct of men." 11
But where the silence of the offeree is alleged to amount to an accept-
ance of the offer, the offeree's conduct, including his silence, has no
standard by which its effect can be measured, because it is unique to

terms of the mineral reservation for the use of section 23 in connection with mining
operations on section 23. The Si5o per day was alleged by plaintiff as owing for the
use of section 23 in connection with mining operations on adjacent lands.
The court applied the rule of the Restatement of Contracts in finding the
creation of a valid contract through acceptance by silence. "Where the offeree
exercises dominion over things which are offered to him, such exercise of dominion
in the absence of other circumstances showing contrary intention is an acceptance.
If circumstances indicate that the exercise of dominion is tortious the offeror may at
his option treat it as an acceptance, though the offeree manifests an intention not to
accept." Restatements, Contracts (1932) § 72 (2).
82°38 F. (2d) 636, 643 (C. A. 9th, 1956). Note the apparent anomaly in the court's
decision: If acceptance is to be found on the basis of silence, then how can the true
test look to the act of the offeree? See further note 26, infra.
'Bank of Buchanan v. Continental Banks, 277 F. 385 (C. C. A. 8th, 1921); Ex-
celsior Stove & Mfg. Co. v. Venturelli, 29o Ill. App. 502, 8 N. E. (2d) 702 (1937);
Prescott v. Jones, 69 N. H. 305, 41 Atl. 352 (1898); Sell v. General Electric Supply
Corp., 227 Wis. 242, 278 N. W. 442 (1938); 1 Corbin, Contracts (1950) § 72; 1 Willis-
ton, Contracts (2nd ed. 1936) § 91; Simpson, Contracts (1953) § 31. "The proper infer-
ence from failure to respond to a proposition of any kind is that it is rejected or
declined. A party cannot be held to contract where there is no assent. Silence oper-
ates as an assent, and creates an estoppel, only when it has the effect to mislead.
There must be such conduct on the part of the [offeree] as would, if it were not
estopped, operate as a fraud on the party who has taken, or neglected to take, some
action to his own prejudice in reliance upon it." More v. New York Bowery Fire
Ins. 2Co., 13o N. Y. 537, 29 N. E. 757, 758 (1892).
i Williston, Contracts (2nd ed. 1936) 8.
nl Corbin, Contracts (195o) 34
222 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

the particular fact situation and there is no general "conduct of men"

2
upon which to interpret the offeree's silence as acceptance.'
The cases rarely state any reasons for this general rule, but rather
merely assert the proposition that there can be no contract formed
unless there is an acceptance to the offer, and that silence on the part
of the offeree is not acceptance of the offer. 13 Apparently the true reason
supporting the rule is so obvious that it is overlooked. A contract,
being a voluntary undertaking imposing legal obligations on both
parties, must necessarily require positive assent thereto. The offeror
shows his positive assent to the contractual situation by making the
offer, and the offeree must show his positive assent by affirmatively
accepting the offer.' 4 Otherwise there would be no meeting of the
minds of the parties on a specific subject matter and no mutual agree-
ment thereto, and consequently no contractual obligations would
result.15
There are certain situations, however, in which exceptions to the
general rule have been made and silence on the part of the offeree
held to constitute an acceptance of the offer. One writer 6 has put
these situations into two main categories, one of which is relevant to
the principal case: where the offeree has received the benefit of the
goods or services offered. 17 This category is subdivided into two situa-

"Apart from contracts which do exist in fact, "courts recognize by the lan-
guage of their opinions two classes of implied contracts. The one class consists of
those contracts which are evidenced by the acts of the parties and not by their
verbal or written words-true contracts which rest upon an implied promise in
fact. The second class consists of contracts implied by law ... and not by the in-
tentions of the parties. A contract cannot be implied in fact where the facts are in-
consistent with its existence; or against the declaration of the party to be charged;
or where there is an express contract covering the subject-matter involved; or against
the intention or understanding of the parties; or where an express promise would
be contrary to law." Miller v. Schloss, 218 N. Y. 400, 406, 113 N. E. 337, 338 (1916).
Contracts implied in fact are not included within the scope of this comment.
1
3E.g.: "It is well settled that 'a party cannot, by the wording of his offer, turn
the absence of communication of acceptance into an acceptance, and compel the re-
cipient of his offer to refuse it at the peril of being held to have accepted it.' Clark,
Cont. 31, 32." Prescott v. Jones, 69 N. H. 305, 41 AtI. 352 (1898).
14
The offeree, in accepting the offer, is not limited to a verbal or written mode
of acceptance, for an acceptance may be indicated by acts as well as by words. i
Williston, Contracts (2nd ed. 1936) § 22 A.
"'A contract is a promise, or set of promises, for breach of which the law
gives a remedy, or the performance of which the law in some way recognizes as a
duty. This definition may seem somewhat unsatisfactory... [but it] at least makes
clear that the obligation of a contractor is based on a promise made by him." i
Williston, Contracts (2nd ed. 1936) § i.
'-Note (1939) 7 Duke B. A. J. 87.
'-'The second classification is purely a negative of the first: the offeree has re-
ceived no benefit from the subject matter of the offer. In this situation, it would
1957] CASE COMMENTS

ations: (i) where the offer did not expressly state a price for the goods
or services; (2) where there was a definite price expressly stated by the
offeror. In the former case, the finding of a contract produces the same
result as would the application of a quasi contract theory-i.e., re-
covery by the offeror of the reasonable value of his goods or services,
preventing the offeree from unjustly enriching himself. But where the
offer expressly states a definite price, a different result arises from the
imposition of contract sanctions, since the offeror is thereby enabled
to recover his quoted price and thus secure the profit of his bargain.
In order to impose the contract sanctions in the latter situation, the
courts must find an acceptance of the offer. If found in this situation,
acceptance is no more than intent-not so much intent to enter into the
contract as intent to appropriate the subject matter of the offer to one's
own use.' 8 Further, the objective theory of contracts has tended to
replace actual intent with manifested intent, so that an acceptance is
easier to find. The court's holding in the Russell case can best be ex-
plained on this basis.
Of Williston's suggested four general situations in which silence
amounts to an acceptance, only one seems related to the facts of the
principal case: "where the offeree takes or retains possession of the
property which has been offered to him, such taking or retention in the
absence of other circumstances is an acceptance. If other circumstances
indicate that the taking or retention is tortious, the offeror may never-
theless at his option treat it as an acceptance."' 9 If the retention is non

seem to be more difficult to find the existence of a valid contract: Truscon Steel Co.
v. Cooke, 98 F. (2d) 905 (C. C. A. ioth, 1938); Gould v. Coates Chair Co., 147 Ala.
629, 41 So. 675 (igo6); Hughes v. John Hancock Mut. Life Ins. Co., 163 Misc. 31, 297
N. Y. Supp. 116 (1937); Royal Ins. Co. v. Beatty, iig Pa. St. 6, 12 Ad. 607 (1888).
There can be no quasi-contractual recovery allowed by the court since the offeree has
not unjustly enriched himself. If a recovery is to be allowed, the court must hold
either: (i) that the breach of some duty to speak will support a damages action
to reimburse the offeror for losses sustained through reliance on the reasonably as-
sumed acceptance by the offeree, the theory of such recovery being closely akin to
that of a tort recovery; or (2) that there was an acceptance by the silent offeree so
that contract sanctions may be imposed, the theory of this recovery being similar
to a recovery based on estoppel. In the latter situation, "The offeree's conduct is
measured not in terms of its intended meaning, but in terms of what it should have
meant. The duty notion reappears as the objective standard of a reasonable interpre-
tation." Note (1939) 7 Duke B. A. J. 87, 93.
2Note (1939) 7 Duke B. A. J. 87 at 89.
"i Williston, Contracts (2nd ed. 1936) § 91, p. 281. Williston's first three divi-
sions of the cases are: (i) Where the offeree with reasonable opportunity to reject
offered service takes the benefit of them under circumstances which would indicate
to a reasonable man that they were offered with the expectation of compensation.
Williston, Contracts, supra, §§ 91, 9iA. If the offeree receives a benefit from the
services, he is to be held liable for their fair value, as where the owner of personal
224 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

tortious, it may amount to an acceptance if there are no circumstances

to the contrary.20 But these latter cases usually involve some special
fact situation, as where goods are sent on approval, the approval being
a condition precedent to the transfer of title. 21 If the retention or tak-
ing is tortious, then it seems that the offeror may treat it as an accept-
ance, even in the presence of circumstances negativing an intention on
the part of the offeree to accept. It is in this category that the Russell
case falls, if Williston's division of the cases is to be used. The court
22
in the Russell case based its decision on a finding of tortious retention,

property which is in the hands of a third party is notified that a storage fee is
going to be imposed, and the owner remains silent. Taylor v. Dexter Engine Co., 146
Mass. 613, 16 N. E. 462 (1888). This division is limited to services performed to the
benefit of the offeree, and is qualified by the fact that there must be an inference of
an expection of compensation. (2) Where the offeror has stated or given the
offeree reason to understand that assent may be manifested by silence or inaction,
and the offeree in remaining silent and inactive intends to accept the offer. Williston,
supra, §§ 91, 91B. As indicated by Williston, this classification is almost entirely
theoretical, and is not given support by the cases. It is not applicable to the Russell
case, for there is no evidence that the defendant there intended to accept the offer of
the plaintiff; rather, the subsequent rejection of the offer indicates the opposite in-
tention. (3) Where because of previous dealings or otherwise, the offeree has given
the offeror reason to understand (expressly or through previous dealings of the
parties) that the silence or inaction was intended by the offeree as a manifestation
of assent, and the offeror does so understand. Williston, supra, §§ 91, 91C. This
situation is extended somewhat to cover the case in which the offeree solicits an
offer, and then remains silent and inactive once the offer is extended. In the Russell
case, there was no express authorization to this effect, no previous dealings between
the parties, and the defendant had not solicited the offer.
21Cf. i Williston, Contracts (2nd ed. 1936) 289, n. 2.
21
In this type of case, it will usually be true that the vendee has initiated
the offer for a sale on approval by either ordering the goods or assenting to their
being shipped to him by the vendor. After the goods are received by the vendee, he
fails to return the goods or to send the purchase price to the vendor, who then seeks
to recover the purchase price from the vendee on the theory of a contract having
been created by the vendee's silence or inaction. Markstein Bros. Millinery Co. v.
White, 151 Ark. 1, 253 S. W. 39 ( 92); Evans Piano Co. v. Tully, 116 Miss. 267, 76 So.
833, L. R. A. i918B, 87o (1917), but these cases generally contain some factor in
addition to a receipt of an offer, coupled with a receipt of goods by the offeree, and
his resulting silence or inaction. There may have been a prior relation between
the parties which justified the offeror in believing that the silence of the offeree was
an acceptance of his offer. Wheeler v. Klaholt, 178 Mass 141, 59 N. E. 756 0901);
Hobbs v. Massasoit Whip Co., 158 Mass. 194, 33 N. E. 495 (1893). There may have
been a tortious use made of the goods by the offeree, justifying the court's finding of
a contract under the rule of the Restatement of Contracts (1932) § 72 (2), or other
similar reasoning. In re Downing Paper Co., 147 Fed. 858 (E. D. Pa. 19o5); Ostman
v. Lee, 91 Conn. 731, 1o Atl. 23 (1917). At the very least, the offeree must have re-
quested an offer or assented to its being made, and it appears that somehow, on the
basis of this initiation, there evolves a duty on the offeree to reject, so that the
offeror is justified in replying. See further note 28, infra.
-238 F. (2d) 636 at 642 (C. A. 9th, 1956).
 CASE COMMENTS

quoting an almost identical rule from the Restatement of Contracts

23
as being controlling.
In the principal case, the court failed to take notice of whether
dominion was exerted by the offeree over the goods before or after he
received the offer. The offeree's exerting dominion over the object
after the offer has been made may be regarded as acceptance by positive
act, so that there is no need to rely on the concept of acceptance by
inaction and silence. Though the offeree has remained silent, he has
not remained inactive; and it is settled that assent to an offer may
be indicated by acts as well as by words.2 4 But where dominion has
been exerted before the offer was made, the offeree does nothing more
after receipt of the offer than he was doing before the offer was made.
His conduct is ambiguous-i.e., it is not expressive of his intent toward
accepting or rejecting the offer.25 Further, under such circumstances the
offer may have been merely an attempt by the offeror to inflict a penal-
ty on the offeree by means of liquidated damages, of which efforts
the courts do not approve.2 The court in the Russell case might well

3Restatement, Contracts (1932) § 72 (2).

21
Ludowici-Celadon Co. v. McKinley, 307 Mich. 149, 11 N. W. (2d) 839 (1934);
Fanning v. C. I. T. Corp., 187 Miss. 45, 192 So. 41 (1939); Reichman v. Compagnie
Generale Transatlantique, 29o N. Y. 344, 49 N. E. (2d) 474 (1943); Wood and
Brooks Co. v. D. E. Hewitt Lumber Co., 89 V. Va. 254, 109 S. E. 242, i9 A. L. R. 467
(1921); Restatement, Contracts (1932) § 21. Contra: Chickamauga Mfg. Co. v. Augusta
Grocery Co., 23 Ga. App. 163, 98 S. E. 114 (1919).
2A offers to sell goods to B, who has already been using the goods for some time.
After receipt of the offer, B continues using the goods, but otherwise does not reject
or accept the offer. This situation appears to be analogous to that in which the of-
feror attempts to attach meaning to some ordinary act of the offeree. In this type
of situation the act of the offeree is ambiguous because it does not indicate whether
the offeree acted in order to accept the offer or for some reason not relevant to the
offer. See further i Corbin, Contracts (1950) 231.
2
Defendant so argued in the Russell case, citing Wright v. County of Sonoma,
156 Cal. 475, 105 Pac. 409 (19o9) and Sherman v. Associated Tel. Co., ioo Cal. App.
(2d) 8o6, 224 P. (2d) 846 (ig5o). In the first case defendant county took water from
plaintiff's land for the purpose of sprinkling a highway that it was building. Plain-
tiff sent defendant a notice to stop, stating that if defendant disregarded the notice,
plaintiff hereby demanded $5o per day as compensation for the taking of the water.
The court denied the plaintiff a recovery on the theory of a contract having been
created between the parties, stating that all that plaintiff was entitled to was the
reasonable value of the water. The notice to defendant amounted to a notice of the
amount of damages plaintiff would claim for the wrongful taking of the water.
In the second case, defendant exceeded the bounds of his easement across plaintiff's
land for the stringing of telephone wires. Plaintiff notified defendant in writing to
remove the wires, or else be charged $25 per day. The court citing the first case as
authority, denied plaintiff a recovery, since there was no allegation or proof of the
reasonable value of the use and occupation of the land. The federal court attempted
to distinguish these cases from the Russell case on the ground that there the
notices contained no offer for a license, easement or sale. "Hence, the notice was
226 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

have reasoned, however, that the communication from plaintiff to de-

fendant was an order to cease use of section 23, coupled with an offer
for a license for such use if defendant was willing to accept plaintiff's
terms. If defendant then made use of section 23 for his mining opera-
tions on adjacent lands, it could have been held that he had accepted
27
the offer by his act or conduct.
Unless a duty to speak in order to reject exists under a particular
fact situation, 28 it would seem that no acceptance should be based on
the offeree's silence. If the offeree has received unjust enrichment at
the expense of the offeror, courts, as in the Russell case, will sometimes
hold that the offeree has accepted the offer by his silence because he
exercised dominion over the goods offered. But a contract is a con-
sensual arrangement, and should not be found to exist without the
consent and assent of both parties thereto. Without creating a con-
tract by fiction, the law can compensate the offeror for his lost goods or
services on a quantum valebant or quantum meruit recovery, where-
29
by the offeree is not permitted to enrich himself unjustly.

nothing more than an attempt to inflict a penalty by means of liquidated damages,

and this court refused to approve. In this case at bar no such situation existed,
since Russell, as the offeror, in clear and unmistakable terms, offered a license
to the appellant, and appellant by its own conduct accepted the offer." 238 F. (2d)
636, 643 (C. A. 9th, 1956). This would seem to be a very weak distinction, however.
Evidently, plaintiff in the Russell case was attempting to impose a penalty on de-
fendant for his continued wrongful use of section 23, since there was such a great
disproportion between the amount awarded plaintiff under the revocable license
($3,6oo.oo) and the amount awarded as the reasonable value for the use of the
entire section 23 under the terms of the mineral reservation ($237.6o). It is true
that there is not sufficient information in the opinion on which to determine ac-
curately whether the $150.00 per day offer was excessive for the use that defendant
was making of plaintiff's land, but it appears that the court should look to the
results of the notices or offers, instead of looking merely at their form, in deciding
whether the plaintiff was attempting to impose penalties by means of liquidated
damages.
-7Rather than try to find acceptance by silence and inaction in the principal
case, it would seem that better reasoning would have treated plaintiff's notice to
defendant as a notice to cease and desist, so that defendant's subsequent use of
section 23 could be treated as exertion of dominion over the goods after they were
offered.
"Such a duty has, in fact, been held to exist in certain cases, but it appears
that the word duty "is used, not in the sense of a legal obligation, but, morally, a
duty of conscience. The theory seems to be something akin to estoppel." Note
(192o) 33 Harv. L. Rev. 595, 597- "He who is silent when conscience requires him to
speak, shall be debarred from speaking when conscience requires him to be silent."
Nicholas v. Austin, 82 Va. 8x7, 825, i S. E. 132, 137 (1887). "But if silence may be
interpreted as assent where a proposition is made to one which he is bound to
deny or admit, so also it may be if he is silent in the face of facts which fairly
call upon him to speak." Day v. Caton, 119 Mass. 513, 515 (1876).
""A quasi or constructive contract rests upon the equitable principle that a per-
19571 CASE COMMENTS

It would seem, therefore, that there should be no doctrine of accept-

ance by silence in the field of contract law. 30 The entire controversy
over the doctrine of acceptance by silence, and the confusion there-
from, in reality springs from efforts by courts to determine whether
a valid contract was created by the parties-whether both the offeror
and the offeree intended (as based on an objective standard) to agree
to the terms of the alleged contract. An obvious solution to the dilem-
ma is to make the intent of the parties controlling on the question
of the formation of the contract. If the offer is made, and the offeree
does some overt act to indicate his assent-some act called for by the
terms of the offer-then there is little difficulty. But if the offer calls
for silence as the manner of accepting the offer, and the offeree does
in fact remain silent, absent prior agreement the intent on his part will
be more difficult to prove. Nevertheless, this intent should be made
controlling and courts should refuse to find the existence of a con-
tract without clear proof of this intent. If the effect of the silence was

son shall not be allowed to enrich himself unjustly at the expense of another. In
truth it is not a contract or promise at all. It is an obligation which the law creates,
in the absence of any agreement, when and because the acts of the parties or others
have placed in the possession of one person money, or its equivalent, under such
circumstances that in equity and good conscience he ought not to retain it, and which
ex acquo et bono belongs to another. Duty, and not a promise or agreement or
intention of the person sought to be charged, defines it. It is fictitiously deemed
contractual, in order to fit the cause of action to the contractual remedy." Miller v.
Schloss, 218 N. Y. 400, 407, ul3 N.E. 337, 338 (1916).
In the field of sales law, the Uniform Commercial Code does not altogether
ignore this problem, although it has no specific language on acceptance by silence as
such. Part 2 of Article II has certain scattered sub-sections that might, through
judicial interpretation and determination, bear on the question of the offeree's silence
as a mode of expressing acceptance. Only one point seems fairly certain: if A offers
to sell goods to B, and B accepts in terms additional to or different from those of-
fered, such additional or different terms are to be construed as a part of the contract
unless they materially alter the offer or a rejection of them is made by A within
a reasonable time. §§ 2-207 (1), 2-207 (2). It does appear, however, that the Code
will recognize the doctrine of estoppel where the silence of one party has the
effect of misleading the other party, based on a prior course of dealings between the
same parties. § 2-208.
",It would appear to be necessary to distinguish offers for unilateral and bi-
lateral contracts in deciding whether there is acceptance by silence. If the offer is for
a unilateral contract, either the offeree has done the act of creating the contract,
thereby accepting the offer, or else he has not. If it is determined that a contract
was made, and yet the offeree has done no act, then contract must be implied in
fact by the courts. There can be no unilateral contract created until one party be-
comes liable, on the basis of prior promises, due to the performance of an act by the
other party. However, a different situation is created by an offer for a bilateral con-
tract, "where the 'acceptance' if effective would create a contract executory on both
sides, [for here] we have presented the unavoidable question, May silence be con-
strued as acceptance?" Note (1920) 33 Harv. L. Rev. 595, 596.
228 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

to mislead the offeror, acting as a reasonable man, into the assumption

that an acceptance was intended, then the holding should be that the
offeree is estopped to deny that he accepted the offer, rather than that
he did in fact, by his silence, accept the offer. The concept of accept-
ance by silence seems inconsistent with the general principles under-
lying the theory of contracts; and even where this concept has been
applied in finding the creation of a valid contract, it appears that the
courts are in reality finding that the contract was created by estoppel.
If it is clear that the offeree did not by his silence intend to accept
the offer, and the offeree has not exercised dominion over the goods
offered, then no contract should be found to exist. Where the offeree
has made use of the goods or services offered by the offeror and under
such circumstances that the offeree's silence indicates no intent to
accept the offer, then the courts should still refuse to find the existence
of a contract. The offeror can be compensated by a quasi-contractual
recovery in quantum valebant or quantum meruit. It is true that this
approach denies to the offeror a recovery of the benefit of his pro-
posed bargain, but nevertheless he is in no worse position than if the
offeree had affirmatively rejected the offer and then wrongfully made
use of the offeror's goods so as to enrich himself unjustly. This measure
of recovery seems preferable to the result reached in the principal
case, wherein the offeror was allowed to recover his own arbitrary
charges for the goods without the actual agreement of the offeree to
pay that amount. The court there should have found that no contract
was created, and should have sent the cause to a jury to award damages
in the amount of the reasonable value of the benefit obtained by
the offeree through his wrongful conduct.
ROBERT E. STROUD

CRIMINAL LAw-DOUBLE JEOPARDY AS DEFENSE AGAINST RETRIAL FOR

GREATER OFFENSE AFTER REVERSAL OF CONVICTION OF LESSER OF-
FENSE. [Federal]
Protection against double jeopardy in criminal prosecutions is
found in the Federal Constitution, in the constitutions of at least
forty-one states,' and in the common law under the rule of autrefois

1,... nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in
jeopardy...." U. S. Const., Amend. V. Citations to 41 state constitutions are col-
lected in Kneir, Prosecution Under State Law and Municipal Ordinances as Double
Jeopardy (1931) 16 Corn. L. Q. 2oi at 202, n. 4.
1957] CASE COMMENTS

convict or autrefois acquit.2 This protection is based on the policy

favoring finality of judicial proceedings, a principle common to all
systems of jurisprudence. 3 It is generally held that the guaranty against
being twice put in jeopardy is waived by the accused when an adverse
verdict is set aside and a new trial granted on his motion in the trial
court or where a conviction is reversed on his appeal.4 But where the
conviction which is set aside or reversed is not of the offense for which
he was indicted, but of a lesser offense, the question as to the extent to
which the guaranty against double jeopardy has been waived in the
new trial is more troublesome.
This question was recently considered by the United States Court
of Appeals for the District of Columbia in Green v. United States.5
Green was indicted for arson and for murder in the first degree done in
perpetration of arson,6 and was convicted of arson and second degree
murder.7 He appealed only from the second degree murder convic-
tion. The conviction was reversed and the case remanded on the ground
that there was no evidence to sustain a conviction of second degree
murder and that the trial court's instruction on second degree murder
was erroneous because "all the testimony as to what occurred in the
burning house pointed to murder in the first degree and nothing
else." 8 During the argument of the appeal, the court took note of the
fact that if the conviction were to be reversed, the jury in the second
trial might find the accused guilty of the first degree murder and a
death sentence might be imposed, but Green indicated that he recog-
nized this possibility and would take the risk. On retrial, the judge
did not instruct on second degree murder, and the jury found Green
guilty of murder in the first degree. Green again appealed, principally
on the ground of double jeopardy. On the second appeal, the question
was stated to be: "Where one is convicted, not of the crime charged in
the indictment under which he was tried but of a lesser included of-
fense, and on his appeal the conviction is reversed and he is granted a
new trial, may he be tried again for the crime charged in the indict-
ment, or must the new trial be confined to the lesser offense of which
2
Autrefois convict is defined as formerly convicted, and autrefois acquit as
formerly acquitted. Black, Law Dict. (1951) 170. See i Wharton, Criminal Law
(12th ed. 1932) § 394.
3o Am. Jur., Judgments § 162.
'Stroud v. United States, 251 U. S. 15, 40 S. Ct. 50, 64 L. ed. 1o3 (1919); People
v. Bellows, 281 N. Y. 67, 22 N. E. (2d) 238 (1939); 15 Am. Jur., Criminal Law § 427.
r236 F. (2d) 708 (C. A. D. C., 1956).
6D. C. Code (1951) §§ 22-2401.
7Green v. United States, 218 F. (2d) 856 (C. A. D. C., 1955).
'Green v. United States, 218 F. (2d) 856, 859 (C. A. D. C., 1955).
230 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

he was first convicted?" 9 The Court of Appeals, relying on the 1905

Supreme Court decision in Trono v. United States, 10 held that Green
could be tried again for first degree murder, declaring that the better
doctrine is that the reversal of the conviction opens up the whole con-
troversy, and that the accused may be proceeded against as if there had
been no previous trial." Three judges dissented on the ground that
the conviction of second degree murder constituted an acquittal of
first degree murder, and that Green did not, by his appeal, waive his
constitutional right against being placed in jeopardy a second time for
first degree murder. 12 Certiorari has been granted in this case by the
United States Supreme Court.13
As the court pointed out in the principal case, there is a diversity of
opinion among the state courts on this question. 14 The states holding
in accord with the Green case conclude that when a new trial is granted,
either by motion or on appeal, the defendant is in the same position as
if there had been no trial and has waived his right to plead his prior
conviction as double jeopardy.' 5 Some courts adopt this theory by vir-

gGreen v. United States, 236 F. (2d) 708, 710 (C. A. D. C., 1956). The use of the
term "lesser included offense" represents something of an inconsistency, since on the
first appeal Green's conviction was reversed on the ground that second degree murder
in this case was not a lesser included offense in the statutorily defined offense of
arson-murder.
"199 U. S. 521, 26 S. Ct. 121, 5o L. ed. 292 (igo5). One judge concurred in the
result in the principal case solely because of the United States Supreme Court's de-
cision in the Trono case.
"The court then considered the following question: (i) Does an unappealed
conviction of arson bar a subsequent prosecution for felony murder arising out of
the arson; and (2) was the McNabb rule of evidence violated? The court answered
both questions negatively, with two judges dissenting from the court's decision on
the second question.
'See 236 F. (2d) 708, 718 (C. A. D. C., 1956). The dissenting judges felt that the
Trono case was not controlling, as it was appealed to the Supreme Court of the
Philippine Islands under procedures which permitted the whole case to be reviewed
and tried de novo in the appellate court.
"25 U. S. L. Wk. 3153 (Nov. 20, 1956).
"Green v. United States, 236 F. (2d) 708 at 710 (C. A. D. C., 1956).
"Trono v. United States, 199 U. S. 521, 26 S. Ct. 121, 5o L. ed. 292 (19o5); Young
v. People, 54 Co1. 293, 13o Pac. l11 (1913); Perdue v. State, 134 Ga. 300, 67 S. E.
8io (191o); State exrel. Lopez v. Killigrew, 202 Ind. 397, 174 N. E. 8o8 (1931) (new
trial granted by writ of coram nobis); State v. McCord, 8 Kan. 232, 12 Am. Rep.
469 (1871); Hoskins v. Commonwealth, 152 Ky. 805, 154 S. W. 919 (1913); Butler
v. State, 177 Miss. 91, 170 So. 148 (1936); State v. Higgins, 252 S. V. (2d) 641 (Mo.
App. 1952); Gibson v. Somers, 31 Nev. 531, 103 Pac. 1073 (1909); People v. Palmer,
io9 N. Y. 413, 17 N. E. 213 (1888); State v. Correll, 229 N. C. 640, 50 S. E. (2d) 717
(1948), cert. den. 336 U. S. 969, 69 S. Ct. 941, 93 L. ed. 1120 (1949); State v. Robinson,
ioo Ohio App. 466, 137 N. E. (2d) 141 (1956); Pierce v. State, 96 Okla. Crim. App.
76, 248 P. (2d) 633 (1952); State v. Kessler, 15 Utah 142, 49 Pac. 293 (1897); State v.
Hiatt, 187 Wash. 226, 6o P. (2d) 71 (1936). See Christensen v. State, 66 Kan. 671,
1957] CASE COMMENTS

tue of statutes which specify that the defendant by appealing waives

his right to set up the prior conviction as the basis for a plea of double
jeopardy. 16 Other courts hold that the defendant waives his right in
order to bring himself within the statutory power of the court to grant
a new trial. 17 One court has merely declared it to be an "accepted prin-
ciple of law" that there is no double jeopardy when the defendant has
appealed.1s The jurisdictions reaching this conclusion seem to reason
that the defendant, having chosen to appeal, cannot contest the part of
the first proceeding which affects him adversely (the conviction of the
lesser offense) and yet stand on the part which is to his advantage
(the absence of a conviction of the greater offense)-that is, he must
take the burden with the benefit, and go back for a new trial of the
whole case.
The states which, on the contrary, adopt the view that one who is
indicted for a crime and convicted of a lesser offense cannot, after re-
versal of the conviction, be prosecuted for the greater offense on a new
trial, proceed on the theory that the conviction of the lesser offense
amounts to an acquittal of the higher charge.19 When the jury returns
a verdict of a lesser offense, it has returned an implied verdict of not
guilty of the greater offense, and any error affecting the express verdict
of guilty does not affect the conclusiveness of the implied verdict of ac-
quittal. By appealing from the error in the conviction of the lesser

203 P. (2d) 258, 261 (1949); State v. Rutter, 145 Neb. 798, i8 N. W. (2d) 203, 207 (1945);
State v. Lamoreaux, 20oN. J. Super. 65, 89 A. (2d) 469, 474 (1952).
The court in the principal case may have had more than the usual reasons for
applying a waiver theory: "At oral argument we inquired of his counsel whether
Green clearly understood the possible consequence of success on this [the first) ap-
peal, and were told the appellant, who is 64 years of age, says he prefers death to
spending the rest of his life in prison." Green v. United States, 236 F. (2d) 708, 710
(C. A. D. C., 1956).
"E.g., People v. Palmer, 109 N. Y. 413, 17 N. E. 213 (1888). Cf. People v. Mc-
Grath, 2o2 N. Y. 445, 96 N. E. 92 (191).
"TE.g., State v. McCord, 8 Kan. 232, 12 Am. Rep. 469 (1871).
IsState v. Correll, 229 N. C. 640, 50 S.E. (2d) 717, 718 (1948), cert. den. 336 U. S.
969, 69 S. Ct. 941, 93 L. ed. 1120 (1949).
25Thomas v. State, 255 Ala. 632, 53 S. (2d) 340 (1951); Application of Hess, 45
Cal. (2d) 171, 288 P. (2d) 5 (1955); People v. Newman, 360 Ill. 226, 195 N. E. 645
(1934); State v. Coleman, 226 Iowa 968, 285 N. W. 269 (1939); People v. Rock, 283
Mich. 171, 277 N. W. 873 (1938); Ex parte Williams, 58 N. M. 37, 265 P. (2d) 359
(1954); State v. Noel, 66 N. D. 676, 268 N. W. 654 (1936); State v. Steeves, 29 Ore.
85, 43 Pac. 947 (1896); Commonwealth v. Flax, 331 Pa. 145, 2oo Ad. 632 (1938);
Reagan v. State, 155 Tenn. 397, 293 S.W. 755 (1927); Brown v. State, 99 Tex. Crim.
App. 19, 267 S.W. 493 (1924); Leigh v. Commonwealth, 192 Va. 583, 66 S. E. (2d)
586 (1951); State v. Franklin, 139 W. Va. 43, 79 S. E. (2d) 692 (1953). See Hearn v.
State, 212 Ark. 360, 205 S. W. (2d) 477 (1947); State v. Elmore, 179 La. 1057, 155 So.
896, 899 (1934); State v. B, 173 Wis. 6o8, 182 N. W. 474, 480 (1921).
232 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

offense, the accused does not waive his right to rely on the implied
acquittal as a final adjudication that he was not guilty of the greatei
offense.20 On this reasoning it has been held to be unnecessary to de.
cide whether the evidence would sustain a verdict of first degree murder
in the second trial, since the jury had, in effect, acquitted the defend-
ant of that offense in the first trial by finding him guilty of murder in
the second degree; 21 and a second trial on a murder charge has been
held to be barred because the manslaughter conviction in the first trial
(though reversed on appeal as an impossible verdict under the evi-
dence) amounted to an acquittal of the higher offense. 22 In State v.
Franklin,23 the West Virginia court was faced with a problem similar
to that of the principal case on Green's first appeal. The defendant
was indicted for rape but was convicted of an attempt to commit rape,
though the evidence showed that if the defendant participated in the
crime, he did so as a principal in the second degree. The court held
that under the evidence the defendant could only be found not guilty
or guilty of rape as a principal in the second degree; he could not prop-
erly be found guilty of an attempt to commit rape because that crime is
not a lesser included offense of rape as a principal in the second degree.
The defendant was awarded a new trial, but the court held that, in ef-
fect, the jury had found him not guilty of rape as charged in the indict-
ment and that therefore he could not be retried for a crime higher than
that of an attempt to commit rape.
In Trono v. United States, 24 upon which the decision in the prin-
cipal case is based, the plaintiff-in-error appealed from the conviction
of a lesser offense. The United States Supreme Court upheld the sub-
sequent conviction of the higher offense on retrial on the ground that,
when the defendant appealed, he waived the right to use the former
acquittal of the higher offense contained in the judgment as a bar
to further prosecution for the offense. Justice Holmes, who concurred
in the result in the Trono case, had in the earlier case of Kepner v.
United States25 voiced the theory that a new trial for the greater of-
fense "must be regarded as only a continuation of the jeopardy which
began with the trial below." 26 In the Kepner case, the accused had
been charged with embezzlement and acquitted, but was then convicted

"'Application of Hess, 45 Cal. (2d) 171, 288 P. (2d) 5 (1955).

nLeigh v. Commonwealth, 192 Va. 583, 66 S. E. (2d) 586 (1951).
-People v. Newman, 36o Ill. 226, 195 N. E. 645 (1935).
2319 W. Va. 43, 79 S. E. (2d) 692 (1953)-

24199 U. S. 521, 26 S. Ct. 121, 50 L. ed. 292 (195o).

2195 U. S. 100, 24 S. Ct. 797, 49 L. ed. 114 (1904).
'195 U. S. ioo, 137, 24 S. Ct. 797, 806, 49 L. ed. 114, 127 (1904).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

by the Supreme Court of the Philippine Islands on an appeal by the

government. The United States Supreme Court ruled that this pro-
cedure had subjected the accused to double jeopardy, but Justice
Holmes dissented on the ground that "a man cannot be said to be
more than once in jeopardy in the same cause, however often he may
be tried." 27 It was under a similar theory that the Connecticut court
not only allowed the defendant to be retried for the higher offense,
but also allowed the state, acting under a statute, to appeal in a crimi-
28
nal prosecution.
When the defendant in the principal case first appealed, the court
found that the giving of the second degree murder instruction in his
original trial was erroneous and prejudicial to the defendant. 29 Some
state courts would not have agreed that such error was prejudicial to
the defendant, if the evidence was sufficient to sustain a verdict for
the higher offense. In State v. Gordon,30 the Ohio court ruled that the
defendant, who had been found guilty of second degree murder, was
not prejudiced by the failure of the trial court to instruct that the
verdict must be first degree murder or acquittal, where the evi-
dence was sufficient to sustain a verdict of first degree murder. In an-
other instance, in which the jury returned a verdict of a lesser offense
even though no instruction thereon had been given, the West Vir-
ginia court upheld the conviction of the lesser offense, saying: "They
[the jury] have not exceeded the law, but stopped short of the law and
of their duties. In other words, without warrant of law or moral right,
they have exercised clemency, and dispensed what they conceived to be
mercy." 3' If the court in the principal case had adopted this view on
Green's first appeal, it would have upheld the trial court's original
conviction on the theory that a convicted person cannot be heard to
32
complain of an error in his favor.
The greatest danger present in such a situation as the principal
case is that of a compromise verdict. The jury may be uncertain
of the defendant's guilt of any crime, and mistakenly translate its
uncertainty into a compromise verdict. Thus, on an appeal by the de-
2195 U. S. 'O, 134, 24 S. Ct. 797, 806, 49 L. ed. 114, 126 (19o4).
"State v. Lee, 65 Conn. 265, 30 At. 11o (1894).
="Green v. United States, 218 F. (2d) 856 (C. A. D. C., 1955). Judge Prettyman,
in his dissent, expressed the view that the error was not prejudicial to defendant.
See 218 F. (2d) 856, 859 (C. A. D. C., 1955).
87 Ohio App. 8, 92 N. E. (2d) 805 (1948).
nState v. Prater, 52 W. Va. 132, 143, 43 S.E. 230, 234 (1903).
nDean v. State, 83 S.(2d) 777 (Fla. 1955); State v. Greigo, 61 N. M. 42, 294 P. (2d)
28- (1956); State v. Stephens, 244 N. C. 38o, 93 S. E. (2d) 431 (1956).
234 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

fendant from a conviction of an analytically impossible offense, a court

may feel that the conviction should be reversed and sent back for a
retrial of the whole case in order to guard against this possibility. To
be weighed against this consideration, however, is the argument that
it should be within the jury's province to exercise clemency where
it feels that the defendant's guilt does not for any reason justify a
verdict for the crime charged in the indictment. The court in the prin-
cipal case could have so reasoned and thus avoided the dilemma by
upholding the conviction of the lesser offense, since the evidence was
sufficient to sustain a conviction of the higher offense for which the
defendant had been indicted. However, in a case in which it is im-
perative that the court reverse the conviction of a lesser offense (on some
ground not related to the nature of the offense charged, such as mis-
conduct of the jury) and this dilemma must be faced, it is believed that
the prior conviction should act as a bar to any prosecution for the
greater offense. The defendant's right of appeal should not be restricted
by consideration of the danger that on retrial he may be convicted of
the more serious crime.
THOMAS E. LOHREY, JR.

DAMAGES-INTEREST ON AWARD OF DAMAGES FOR BREACH or EMPLOY-

MENT CONTRACT. [New Hampshire]
Ever since the common law abandoned the view that the charging of
interest is a moral wrongl and recognized that interest could properly
be awarded as damages under certain circumstances,2 courts have been
attempting to formulate a set of rules to govern such awards.3 A pri-
mary difficulty has arisen from a lack of agreement as to the principles
which justify the awarding of interest. Originally, the purpose was to
punish the defendant for the detention of money which should right-

'For an account of the evolution of the medieval law of usury and the historical
development of interest, see McCormick, Damages (1985) § 51; Marshall v. Beeler,
104 Kan. 32, 178 Pac. 245 at 246 (1919).
-"The usual rule, applicable to cases at law and in equity, is that when money
is not paid when due the plaintiff is entitled to interest, by way of damages, from
the time when it should have been paid." Winchell v. Plywood Corp., 324 Mass.
171, 85 N. E. (2d) 313, 319 (1949)-
3"There is no subject in the law with reference to which there is greater con-
flictand confusion in the cases than that of interest." Brown v. Home Development,
129 N. J. Eq. 172, 18 A. (2d) 742, 746 (1941). Sedgwick, though not so dogmatic, does
mention that "the determination of the question whether interest can or cannot be
allowed, is by no means free from difficulty." i Sedgwick, Damages (9th ed. 192o )
569-
1957] CASE COMMENTS

fully have been in plaintiff's possession. 4 In more modern times, how-

ever, more concern has been given to the necessity for fully compen-
sating plaintiff, since he had been deprived for some time of the use
of money owing to him. 5
Largely as a result of this uncertainty as to the logical basis for
awarding interest as damages, the courts face a perplexing problem
in determining what types of claims should be the subject of interest
awards. Different standards have been proposed as solutions. The first
approach was to allow interest only as a contract term and not as
damages,0 but this was soon recognized to be too great a limitation3
Then interest came to be allowed on claims which were liquidated,8
the idea being that unfairness would result to defendant if he had to
pay interest as a result of failure to pay an obligation, the true amount
of which he could not readily determine. 9 Since most liquidated
claims arise out of contract actions, while unliquidated claims, on the
other hand, more generally stem from tort situations, a distinction has
also been rested upon whether the action was in contract or in tort. 10

'See the discussion on this feature of the problem in Laycock v. Parker, 1o3
Wis. 161, 79 N. W. 327 at 332 (1899).
'Concordia Ins. Co. v. School District No. 98, 282 U. S. 545, 51 S. Ct. 275, 75
L. ed. 528 (1931); Miller v. Robertson, 266 U. S. 243, 45 S. Ct. 73, 69 L. ed. 265 (1924);
Robberson Steel Co. v. Harrell, 177 F. (2d) 12 (C. A. ioth, 1949); In re Paramount
Publix Corp., 85 F. (2d) 42, io6 A. L. R. 16 (C. C. A. 2nd, 1936); Emery v. Tilo
Roofing Co., 89 N. H. 165, 195 At. 409 (1937); A. L. Russell, Inc. v. City of New York,
138 N. Y. S. (2d) 455 (App. Div. 1954); Note (1947) 61 Harv. L. Rev. 136 at 137.
C"Beginning with a denial of interest in any case except where it was allowed by
contract, the law first gave discretion to the jury to give interest as damages, and
then allowed it as a matter of law in a constantly increasing number of cases."
i Sedg-wick, Damages (9th ed. 192o) 568. Also Sammis v. Clark, 13 Ill. 544 at 546
(1854).
7"[In England] by the end of the eighteenth century the common-law courts
had accepted the view that interest as damages as distinguished from promises to
pay interest, express or inferred from conduct or usage, could only be allowed upon
a contract for payment of money on a day certain, such as a note or bill of exchange,
and seemingly then only in the jury's discretion." McCormick, Damages (1935) 209.
The writer also notes that the American "courts have from the first manifested a
somewhat less intransigent attitude toward the extension of the limits of the re-
covery of interest as damages." McCormick, Damages (1935) 210.
£"The most general classification of causes of action with reference to interest is
as to liquidated and unliquidated demands. The rule is quite general that inter-
est is not allowed on unliquidated damages or demands." Geohegan v. United Ele-
vated R., 266 Ill. 482, 107 N. E. 786, 791 (1915).
interest is not allowed on an unliquidated damage that is not capable of
i"...
ascertainment by mere computation, for the reason that the person liable does not
know what sum he owes; he cannot compute the interest and therefore he is not in
default for not paying." Burton v. Asbestos Limited, Inc., 92 F. Supp. 310, 319
(D. C. N. J. 1950). Also Laycock v. Parker, 1o3 Wis. 161, 79 N. V. 327 at 332 (1899);
Smedley, Interest Damages in Virginia (1942) 28 Va. L. Rev. 1138, 114o.
10
Smedley, Interest Damages in Virginia (1942) 28 Va. L. Rev. 1138, 1141.
236 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

These distinctions are, however, no longer strictly adhered to." For

one reason, many situations which arise cannot be satisfactorily rele-
gated to one category or the other. Then, too, many courts have come
to extend the awarding of interest beyond those cases involving purely
liquidated claims, without regard to why defendant did not pay
promptly, because interest is thought to be necessary to compensate
the wronged plaintiff in full. 12 Therefore, in situations in which the
amount of the true obligation owing to plaintiff is capable of being
determined by some fixed external standard, interest is usually awarded.
3
These are often called "determinable" or "liquidable" claims.'
That the problem has not yet been wholly resolved is indicated by
such decisions as that of the New Hampshire court in the recent case
of McLaughlin v. Union-Leader Corporation,'4 involving an action of
covenant and assumpsit brought to recover damages for defendant's
breach of a sealed contract of employment. Plaintiff was the adver-
tising manager for defendant newspaper, and in November, 1947,
he entered into a contract with defendant under which he was to re-
ceive $l,ood a month for five years in return for his services. The
contract was breached by defendant in September, 1949, and this action
was instituted shortly thereafter.' 5 The trial court found defendant
liable on the contract, and on appeal, the Supreme Court of New
Hampshire affirmed the decision for plaintiff, holding, as to the interest
feature, that the trial court was correct in allowing interest from No-

""Courts are more and more coming to recognize that a rule forbidding an
allowance for interest upon unliquidated damages is one well calculated to defeat
that purpose [of fairly compensating one who has suffered an injury] in many cases,
and that no right reason exists for drawing an arbitrary distinction between liqui-
dated and unliquidated damages." Bernhard v. Rochester German Ins. Co., 79 Conn.
388, 65 Ad. 134, 138 (1906).
"Concordia Ins. Co. v. School District No. 98, 282 U. S. 545, 51 S. Ct. 275, 75 L.
ed. 528 (1931); Miller v. Robertson, 226 U. S. 243, 45 S. Ct. 73, 69 L. ed. 265 (1924);
J. P. (Bum) Gibbins, Inc. v. Utah Home Fire Ins. Co., 202 F. (2d) 469 (C. A. ioth,
1953); Robberson Steel Co. v. Harrell, 177 F. (2d) 12 (C. A. ioth, 1949); Emery v.
Tilo Roofing Co., 89 N. H. 165, 195 Atl. 409 (1937); A. L. Russell, Inc. v. City of
New York, 138 N .Y. S. (2d) 455 (App. Div. 1954); Grobe v. Kramer, 178 Misc. 247,
33 N. Y. S. (2d) 901 (1942).
"3Sawyer v. E. F. Drew & Co., 113 F. Supp. 527 (D. C. N. J. 1953); Huntoon v.
Hurley, 137 Cal. App. (2d) 33, 290 P. (2d) 14 (1955); Katz v. Enos, 68 Cal. App. (2d)
266, 156 P. (2d) 461 (1945); Fidelity-Phenix Fire Ins. Co. v. Board of Education,
2o Okla. 250, 204 P. (2d) 928 (1948); Mall Tool Co. v. Far West Equipment Co., 45
Wash (2d) 158, 273 P. (2d) 652 (1954); Laycock v. Parker, 1o3 Wis. 161, 79 N. W.
327 (1899); 15 Am. Jur. 583; 25 C. J. S. 539.
1"127 A. (2d) 269 (N. H. 1956).
"Several of the pertinent facts were ascertained from an earlier record of this
case on a separate appeal. McLaughlin v. Union-Leader Corp., 99 N. H. 492, 116 A.
(2d) 489 (1955).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

vember, 1952, the date of the completion of the contract term. Though
this result may have been justified on a practical basis, the reasoning
used by the court presents a graphic example of the confusion of
thought which pervades this field.
Both parties excepted to the trial court's ruling on the issue of inter-
est, plaintiff contending that he should receive interest on each month's
salary payment as it came due, since he had lost the use of the money
from that time, and defendant maintaining that because it was unable
to compute the actual amount owed plaintiff-since he had a duty to
minimize his damages by seeking other employment-no interest at all
should be awarded. In attacking the interest problem, the court first
made some general observations which seemed to indicate that it
favored the argument advanced by plaintiff,' 6 and pointed out that
defendant's "argument sacrifices principle to expediency since the de-
fendant's 'liability does not await liquidation but is absolute,' as soon
as the breach occurs."' 7 Continuing, the court set forth what it held to
be the New Hampshire rule: "Our law is that the test to determine
whether interest is payable before verdict 'is not to inquire whether it
[the debt] is liquidated, but whether it is due...' since 'interest is
given as damages for the failure to pay money at the time it is due'."'5
In this regard it was futher reasoned that plaintiff should not be
barred from recovery of interest simply because of the uncertainty of
the principal debt, and that since defendant never indicated a desire
to pay, it cannot now claim any favor based on lack of knowledge of
how much to pay. Thus, the conclusion was apparently reached that to
have allowed plaintiff no interest on the sums due him, merely because
defendant did not know the exact amount due, "would have been an
9
abuse of discretion.'
After having supported plaintiff's position up to this point of the
opinion, the court seems to have experienced an abrupt change of
heart, asserting that "courts have recognized to some degree the prac-
tical difficulty confronting the defendant in cases similar to the one
before us and have made allowance for it."20 Once this statement was
made, knocking out the foundation for the argument previously ten-

""If we adopt this [defendant's) argument we take from the plaintiff sub-
stantial sums which he can reasonably claim are his, and allow the defendant, which
the jury has found in default, to retain them." McLaughlin v. Union-Leader Corp.,
127 A. (2d) 269, 271 (N. H. 1956).
171"7 A. (2d) 269, 271 (N. H. 1956).
'p127 A. (2d) 269, 271 (N. H. 1956).
DI27 A. (2d) 269, 272 (N. H. 1956).
m127 A. (2d) 269, 272 (N. H. 1956).
238 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

dered, the court pointed out that this was a matter in which the trial
court must exercise its discretion. The path was thus left open for the
court to reach a vacillating and apparently illogical compromise (or
rather to adopt the compromising solution which the trial court had
reached) that interest should be awarded from the date at which the
employment under the contract was to have ended.
At the end of the contract term, plaintiff's duty to minimize
damages was admittedly past. For that reason defendant would no
longer be able to argue that it could not pay plaintiff because it did
not know how much plaintiff would minimize in the future. Still, the
court's compromise solution does not answer: (i) defendant's point that
it does not know how much plaintiff has or should have minimized
in the past and cannot know that sum until a court and jury de-
termine the extent of plaintiff's duty in this regard; or (2) plaintiff's
point that he is being deprived of all interest on the money due during
the contract period merely because of the possibility that he may have
been able to minimize to some extent. In accepting as sufficient the
judgment of the trial court, the New Hampshire Supreme Court seems
to have yielded to expediency without attempting to meet squarely and
reconcile the conflicting principles advanced by each party.
The court's difficulty perhaps originated in its statement of what it
felt the New Hampshire decisional law to be on this subject-i.e., that
the test "is not to inquire whether it [the debt] is liquidated, but
whether it is due .... -21 While it is true that interest as damages can be
awarded only from the time when the debt is due, the above statement
seems to indicate that the court would grant interest as damages on
every obligation from the time it first became due, without any re-
gard for the matter of the uncertainty of the amount of the obligation.
While that rule would have the merit of providing full compensation
for the plaintiff, and while the law may be moving slowly in that di-
rection, no court has yet been known to adopt the rule in anything like
22
the breadth of the terms employed in the principal case. Apparently,

21
This statement was quoted from a 19o8 New Hampshire decision, Dame v.
Wood, 75 N. H. 38, 7o At. io81, 1o82 (19o8), which in turn relied on a slightly
earlier case in that jurisdiction as authority for the proposition stated. It is interest-
ing to note that this latter decision, Wright v. Pemigewasset Power Co., 75 N. H.
3,7o At. 29o (19o8), is not only an action sounding in tort instead of contract, but
also fails to mention the troublesome word "due." Thus, it is somewhat of a puz-
zle as to how the New Hampshire test could be so definitively stated by the court
in the principal case.
-Under the provisions of the New York Civil Practice Act, Practice Manual
Ann. (Clevenger 1955) § 480, the awarding of interest is made mandatory as part
of the damages for breach of any contract, whether the damages were liquidated or
1957] CASE COMMENTS

the New Hampshire court failed to follow the test it seined to be es-
tablishing, for defendant's obligation to pay plaintiff's monthly sal-
ary surely could not be regarded as not due until completion of the
five-year contract term. Rather, an obligation for $1ooo became due at
the end of each month.
The determination of when an obligation is due has generally
created more problems in the tort field than in contract cases. Although
defendant's obligation to compensate plaintiff for a tort theoretically
becomes due at the moment the wrong is done, nevertheless as a prac-
tical matter the uncertain nature of the tort liability renders plain-
tiff's claim unliquidated and non-liquidable by defendant, a factor
which is regarded as sufficient to excuse defendant from paying the ob-
ligation, even though it is due.23 Some courts have sought to strengthen
the justification for non-payment under these circumstances by declar-
ing that defendant's obligation is not due until the exact amount has
been fixed by judgment. 24 Broadly speaking, there is less uncertainty as

unliquidated. Thus, under a justification somewhat different from the language

employed in the principal case, courts which rely on this New York statute would
reach seemingly the same result-full compensation of the claimant in the form of
interest for every breach of contract. E.g., Rigopoulos v. Kervan, 53 F. Supp. 829
(S. D. N. Y. 1943); Stentor Electric Mfg. Co. v. Klaxon Co., 30 F. Supp. 425 (D. C. Del.
1939); Hollwedel v. Duffy-Mott Co., 263 N. Y. 95, 188 N. E. 266, 90 A. L. R. 1312
(1933).
The concept of granting interest has also been broadened by allowing the deci-
sion to rest more in the discretion of the court than upon application of any arbi-
trary rules. An oft-quoted phrase is that found in a leading case in this field:
"Generally, interest is not allowed upon unliquidated damages.... But when neces-
sary in order to arrive at fair compensation, the court in the exercise of a
sound discretion may include interest or its equivalent as an element of damages."
Miller v. Robertson, 266 U. S. 243, 258, 45 S. Ct. 73, 78, 69 L. ed. 265, 275 (1924).
Also Thorp v. American Aviation & General Ins. Co., 113 F. Supp. 764 at 765
(E. D. Pa. 1953); St. Paul Mercury Indemnity Co. v. United States, 201 F. (2d) 57
at 62 (C. A. loth, 1952); United States v. Bethlehem Steel Corp., 113 F. (2d) 3o
at 3o8 (C. C. A. 3rd, 1940); Wells Laundry & Linen Supply Co. v. Acme Fast Freight,
Inc., 138 Conn. 458, 85 A. (2d) 907 at 91o (1952).
2See generally, i Sedgwick, Damages (gth ed. 192o) § 319; McCormick, Damages
(1935) 222: ".-. it is fairly clear that at a given time the claimant has suffered a
distinct and measurable financial loss.... Should he for delay in receiving this
compensation be additionally compensented by allowing interest upon the claim?
The earlier judges, with their distaste for interest upon unliquidated claims where
the debtor cannot know the precise sum which the law will exact, frowned upon
interest in this class of claims, but the marked tendency to-day is toward the al-
lowance of interest in such cases."
-"'Interest is compensation for the use of money which is due. But the money
which the wrongdoer is required by law to pay for the future suffering, expense or
loss of time of one whom he has injured is not due until judgment is made up.
It is not a debt and does not become a definite obligation until a verdict of finding
has been finally entered." Cochran v. City of Boston, 211 Mass. 171, 97 N. E. iloo,
1 240 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

to when the defendant's obligation under a contract is due, since that

factor is normally established or made readily ascertainable by the
25
contract terms.
It appears that the court in the McLaughlin case perhaps realized
that its result was inconsistent with the rule it declared to be in force,
but it did not see fit to attempt to resolve the conflicting complaints of
plaintiff and defendant. Surprisingly enough, little in the way of
precedent exists with regard to the specific issue which the principal case
presented. In suits to recover damages for breach of employment
contracts, it seems that plaintiffs regularly would attempt to recover
interest on the principal sum, which in most cases would be a liquidated
amount. In some cases, interest has been granted to plaintiff with
hardly any consideration of the problems involved.26 However, to de-
feat such a claim for interest, it would be only natural to assume that
defendant, in order to demonstrate that the wage claim is unliquidated
in nature, would point to the general duty on plaintiff to minimize
damages by securing (or seeking to secure) other employment. 27 Very
few cases have been found in which this exact pattern has been fol-
lowed, and when the issue has been presented in this form, varying
results have been reached. The courts which accept defendant's
argument explain that plaintiff's claim becomes unliquidated by vir-
tue of the uncertainty, stemming from his duty to minimize his dam-
ages, as to how much his recovery should be reduced below the full
amount of wages lost.2 8 On the other hand, those courts which award
interest to plaintiff despite the duty of minimization justify their de-
cision on the fact that plaintiff's measure of damages is prima fade the
amount due him under the contract for the remainder of the contract

iioi (1912). For the same sort of apparently irrational talk: Connelly v. Fellsway
Motor Mart, Inc., 270 Mass. 386, 17o N. E. 467 at 469 (1930); Louisville & N. R. v.
Wallace, 91 Tenn. 35, 17 S. W. 882 at 883, 14 L. R. A. 548 at 549 (1891).
2" 'Where a contract provides for the payment of money upon the happening
of an event, it is not due until the event transpires, and interest does not begin to
run until that time'.... It is also the general rule that 'interest, when allowed as
damages, runs from the date when the right to recover a sum certain is vested in
the plaintiff. In actions for breach of contract, it ordinarily runs from the date of
the breach or the time when payment was due under the contract." Prudential Ins.
Co. v. Goldsmith, 239 Mo. App. 188, 192 S. W. (2d) 1, 3 (1945)-
"Charlton v. Pan American World Airways, Inc., 116 Cal. App. (2d) 550, 254
P. (2d) 128 (1953); Morris v. Taliaferro, 75 Ill. App. 182 (1897); Catholic Press Co.
v. Ball, 69 Il. App. 591 (1897).
"'Fifty years ago it was pointed out that "a tendency seems to be developing
toward taking matters of mitigation into consideration in adopting a rule of dam-
ages." Note (1907) 6 L. R. A. (N. s.) 49, 121.
'Seymour v. Oelrichs, 162 Cal. 318, 122 Pac. 847 (1912); Crawford v. Mail &
Express Pub. Co., 22 App. Div. 54, 47 N. Y. Supp. 747 (1897).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

term.2 9 Since the burden rests on defendant to prove the amount which
plaintiff did minimize or should have minimized his losses by obtaining
other work during the contract term, the view applied in these latter
cases is apparently that defendant can, theoretically at least, ascertain
the proper minimization figure and so know the amount of his liability
to plaintiff. 3° Thus, plaintiff is held entitled as a matter of right to
interest from the time the salary becomes due, because the amount of
his claim was liquidable.3' In still other cases, the effect of plaintiff's
duty of minimization is regarded for this purpose as analogous to that
of set-offs or counterclaims raised by defendant, which, even though
unliquidated, are generally held not to defeat plaintiff's right to re-
32
cover interest on the principal sum due him.
The Restatement of Contracts has specifically approved the granting
of interest as damages in situations such as that involved in the Mc-
Laughlin case, in stating the rule to be that "interest is allowed on
the amount of the debt or money value from the time performance was

• Ansley v. Jordan, 61 Ga. 483 (1878); Bang v. International Sisal Co., 212 Minn.
135, 4 N. W. (2d) 113, 141 A. L. R. 657 (1942); Laming v. Peters Shoe Co., 71 Mo. App.
646 (1897); Note (19o7) 6 L. R. A. (N. S.) 49, 121: ". . . the prevailing practice is to re-
gard the claim for damages as a liquidated one upon which the servant is entitled to
interest."
°Bang v. International Sisal Co., 212 Minn. 135, 4 N. W. (2d) 11 3 , 141 A. L. R.
657 (1942); Laming v. Peters Shoe Co., 71 Mo. App. 646 (1897). Judge Learned
Hand justified the allowance of interest in the following manner: "... when the deb-
tor discharged the claimant, and the claimant chose to treat the discharge as a breach,
an unconditional liability resulted at once for the whole future salary less future
earnings; but since no one knew how much he would earn, the debtor could tender
nothing in performance. As time passed, however, this liability became progressively
liquidated, so that when the trial took place it could be completely ascertained....
Complete restitution demands interest from the date of the breach; the promisor
is let off only because of a tenderness to him, since he is thought to be practically
unable to perform, which, as we have already said, is a concession against principle.
There seems to be good warrant for withdrawing that concession in proportion as
the ground for its creation ceases. For these reasons it was an abuse of discretion not
to allow interest." In re Paramount Publix Corp., 85 F. (2d) 42, 45, io6 A. L. R. s116,
1121 (C. C. A. 2nd, 1936).
n"A discharged employee, entitled to recover from his employer as damages the
entire amount of his salary less what he has earned in the meantime by other em-
ployment, is also entitled, as a matter of right, to interest thereon from the termi-
nation of the period of his employment." Note (1907) 6 L. R. A. (N. s.) 49, 91.
1Sawyer v. E. F. Drew & Co., 113 F. Supp. 527 (D. C. N. J. 1953); Lacy Mfg.
Co. v. Gold Crown Mining Co., 52 Cal. App. (2d) 568, 126 P. (2d) 644 (1942);
Spurck v. Civil Service Board, 231 Minn. 183, 42 N. W. (2d) 720 (1950) See Note
(igig) 3 A. L. R. 8o9, where the rule is stated to be that "where the amount of a
claim under a contract is certain and liquidated, or is ascertainable but is reduced by
reason of the existence of an unliquidated set-off or counterclaim thereto, interest
is properly allowed on the balance found to be due from the time it became due and
was demanded, or suit commenced therefor."
242 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

due, after making all the deductions to which the defendant may be
entitled."33 In elaboration on this rule, it is observed: "The amount of
this reduction is nearly always unliquidated and uncertain, so that the
balance payable by the defendant is also uncertain. But full per-
formance would have put the plaintiff in possession of the full amount
promised, with the value of its use from the day of payment. The bal-
ance due from the defendant is less than this full amount, and its un-
34
certainty prior to verdict does not prevent the allowance of interest."
Thus, the court in the principal case could, with strong justification,
have adopted the rule which favors the plaintiff in this controversy.
This approach is in closer accord with the long-range trend of the
law to allow interest as damages in ever-widening scope as a means of
providing full compensation for the losses sustained through contract
breaches.
J.HARDIN MARION, III

DoMEsTIC RELATIONs-HEARTBALM STATUTE As BARRING AarION FOR

DAMAGES FOR FRAUDULENT INDUCEMENT To MARRY. [California]
As a result of the sensational newspaper publicity during the late
2o's and early 3o's concerning the extortion, blackmail and fraud which
were connected with breach of promise suits and to a lesser extent with
seduction, alienation of affections and criminal conversation suits,'
the public and through it state legislators were made aware of the
implications of an old adage: "We shall find no fiend in hell can match
the fury of a disappointed woman." 2 In an attempt to eliminate those
abuses as well as such other evils as excessive damages verdicts, six-
teen states enacted the so-called "heartbalm" statutes which abolished
the breach of promise action.3 In essence, the typical "heartbalm"

"Restatement, Contracts (1932) § 337 (a) [italics supplied). See especially Re-
statement, Contracts (1932) 547, Illustration 8 of Clause (a).
"Restatement, Contracts (1932) § 337 (a), comment (h) on Clause (a).
"'There will be little regret at the passing of the action for breach of promise to
marry. But there is room for an honest difference of opinion as to the actions of
alienation of affections and possibly of criminal conversation...." Feinsinger, Legis-
lative Attack on "Heart Balm" (1935) 33 Mich. L. Rev. 979, ooS.
2Colley Cibber, Love's Last Shift (1696) Act IV, Sc. 1.
3The following statutes affect the causes of action for breach of promise, seduc-
tion, alienation of affections and criminal conversation: Ala. Code (1941) tit. 7,
§§ 114-117; Cal. Civ. Code (Deering 1949) § 43.5; Colo. Stat. Ann. (Michie 1951
Supp.) c. 24A, §§ i-io; 21 Fla. Stat. Ann. (Harrison & West 1955 Supp.) §§ 771.01
771.08; Ill. Rev. Stat. (1941) c. 38, §§ 246.1-246.6 [contained only a penalty provision
1957] CASE COMMENTS

statute as it concerns the breach of promise suit provides that no con-

tract to marry shall give rise to any cause of action for the breach
4
thereof.
Since the statutes employ general terms, the courts are faced with
the problem of interpreting the scope of the prohibition intended by
the legislatures. It appears that the only cause of action which is
clearly abolished is that in which the plaintiff alleges as the sole basis
for recovery the breach of a contract to marry. Because many of the
statutes include sections making the mere filing of such suits unlawful,
suits based on that express allegation are rare.5 Therefore, a court
usually must decide whether to apply the statute as prohibiting only the

for bringing the actions but did not abolish them, and was held unconstitutional
in Heck v. Schupp, 394 Ill. 296, 68 N. E. (2d) 464 (1946)];Ind. Stat. Ann. (Bums
1916) §§ 2-5032-517; 3 Mich. Comp. Laws (1948) §§ 551.301-551.311; N. J. Stat. Ann.
(WVest 1939) §§ 2: 3 9 A-2: 3 9A9; N. Y. Civil Practice Act (Clevenger) § 61-a-6i-i; Wyo.
Comp. Stat. Ann. (1945) §§ 3"512-3-516.
The following affect only causes of action for breach of promise and aliena-
tion of affections: Md. Code Ann. (Flack 1947 Supp.) art. 75 C , §§ 1-8; Nev. Comp.
Laws Ann. (1943-1949 Supp.) §§ 4071.01-4071-07; Pa. Stat. Ann. (Purdon 1954 Supp.)
tit. 48, §§ 170-177"
The following affect only the cause of action for breach of promise: 6A Mass.
Ann. Laws (1955) c. 207, § 47A; 3 Me. Rev. Stat. (1954) c. 112, § 91; 2 N. H. Rev.
Laws (1942) c. 385, § 11.
Illinois enacted a statute which contained only a penalty provision for
bringing the actions, but did not abolish them. This statute was held unconstitu-
tional in Heck v. Schupp, 394 Ill. 296, 68 N. E. (2d) 464 (1946). Thereafter, Illinois
enacted statutes which do not abolish the causes of action but limit recovery to
actual damages. Ill. Ann. Stat. (Smith-Hurd 1956 Supp.) c. 68, §§ 34-47 ,alienation
of affections and criminal conversation); Ill. Ann. Stat. (Smith-Hurd 1956 Supp.) c.
89, § 25-34 (breach of promise). See Note (1952) 52 Col. L. Rev. 242, n. 3-4.
'The wording differs slightly from statute to statute. An example of the substan-
tive form most commonly followed is found in Pa. Stat. Ann. (Purdon 1954 Supp.) tit.
48, §§ 171-172: "All causes of action for breach of contract to marry are hereby
abolished. No contract to marry, which shall hereafter be made within this com-
monwealth, shall operate to give rise, either within or without this Commonwealth,
to any cause of action for breach thereof."
Some states have enacted statutes which appear narrower: 6A Mass. Ann. Laws
(1955) c. 207, § 4 7A provides that "Breach of contract to marry shall not constitute
an injury or wrong recognized by law, and no action, suit or proceeding shall be
maintained therefor." Cal. Civ. Code (Deering 1949) § 43.5 states only: "No cause of
action arises for: ... (d) Breach of promise of marriage."
5The statutes in Colorado, Florida, Indiana, Maryland, Michigan, Nevada,
New Jerzey, New York, Pennsylvania and Wyoming all contain provisions which
in essence make it unlawful to file, cause to be filed, threaten to file, or threaten
to cause to be filed any such action. In Pennington v. Stewart, 212 Ind. 553,
1o N. E. (2d) 619 (1937) (a cause of action for alienation of affections), this provision
of the Indiana statute was declared unconstitutional. For general treatment of the
constitutionality of "heartbalm" statutes, see cases cited in Magierowski v. Buckley,
39 N. J. Super. 534, 121 A. (2d) 749 at 757 (1956); Notes (1947) 167 A. L. R. 235;
(1945) 158 A. L. R. 617 at 618.
244 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

cause of action expressly mentioned, or to broaden the prohibition

to cover any kind of suit which may produce the evils against which
the statute is directed. In so deciding they must balance and attempt to
effectuate harmoniously two vital judicial policies: keeping the courts
open for the enforcement of just claims, 6 and preventing the fraudu-
lent use of the judicial processes to extort settlements of unjust claims. 7
One of the perplexing phases of this interpretive problem was pre-
sented in the recent California case of Langley v. Schumacker.s Plain-
tiff's complaint alleged that "defendant fraudulently induced her to
resign her position on representations that he intended to marry her,
to consummate the marriage, and to maintain a normal and natural
marital relationship... .,, She and defendant went through a cere-
mony of marriage, and only thereafter did she learn that he never in-
tended in good faith to consummate the marriage. Plaintiff obtained
a decree of annulment on that ground and subsequently brought the
present action to recover damages for the fraud.
The trial court sustained defendant's demurrer on the ground that
the action was barred by the California "heartbalm" statute.10 The
District Court of Appeals affirmed the order, holding that, under the
marital immunity doctrine, one spouse may not sue the other for a
personal tort even after an annulment of a marriage, because the annul-
ment of a voidable marraige does not give rise to a cause of action
which did not previously exist." The Supreme Court of California, in

"... . the very purpose of courts is to separate the just from the unjust
causes.... [I]t is against public policy to close the doors to people who may have
just claims or grievances and whose only peaceable remedy is through the courts ..
Wilder v. Reno, 43 F. Supp. 727, 729 (M. D. Pa. 1942).
7"... such remedies having been exercised by unscrupulous persons for their
unjust enrichment, and such remedies having furnished vehicles for the commission
or attempted commission of crime and in many cases having resulted in the perpe-
tration of frauds, it is hereby declared as the public policy of the state that the
best interests of the people of the state will be served by the abolition of such reme-
dies." N. Y. Civil Practice Act (Clevenger 1955) § 61-a.
846 Cal. (2d) 6ol, 297 P. (2d) 977 (1956), noted in (1956) 4 U. C. L. A. L. Rev.
114; (1957) 7o Harv. L. Rev. 1o98.
946 Cal. (2d) 6oi, 297 P. (2d) 977, 978 (1956).
1
See Note (1956) 4 U. C. L. A. L. Rev. 114.
21283 P. (2d) 343 (Cal. App. 1955).
Because husband and wife were looked upon as a single entity or unity, it was
fundamental at common law that no action could be maintained between spouses.
This "unity" theory was abolished by the various Married Women's Acts giving
separate property rights to the wife. While these Acts have generally been held to
provide authority for property actions by a wife against her spouse, there is a con-
flict of authority as to personal tort actions. In some jurisdictions statutes ex-
pressly permit one spouse to sue the other for personal injuries. Absent statute the
majority of the courts adhere to the common law "marital immunity" doctrine.
1957] CASE COMMENTS

reversing the judgment, ruled that the tort inherent in the commission
of fraud is a property tort, to which the marital immunity doctrine
does not apply. 12 The court further stated that the cause of action
was not barred by the "heartbalm" statute because "the language of the
code section indicates that it was only intended to abolish causes of
action based on an alleged breach of contract.... The plaintiff's com-
plaint states a cause of action for fraud-the making of promises with-
out any intention of performing them."' 3 The dissent, in rejecting
this interpretation, argued that the statute does not confine itself to
abolishing actions ex contractu, but abolishes all actions arising out
of a breach of promise of marriage regardless of the form and regardless
14
of whether a marriage ceremony has been performed or not.
Few decisions have been so liberal in sustaining such a cause of
action. On the contrary, the courts which have considered the matter
have more often tended toward a broader interpretation of the prohibi-
tion of the "heartbalm" acts so as to effectuate their basic purpose-i.e.,
the prevention of extortion, blackmail, and excessive damages ver-
dicts.Y It is reasoned that to confine the application of the statutes

although the minority view is supported by most legal writers. The differing re-
sults are apparently caused by several factors, including the interpretation given by
the particular court to the applicable Married Women's Act, the relative empha-
sis placed on the protection of domestic tranquility, the view that recognizing such
causes of action would encourage litigation, and the conclusion that it is at least
a matter for the legislature. Crowell v. Crowell, i8o N. C. 516, 1o5 S. E. 206 (192o);
3 Vernier, American Family Laws (1935) § 18o; McCurdy, Torts Between Persons in
Domestic Relation (193o) 43 Harv. L. Rev. 103o.
The determination of whether or not the "marital immunity" bars a personal
injury action between spouses whose marriage has been annulled depends, it ap-
pears, on the ground for the annulment. See generally, Note (1955) 43 A. L. R. (2d)
632. It is usually reasoned that the marital immunity doctrine does not prevent
actions between a man and woman whose marriage is held to be void ab initio.
E.g., Blossom v. Hall, 37 N. Y. 434 (1868). Some courts reason that a wife can sue her
husband for fraud only where a void marriage is in question because a voidable
marriage is valid for all civil purposes until annulled, and though such annulment
destroys the marriage from the beginning as a source of rights and duties, it does
not relate back so as to create a cause of action which did not previously exist.
E.g., Callow v. Thomas, 322 Mass. 550, 78 N. E. (2d) 637, 2 A. L. R. (2d) 632 (1948).
Cf. American Surety Co. v. Conner, 251 N. Y. 1,166 N. E. 783, 65 A. L. R. 244 (1929).
Other courts, however, have held that an annulment of a voidable marriage relates
back to destroy the marriage from the beginning and that all the consequences
of a void marriage follow in that the parties are not and never have been legally
married and that therefore a tort suit between them is not between spouses. E.g.,
see Levanthal v. Liberman, 262 N. Y. 209, 186 N. E. 675 at 676 (1933).
"46 Cal. (2d) 6oi, 297 P. (2d) 977 at 979 (1956). See Prosser, Torts (2nd ed. 1955)
672, n. 24; 3 Vernier, American Family Laws (1935) § 18o.
146 Cal. (2d) 6o, 297 P. 2d) 977, 979 (1956).
"4See 46 Cal. (2d) 6oi, 297 P. (2d) 977, 980 (1956).
15A.B. v. C.D., 36 F. Supp. 85 (E. D. Pa. 1940); Thibault v. Lalumiere, 318 Mass.
246 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

to actions expressly based on breach of contract would allow plain-

tiffs to circumvent the legislative intent by merely choosing a different
label for the cause of action. 16
Some causes of action arising out of marriage contracts have, how-
ever, received recognition by various jurisdictions. Those in which
plaintiff seeks property restitution have been sustained by some courts
in recent years.' 7 A plaintiff who has made gifts of personalty, such as
an engagement ring, in reliance upon the defendant's promise to marry
has been allowed to recover the property or its value. The courts reason
that such actions are not based on a breach of promise of marriage, but
rather on conditional gift or on quasi contract, and further that to re-
fuse recovery would be to enrich the defendant unjustly, a result which
would be especially distasteful where the defendant's marriage promise
was fraudulently made. A few courts have not been content to restrict

72, 6o N. E. (2d) 349, 158 A. L. R. 613 (1945); Rubenstein v. Lopsevich, 3 N. J. 282,

72 A. (2d) 518 (1950); Brandes v. Agnew, 275 App. Div. 843, 88 N. Y. S. (2d) 553
(1949); Josephson v. Dry Dock Savings Institution, 292 N. Y. 666, 56 N. E. (2d) 96
(1944); Andie v. Kaplan, 263 App. Div. 884, 32 N. Y. S. (2d) 429 (1942) aff'd 288
N. Y. 685, 43 N. E.(2d) 82 (1942); Sulkowski v. Szewczyk, 255 App. Div. 1o3, 6 N. Y. S.
(2d) 97 (1938); Note (1945) 158 A. L. R. 617, 623 et seq.
16
"The plaintiff's cause of action arises out of a breach of promise of mar-
riage, and she cannot circumvent the statute by bringing an action in tort for
damages...." Thibault v. Lalumiere, 318 Mass. 72, 60 N. E. (2d) 349, 351, 158
A. L. R. 613, 617 (1945).
17
Even where there has been no fraud recovery for engagement rings is allowed.
Priebe v. Sinclair, go Cal. App. (2d) 79, 202 P. (2d) 577 (1949); Gikas v. Nicholis,
96 N. H. 177, 71 A. (2d) 785 (1950); Beberman v. Segal, 6 N. J. Super. 472, 69 A.
(2d) 587 (1949); Restatement, Restitution (1937) § 58, comment (c). Where the
promise is fraudulent and later breached, plaintiffs have recovered property other
than rings. Mack v. White, 97 Cal. App. (2d) 497, 218 P. (2d) 76 (1950) (proceeds from
sale of house); Norman v. Burks, 93 Cal. App. (2d) 687, 209 P. (2d) 815 (1949) (house
and ring); Security-First National Bank v. Schaub, 71 Cal. App. (2d) 467, 162 P.
(2d) 966 (1945) (annulment of deed to land); Restatement, Restitution (1937) § 26. See
Weber v. Bittner, 75 Pa. D. & C. 54 (1950); Bullen v. Neuweiller, 73 Pa. D. & 0. 207
(1949); Notes (1952) 52 Col. L. Rev. 242, n. 44; (1941) 55 Dick. L. Rev. 361.
New York Courts have generally denied all causes of action for gift recoveries.
Brandes v. Agnew, 275 App. Div. 843, 88 N. Y. S. (2d) 553 (1949) (real property);
Andie v. Kaplan, 263 App. Div. 884, 32 N. Y. S. (2d) 429 (1942) aff'd 288 N. Y.
685, 43 N. E. (2d) 82 (1942) (money and jewelry). But see Kaufman v. Rosenbach, 2o8
Misc. 265, 143 N. Y. S. (2d) 722 (1955) (cause of action upheld for money, part of
which was given for safekeeping and part in reliance on promise of marriage); Unger
v. Hirsch, i8o Misc. 381, 39 N. Y. S. (2d) 965 (1943) (cause of action upheld for
jewelry when marriage contract was mutually rescinded).
In 1947 the New York Law Revision Commission proposed an amendment to
the "heartbalm" statute which would allow courts to grant restitution for property
or money given in contemplation of the performance of a marriage contract which
is not performed. N. Y. Law Rev. Comm. (1947) 225 at 227. After passage in both
houses of the legislature, however, it was vetoed by the governor.
1957] CASE COMMENTS

this interpretation to recoveries of specific property. Thus, a woman

who in good faith lived, with a man under a mistaken belief that they
were husband and wife has been allowed recovery for household
services rendered,' 8 and in one instance for contributions made in
acquisition of property accumulated by the parties during the rela-
tionship. 19
Where there has been no ceremony of marriage between the parties,
however, recoveries for other than specific property are generally de-
nied20 unless "the elements necessary for recovery ...can be established
without relying upon the promise to marry for support." 21 A typical 22
example of such a collateral promise is seen in Glazer v. Klughaupt.
There plaintiff was hired for secretarial work by defendant, who
withheld her wages on the promise that they would be paid upon the
marriage of the parties. Defendant breached his contract to marry, and
plaintiff sued for the wages. The court granted recovery, reasoning
that the cause of action was based upon the express contract of hire,
22
and not on the contract to marry.
In situations such as that presented in the principal case, where
plaintiff alleges fraud or deceit as the basis of the cause of action and
seeks damages therefor, it is more difficult to trace any uniformity of
reasoning or result. However, it appears that the courts do draw some
distinction between situations in which there has been a fraudulently
induced marriage ceremony and those in which there has not. Recovery
of damages seems less likely where there has been no ceremony, appar-
ently because the courts feel that the cause of action must of necessity
lLazzarevich v. Lazzarevich, 88 Cal. App. (2d) 708, 200 P. (2d) 49 (1948) (value
of services in quasi contract where defendant fraudulently represented to plaintiff
that divorce proceedings between them had been discontinued when in fact divorce
had become effective).
OWalker v. Walker, 330 Mich. 332, 47 N. W. (2d) 633, 31 A. L. R. (2d) 1250
(1951) (value of services and contributions made to accumulation of property
during the relationship where defendant fraudulently concealed the fact that he had a
living spouse). See Moslander v. Moslander's Estate, 11o Ind. App. 122, 38 N. E.
(2d) 268 at 272 (1941). Cf. Sclamberg v. Sclamberg, 220 Ind. 209, 41 N. E. (2d) 8oi
(1942); Fowler v. Fowler, 97 N. H. 216, 84 A. (ad) 836 (1951).
"See note 15, supra.
2
R.ubenstein v. Lopsevich, 4 N. J. 282, 72 A. (2d) 518, 520 (195o).
=116 N. J. L. 507, 185 At. 8 (1936).
OAccord: Horby v. King, 13 N. J. Super. 395, 8o A. (2d) 476 (1951) (suit for
medical expenses and support of illegitimate child sustained where cause of action
was held to be based on defendant's promise to pay therefor and not on inci-
dental promise of marriage); Warneck v. Kielly, 68 N. Y. S. (2d) 157 (1946) (cause
of action upheld for funds given by plaintiff who breached contract to marry where
cause of action was based on trust agreement between the parties). Cf. De Paola v.
Greenspan, 167 Misc. 467, 3 N. Y. S. (2d) 59o (1938).
248 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

depend upon a breach of promise and is more likely to foster the evils
24
which the "heartbalm" statutes seek to prevent.
The effect of a ceremony is illustrated by a comparison of two cases
decided in New York. In Sulkowski v. Szewczyk 25 the plaintiff, relying
on defendant's fraudulent representation that he was single when in
fact he was married, accepted defendant's proposal of marriage, and
by reason thereof she suffered damages. The court held that plaintiff's
cause of action was one which the legislature intended to prohibit by
the statute abolishing breach of promise suits because such cause of
action is "one of those in which the service of the summons or merely
the threat to do so is sufficient to cause a settlement even where there is
26 27
not any merit in the alleged cause of action." In Snyder v. Snyder,
under facts which were the same as in the Sulkowski case except that
plaintiff and defendant went through a marriage ceremony, the court
sustained the cause of action, stating: "[it] is not one which is subject to
abuse or manipulation by unscrupulous persons. It is neither within the
letter nor the intendment of the law. The gravamen of this complaint
is the injury resulting from the change of status of the parties. In no
conceivable aspect is the plaintiff seeking damages for any breach of
promise to marry. Accordingly there has been no resort to the form of
action in deceit as a subterfuge and the attempt to circumvent the
28
statutory prohibition."
A federal district court, applying Pennsylvania law in a case in
which no ceremony was involved, cited and followed the Sulkowski de-
cision.29 However, in doing so the court rejected the Snyder case, ap-

-Thibault v. Lalumiere, 318 Mass. 72, 6o N. E. (2d) 349, 158 A. L. R. 613

(1945).
' 255 App. Div. 1o 3 , 6 N. Y. S. (2d) 97 (1938).
0255 App. Div. io3, 6 N. Y. S. (2d) 97, 99 (1938).
27172 Misc. 204, 14 N. Y. S. (2d) 815 (1939).
29172 Misc. 204, 14 N. Y. S. (2d) 815, 816 (1939). In Friedman v. Libin, 157
N. Y. S. (2d) 474, 484 (1956), an action against decedent's administratrix for the
fraudulent inducement of plaintiff by decedent to enter into a void marriage, the
court said: "The plaintiff does not here assert that the decedent wronged her in
failing to marry her; rather,... that decedent wronged her in fraudulently inducing
her to marry. The ... complaint is based on what the decedent did, and not
on what he refused to do." [italics supplied]. In Levine v. Levine, i Misc. (.d)
100, 146 N. Y. S. (2d) 393, 395 (1955) the court, reasoning that had there been no
marriage plaintiff could not have recovered, denied recovery of damages for
property given defendant prior to the marriage but allowed damages for injuries
sustained through the marriage itself. The court said: "Thus, proper effect can
be given both to the [heartbalm] statute and to the plaintiff's present cause of
action without intermingling and confusing both into one." But see Mandell,
Family Law (1956) 31 N. Y. U. L. Rev. 1515.
2
'A. B. v. C. D., 36 F. Supp. 85 (E. D. Pa. 1940), aff'd 123 F. (2d) 1017 (C. C. A.
3rd, 1941), cert. den. 314 U. S. 691, 62 S. Ct. 361, 86 L. ed. 553 (1941).
 1957] CASE COMMENTS

parently failing to recognize the distinctive effect of a fraudulently in-

duced ceremony. The rejection appeared to rest solely on the sweeping
generalization that the policy enunciated by the statute is broader than
its letter and that "The evil sought to be overcome was reasonably
deemed serious enough to justify a denial of the judicial process to
those asking relief from real as well as fictitious wrongs." 30 However, the
reasoning behind this policy seems inapplicable in cases in which there
has been a fraudulently induced ceremony. It is at least arguable that
the existence of a marriage ceremony entered into in reliance on a de-
fendant's representations is a prima facie indication of plaintiff's good
faith in bringing suit, and further is strong evidence that there was
an agreement of marriage between the parties. 31 Thus, the threat to
the policy considerations which prompted passage of the "heartbalm"
statutes is less probable, and the balance is tipped in favor of that policy
consideration which keeps the courts open for the enforcement of just
claims. It would seem that the courts should not apply these statutes
when they are more likely to protect than to prevent unscrupulous
32
conduct.
However, the language of the court in the principal case, indicating
that the statute abolishes only ex contractu actions, perhaps narrows
the effect of the statute more than was necessary for reaching the de-

'36 F. Supp. 85, 87 (E. D. Pa. 1940).

3'Thus, it would seem that the requirement suggested by some writers in order
to preserve the cause of action-i.e., more formal evidence of the promise-is
satisfied where the parties have actually entered into a marriage ceremony. See text
at note 32, infra.
'Note (1950) 21 Tenn. L. Rev. 451 at 452. It should be noted that some de-
cisions which might involve the "hearthalm" statutes, where there has been a
fraudulently induced ceremony, may be subject to misinterpretation with regard
to the distinction between void and voidable marriages. See note ii, supra.
Analytically, whether or not a marriage is invalid from its inception has no direct
bearing on whether or not a cause of action for fraud is prohibited by the "heart-
balm" statute. However, there may be some basis for confusion in that the facts
which justify the courts in declaring the marriage void may be the same facts
which indicate that the fraud involved is of such a nature as to justify the court's
refusal to apply the "heartbalm" statute. For example, in Amsterdam v. Amster-
dam, 56 N. Y. S. (2d) 19 (1945), the court allowed plaintiff recovery for fraud where
she had been induced to enter into a void marriage by defendant's fraudulent rep-
resentations; the decision was based on the removal by statute of the spousal
disability in tort suits. The court made no reference to breach of promise or to
the "heartbalm" statute. It did, however, distinguish the voidable from the void
marriage: "The consequences in the latter may be regarded as even more damaging
than in the former which might be valid at the election of the injured party." 56
N. Y. S. (2d) 19, 22 (1945)- In Lee v. Lee, 184 Misc. 686, 57 N. Y. S. (2d) 97 (1945)
the court held plaintiff was entitled to an annulment and damages for fraud in the
same action because she never was legally a married woman. No mention was made
in the opinion of the "heartbalm" statute.
250 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

cision, and such a strict interpretation would seem to be no more desir-

able than overextending the scope and statute to bar all causes of
action remotely relating to a breach of promise, regardless of form
and substance. The breach of promise action is of a dual nature, being
neither wholly ex contractu nor wholly ex delicto.33 Thus, acceptance
of the controlling distinction in the principal case would seem to
invite circumvention of the statute, thereby defeating the purpose
for which it was enacted.
A practical solution to the problem of statutory interpretation
has been offered by some writers who suggest that the courts should
impose restrictions on the cause of action by requiring more formal
evidence of the marriage promise, by widening the defenses to the ac-
tion, and by limiting recovery in such suits to actual pecuniary loss. 34
A similar solution has been enacted into law in Tennessee. 35 The legis-
lators in that state apparently recognized that the "heartbalm" statutes
in other jurisdictions were subject to overzealous interpretation, and
attempted to reach a middle ground between the two extremes. The
Tennessee statute provides in substance that the plaintiff's evidence of
a contract to marry must be in writing or be proved by two disinterested
witnesses, that the jury shall take into consideration the age and ex-
perience of the parties, and that when the defendant is over sixty years
of age recovery shall be limited to actual pecuniary loss. Though it is
not perfect, inasmuch as defendants fearing unsavory publicity may
still provide a ready source of revenue for blackmailers and extor-
tionists, the Tennessee statute appears to be a step in the right di-
rection. In large measure it accomplishes the purposes of the "heart-
balm" statutes in that it greatly lessens the probability of unjust claims,
extortion and blackmail, while at the same time offering a legal remedy
to persons with just claims-the balance and the goal which each juris-
diction should seek to attain.
PATRICK D. SULUVAN

nSee Keezer, Marriage and Divorce (3rd ed. 1946) § 104; Brockelbank, The
Nature
3 of the Promise to Marry (1946) 41 Ill. L. Rev. 1 at 4.
' See i Vernier, American Family Laws (1931) 29; Feinsinger, Legislative At-
tack on "Heart Balm" (1935) 33 Mich. L. Rev. 979 at 985; Brockelbank, The Na-
ture of the Promise to Marry (1946) 41 Ill. L. Rev. 199 at 2o9 (proposing a model
curative statute which provides an arbitrary maximum amount for mental suf-
fering and humiliation be allowed).
56 Tenn. Code Ann. (1955) §§ 36-701-36-706.
 1957] CASE COMMENTS

EQUITY-EXERCISE OF DISCRETIONARY POWER To ENJOIN PROSECUTION

OF SUIT IN FOREIGN COURT. [New Jersey]

Generally a plaintiff has the right to prosecute his action in any

court which has jurisdiction over the subject, matter of his case and
which can obtain jurisdiction over the parties.' Nonetheless, it is uni-
versally agreed that in appropriate cases courts of equity have the power
to restrain persons within their jurisdiction from exercising their
usual right to bring suits in foreign courts. 2 The power being conceded,
the problem that has preplexed the courts is the determination of the
3
proper circumstances for the exercise of that power.
The early American cases acknowledged the existence of this power,
but it was seldom exercised. 4 This reluctance to act stemmed from
several factors, in addition to the fundamental principle that equity
acts only in extraordinary cases.5 First, the courts were fearful of
violating the principles of comity, and thus stressed the respect due
other courts.0 Further, these early decisions placed great emphasis upon

'Tennessee Coal, Iron, & R. R. v. George, 233 U. S. 354 at 359, 34 S. Ct. 587 at
jr88, 58 L. ed. 997 at iooo (1914); Atchison, T. & S. F.Ry. v. Sowers, 213 U. S. 55
at 67, 29 S. Ct. 397 at 401, 53 L. ed. 695 at 70, (19o9); Dennick v. Railroad Co.,
1o3 U. S. ii at 18, 26 L. ed. 439 at 441 (1881); Royal League v. Kavanagh, 233
Ill. 175, 84 N. E. 178 at 181 (19o8); Boston & M. R. R. v. Whitehead, 307 Mass. io6,
29 N. E. (2d) 916 at 917 (1940); Carson v. Dunham, 149 Mass. 52, 2o N. E. 312 at
314, 3 L. R. A. 2o3 at 2o5 (1889); McClintock, Equity (2nd ed. 1948) 466; Notes
(1941) 27 Iowa L. Rev. 76; (1950) 1o La. L. Rev. 302.
'Cole v. Cunningham, 133 U. S. 107, 10 S. Ct. 269, 33 L. ed. 538 (189o); Royal
League v. Kavanagh, 233 Ill. 175, 84 N. E. 178 at i8o (19o8); Pitcairn v. Drummond,
216 Ind. 54, 23 N. E. (2d) 21 at 22 (1939); Culp v. Butler, 69 Ind. App. 688, 122
N. E. 684 at 685 (1919); Oates v. Morningside College, 217 Iowa 1o59, 252 N. W.
783 at 784 (1934); Boston & M. R. R. v. Whitehead, 307 Mass. xo6, 29 N. E. (2d)
916 at 917 (1940); Carson v. Dunham, 149 Mass. 52, 20 N. E. 312 at 312, 3 L. R. A.
2o3 at 204 (1889); Poole v. Mississippi Publishers Corp., 208 Miss. 364, 44 S. (2d)
467 at 471 (1950); 14 Am. Jur., Courts § 255; Pound, The Progress of the Law-
Equity (1920) 33 Harv. L. Rev. 420 at 425; Notes (1922) 22 Col. L. Rev. 36o; (1919) 33
Harv. L. Rev. 92; (1932) 31 Mich L. Rev. 88.
3
Pound, The Progress of the Law-Equity (1920) 33 Harv. L. Rev. 420 at 426;
Notes (1922) 22 Col. L. Rev. 36o; (1919) 33 Harv. L. Rev. 92 (1941) 27 Iowa L. Rev.
76; (1950) io La. L. Rev. 302 at 3o5; (1932) 31 Mich. L. Rev. 88.
'Mead v. Merritt, 2 Paige 402 (N. Y. 1831); Schuyler v. Pelissier, 3 Edw. Ch.
191 (N. Y. 1838); Burgess v. Smith, 2 Barb. Ch. 276 (N. Y. 1847); Bank of Bellows
Falls v. Rutland 8- B. R. R., 28 Vt. 470 (1856); Harris v. Pullman, 84 Ill. 20 (1876);
Wells Lumber Co. v. Menominee River Boom Co., 2o3 Mich. 14, 168 N. W. 1011
(1918); Note (1949) 6 A. L. R. (2d) 896 at 899.
Inasmuch as the historical development of the law is emphasized in this com-
ment, citation of cases will be in chronological rather than alphabetical order in
all the following footnotes.
'Note (1941) 27 Iowa L. Rev. 76 at 77.
'Mead v. Merritt, 2 Paige 402 at 406 (N. Y. 1831); Schuyler v. Pelissier, 3 Edw.
Ch. 191 at 193 (N. Y. 1838); Burgess v. Smith, 2 Barb. Ch. 276 at 280 (N. Y. 1847).
252 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

the doctrine that as between courts of equal dignity the first court to
acquire jurisdiction should be allowed to dispose of the case without
interference. 7 And finally, it was feared that the use of these injunctions
would lead to retaliation in kind by the foreign courts. 8 This appre-
hension was expressed in Peck v. Jennesses:9 "For if one may enjoin,
the other may retort by injunction, and thus the parties be without
remedy; being liable to a process for contempt in one, if they dare to
proceed in the other." In short, the early cases, in denying the injunc-
tion, relied heavily upon comity, fearing that any other policy would
lead to interstate disharmony.' 0
Gradually, however, it came to be realized that an in personam
order restraining a person subject to the jurisdiction of the restraining
court was not a direct interference with the foreign court, because the
injunction did not operate against that court, but only against the per-
son restrained." Thus, such an injunction was merely a "charge upon
the conscience" of the enjoined party, 12 which charge operated upon
him even though he was no longer within the territorial limits of the
enjoining state, and even though the acts enjoined were to take place
outside the state.' 8 As a necessary corollary, it became equally clear
14
that the foreign court was not bound by comity to stop its proceedings.

7Peck v. Jenness, 7 How. 612 at 625, 12 L. ed. 841 at 846 (U. S. 1849); Bank of
Bellows Falls v. Rutland & B. R. R., 28 Vt. 469 at 477 (1856); Home Ins. Co. v.
Howell, 24 N. J. Eq. 238 at 241 (1873); Carson v. Dunham, 149 Mass. 52, 20 N. E.
312 at 314, 3 L. R. A. 20o3 at 204 (1889); Freick v. Hinkly, 122 Minn. 24, 141 N. W.
1O96 at io96 (1913); Wade v. Crump, 173 S. W. 538 at 539 (Tex. Civ. App. 1915).
"Mead v. Merritt, 2 Paige 402 at 406 (N. Y. 1831); Durant v. Pierson, 12 N. Y.
Supp. 145 at 147 (189o).
97 How. 612, 625, 12 L. ed. 841, 846 (U. S. 1849).
"Mead v. Merritt, 2 Paige 4o2 at 4o6 (N. Y. 1831); Schuyler v. Pelissier, 3 Edw.
Ch. 191 at 194 (N. Y. 1838); Harris V. Pullman, 84 Ill. 20 at 28 (1876).
"Dehon v. Foster, 4 Allen 545 at 553 (Mass. 1862); Vail v. Knapp, 49 Barb. Ch.
299 at 309 (N. Y. 1867); Engel v. Scheuerman, 4o Ga. 207 at 21o (1869); Snook v. Snet-
zer, 25 Ohio St. 5i6 at 519 (1874); Cole v. Cunningham, 133 U. S. 107, 10 S. Ct. 269 at
273, 33 L. ed. 538 at 544 (189o); Sandage v. Studebaker Bros. Mfg. Co., 142 Ind. 148,
41 N. E. 38o at 383 (1895); Royal League v. Kavanagh, 233 Ill. 175, 84 N. E. 178 at
18o (19o8); Bossung v. District Ct., 140 Minn. 494, 168 N. W. 589 at 591 (1918);
Lancaster v. Dunn, 153 La. 15, 95 So. 385 at 387 (1922). Cf. McClintock, Equity (2nd
ed. 1948) 463-
"Note (1932) 31 Mich. L. Rev. 88, 92.
"French v. Hay, 22 Wall. 25o at 252, 22 L. ed. 857 at 858 (U. S. 1875); State v.
Fredlock, 52 W. Va. 232, 43 S. E. 153 at 156, (1903); Royal League v. Kavanagh, 233
Ill. 175, 84 N. E. 178 at 181 (19o8); Bigelow v. Old Dominion Copper Mining and
Smelting Co., 74 N. J. Eq. 457, 71 At. 153, 16o (19o8).
uNichols and Shephard Co. v. Wheeler, 15o Ky. 169, 150 S. W. 33 at 34
(1912); Bossung v. District Ct., 140 Minn. 494, 168 N. W. 589 at 591 (1918); Frye
v. Chicago, R. 1. & P. Ry., 157 Minn. 52, 185 N. W. 629 at 632 (1923); Kepner v.
Cleveland C. C. & St. L. Ry., 322 Mo. 299, 15 S. W. (2d) 825 at 829 (1939); Hall v.
Milligan, 221 Ala. 233, 128 So. 438 at 44o, 69 A. L. R. 618 at 622 (193o); Wells v.
19571 CASE COMMENTS

This new understanding of the manner in which an injunction against

foreign judicial proceedings operated was best stated in Vail v.
Knapps:' 5 "While as a general rule, the propriety of which is apparent,
the courts of this state decline to interfere by injunction, to restrain
its citizens from proceeding in an action which has been commenced
in the court of a sister state, yet there are exceptions to this rule, and
when a case is presented, fairly constituting such exception, extreme
delicacy should not deter the court from controlling the conduct of a
party within its jurisdiction to prevent oppression or fraud. No rule
of comity or policy prevents this." Thus, the Vail case laid down the
principle that the power to enjoin foreign judicial proceedings should
be used to prevent oppression or fraud, but the power was to be used
only sparingly and with due regard to the comity doctrine. 16
As the courts began to grant these injunctions with more regularity,
an attack was made on their constitutionality. But in Cole v. Cunning-
ham,17 the United States Supreme Court, by holding that such an in-
junction violated neither the Full Faith and Credit Clause nor the
Privilege and Immunities Clause of the Constitution, put at rest the
question of the power of equity to restrain the prosecution of a cause
of action brought in another state. However, the question as to when
this purely discretionary power should be used has never been ade-
quately answered.1s
The recent case of Trustees of Princeton University v. Trust Corn-

Wells, 23o Ala. 430, 161 So. 794 at 795 (1935); Cf. New York C. & St. L. Ry. v.
Nortoni, 331 Mo. 764, 55 S. W. (2d) 272 at 273 (1932). Contra: Fisher v. Pacific
Mutual Life Ins. Co., 112 Miss. 30, 72 So. 846 (1916). Discussions will be found in
Notes (1941) 27 Iowa L. Rev. 76 at 79; (1924) 72 U. of Pa. L. Rev. 429; (1930) 39
Yale L. J. 719; (1919) 1 A. L. R. 148.
149 Barb. 299, 3o5 (N. Y. 1867).
"'A discussion of the significance of the Vail case is to be found in Note (1932)
31 Mich L. Rev. 88 at go, which presents the argument at pages 88 and go that
injunctions against foreign judicial proceedings should issue just as any other in-
junction without regard to the doctrine of comity. "... . the true basis for the issu-
ance of an injunction in cases of this nature should iAvolve only an application of
the usual equitable principles. A court is confronted with no more difficult a prob-
lem when called upon to enjoin foreign litigation than is presented when a request is
made to restrain parties from taking part in local proceedings." Note (1(32) 31
Mich L. Rev. 88, 92. For similar arguments: Notes (1922) 22 Col. L. Rev. 36o at 362;
(1950) 1o La. L. Rev. 302 at 305. For arguments contra: McClintock, Equity (2nd ed.
1948) 463; Pound, The Progress of the Law-Equity (1920) 33 Harv. L. Rev. 420o at
425.
" 133 U. S. 107, 10 S. Ct. 269, 33 L. ed. 538 (89o).
21Hawkins v. Ireland, 64 Minn. 339, 67 N. W. 73 at 75 (1896); Lancaster v. Dunn,
153 La. 15, 95 So. 385 at 387 (1922); Notes (1922) 22 Col. L. Rev. 36o; (1941) 27
Iowa L. Rev. 76; (ig5o) io La. L. Rev. 302 at 3o5; (1932) 31 Mich. L. Rev. 88. See
also, note 6, supra.
254 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

pany of New Jersey' 9 illustrates some of the uncertainties inherent in

this question. Prior to this action one Cane had died in Florida, leav-
ing a will expressly stating he was a domicillary of New Jersey. There
was substantial evidence tending to support this claim of domicile.
However, decedent, a man of considerable wealth, left both real and
personal property in New York, as well as in New Jersey. The will
was admitted to probate in New Jersey, but the widow, who was also
the executrix, consented to the New Jersey probate only on the con-
dition that she did not thereby waive any rights she or the estate might
have by virtue of the fact that the testator was domiciled in New York
at the time of his death. The widow subsequently filed a petition for
probate in New York. At this point the Trustees of Princeton Uni-
versity, as the residuary legatees under the will, brought the present
action in the New Jersey Superior Court, seeking a determination that
the testator had died domiciled in New Jersey, and an injunction re-
straining the executors and executrix from further prosecuting pro-
bate procedings in New York. An interlocutory injunction was granted,
and the widow and executors appealed. The Supreme Court of New
Jersey affirmed, finding that the evidence was sufficient to make out a
prima facie case for the issuance of an interlocutory injunction, and
further pointing out that the jurisdiction of New Jersey was prior in
time and that the Superior Court had the right to protect that prior
jurisdiction, at least until such time as the issue of domicile could be
20
decided on the merits.
The determination of whether this was a proper case for the is-
suance of an injunction necessarily involved a balancing of the consid-
erations in favor of having the issue of domicile decided in New Jersey,
as against the considerations in favor of allowing the executors to ex-
ercise their legal right to bring probate proceedings in the State of
New York, it being remembered that both real and personal assets lie
in each state. The New Jersey Supreme Court found that the equities
favoring an initial determination of domicile by New Jersey out-
weighed the naked legal right of the widow to proceed with the New
2
York probate proceedings. 1

2122 N. J. 587, 127 A. (2d) 19 (1956).

212N. J. 587, 127 A. (2d) ig at 25, 26 (1956).
2The appellants contended that there was no showing of urgent necessity to
support the injunction, to which contention the New Jersey Supreme Cout re-
plied: "... there was an adequate showing of urgent necessity, for without the
preliminary injunction there would be the continuing and ever present danger of
the parties going forward on the issue of domicile in the New York proceeding;
that is the very thing which the Chancery Division could equitably seek to prevent
upon the application of Princeton or other interested parties." 22 N. J. 587, 127
A. (2d) 19, 26 (1956).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

The principal case could be regarded as within two or three general

classes of cases in which equity will exercise its power to restrain the
prosecution of foreign judicial proceedings. 22 The first class rests upon
the doctrine that as between residents of the same state, the statutory
laws of that state are binding to the extent that those statutes pro-
vide for positive immunities or exemptions or freedom from certain
judicial remedies. 23 Thus, an equity court will enjoin an attempt by
a resident to sue in a foreign court in order to evade the effect of these
domestic statutory provisions. 24 However, the injunction will not issue
for the sole purpose of forcing the resident litigant to use the courts
of his own state; 25 nor will an injunction be granted merely because the
party seeking it has reason to fear a less favorable result in the foreign
27
forum,26 because, aside from attempts to evade strong domestic policy,

--These various classes of cases in which equity will enjoin a foreign cause of
action are more fully discussed in Note (1949) 6 A. L. R. (2d) 896 at goi. For other
classifications see Pound, The Progress of the Law-Equity (1919) 33 Harv. L. Rev.
42o at 426; Notes (1941) 27 Iowa L. Rev. 76 at 87; (1950) 1o La. L. Rev. 302 at 3o5;
(1954) 8 Rutgers L. Rev. 549.
2Note (1949) 6 A. L. R. (2d) 896 at goi. See Note (193o) 69 A. L. R. 591.
-'Allen v. Buchanan, 97 Ala. 399, 11 So. 777 (1892) (resident defendant enjoined
from further prosecuting action for attachment and garnishment in Louisiana court
to reach money due to plaintiff in Louisiana, which was exempt from legal process
under laws of Alabama, but not under laws of Louisiana); Miller v. Gittings, 85 Md.
6o, 37 At. 372 (1897) (Maryland resident enjoined from bringing suit in New York
against another Maryland resident to enforce debt which arose in Maryland out of
transaction within Maryland statute prohibiting gambling); Culp v. Butler, 69 Ind.
App. 668, 122 N. E. 648 (1919) (action brought in another state to evade the statute
of limitations of the home state enjoined). Contra: Thorndike v. Thorndike
142 Ill. 450, 32 N. E. 510, 21 L. R. A. 71 (1892). [vhether the statute of limitations
is a sufficient immunity to warrant an injunction against a foreign proceeding is an
unsettled question. See Note (1949) 6 A. L. R. (2d) 896 at 9o83. Pere Marquette Ry.
v. Slutz, 268 Mich. 388, 256 N. W. 458 (1934) (Michigan resident, injured in colli-
sion with Michigan corporation's train, enjoined from prosecuting personal injury
action, which was brought in violation of Michigan venue statute, in Illinois);
Morad v. Williams, 177 Misc. 933, 32 N. Y. S. (2d) 463 (1942) (New York resident
enjoined from prosecuting alienation of affections suit in Florida after he had
fraudulently induced other party, also a resident of New York, to go to Florida,
so that suit, which is prohibited under the laws of New York, could be instituted).
For extensive listing of similar cases, see Notes (193o) 69 A. L. R. 591; (1949) 6
A. L. R. (2d) 896. The divorce cases are multitudinous, and are annotated separately.
Note (1940) 128 A. L. R. 1467.
'Carson v. Dunham, 149 Mass. 52, 20 N. E. 312 at 314 (1889); Royal League
v. Kavanagh, 233 Ill. 175, 84 N. E. 178 at 18S (1909); Pound, The Progress of the
Law-Equity (1920) 33 Harv. L. Rev. 420 at 427; Note (1922) 22 Col. L. Rev. 360.
wCarson v. Dunham, 149 Mass. 52, 2o N. E. 312 at 314 (1889); Thorndike v.
Thorndike, 142 Ill. 450, 32 N. E. 5io at 5io (1892); Royal League v. Kavanagh,
233 II. 175, 84 N. E. 178 at 181 (19o8); Pound, The Progress of the Law-Equity
(1920) 33 Harv. L. Rev. 42o at 427; Notes (1922) 22 Col. L. Rev. 56o; (1930) 69
A. L. R. 591 at 594.
""It is generally said that where a suit in a foreign jurisdiction would result
256 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

it is generally considered just that a plaintiff should be permitted to

seek the forum in which he can best serve his own interests.28 On simi-
lar reasoning, it is also held that the principles of equity which are
recognized by the home state will be binding on fellow residents to
the extent that one resident will not be allowed to bring a foreign
action against another resident for the purpose of depriving him of
a fair trial, or of imposing undue hardship, or of acquiring an un-
conscionable advantage over him. Thus, as between residents, equity
will enjoin vexatious, oppressive, and inequitable litigation.20 It is
generally held, however, that mere inconvenience is not a sufficient
ground to warrant the issuance of an injunction against foreign judi-
cial proceedings3 0

in an evasion of a strong domestic policy, such will be enjoined." Note (1932) 31 Mich.
L. Rev. 88, 93. See also Notes (1941) 27 Iowa L. Rev. 76 at 92; (193o) 69 A. L. R. 591;
(1940) 128 A. L. R. 1467; (1949) 6 A. L. R. (2d) 896.
'Carson v. Dunham, 149 Mass. 52, 2o N. E. 312 at 314 (1889); Thorndike v.
Thorndike, 142 111. 450, 32 N. E. 5io at 51o (1892); Notes (1932) 31 Mich. L. Rev. 88
at 95; (1941) 27 Iowa L. Rev. 76 at 86.
Consequently a mere showing of a difference in the substantive law of the foreign
jurisdiction is not sufficient to warrant an injunction against the foreign proceeding.
Bigelow v. Old Dominion Copper Mining and Smelting Co., 74 N. J. Eq. 457, 71
Atl. 153 (19o8); Freick v. Hinkly, 122 Minn. 24, 141 N. W. 1096, 46 L. R. A. (N. s.)
695 (1913); American Express Co. v. Fox, 135 Tenn. 489, 187 S. W. 1117 (1916). Note
(193o) 69 A. L. R. 591 at 593. These decisions would appear sound because "under
principles of conflict laws the foreign court will presumably apply the lex loci,
and unless there is a showing that it will not do so in a particular case, the equity
court will not act on the basis of distrust of or possible error by the foreign court."
Note (1941) 27 Iowa L. Rev. 76, 94. Also see Note (1949) 6 A. L. R. (2d) 896 at 91o.
Likewise where the difference between the laws of the two jurisdictions is
merely procedural, an injunction usually will not issue to restrain the foreign suit.
Pound, The Progress of the Law-Equity (192o) 33 Harv. L. Rev. 420o at 427. Illustra-
tive cases denying injunctions: Edgell v. Clarke, 19 App. Div. 199, 45 N. Y. Supp.
979 (1897) (plaintiff sought injunction against foreign action because rules of evi-
dence were more favorable to defendant in the foreign court); J. W. Wells Lumber
Co v. Menominee River Boom Co., 20o3 Mich. 14, 168 N. W. l11 (1918) (plaintiff
sought injunction against foreign action because under law of that jurisdiction his
setoff claim was barred by statute of limitations); Chicago, M. & St. P. Ry. v. Mc-
Ginley, 175 Wis. 565, 185 N. W. 218 (1921) (plaintiff sought injunction against
foreign proceeding because foreign jurisdiction allowed verdict by agreement of
only ten jurors).
^'Hawkins v. Ireland, 64 Minn. 339, 67 N. W. 73 at 75 (1896); Bigelow v. Old
Dominion Copper Mining and Smelting Co., 74 N. J. Eq. 457, 71 Atl. 153 at 163
(19o8); Mason v. Harlow, 84 Kan. 277, 114 Pac. =i8 at 219 (1911); Reed's Adm'x v.
Illinois Cent. R. R., 182 Ky. 455, 20o6 S.W. 794 at 798 (1918). Also within this class of
cases are the many divorce cases in which injunctions have been issued. Note (1940)
128 A. L. R. 1467.
°Notes (z922) 22 Col. L. Rev. 36o at 361; (1941) 27 Iowa L. Rev. 76 at io;
(1932) 31 Mich. L. Rev. 88 at 98; (1928) 57 A. L. R. 77; (1938) 115 A. L. R. 237.
The problem, however, is to determine where mere inconvenience ends, and true
hardship begins.
19571 CASE COMMENTS

In the second class of cases the injunction against prosecution of

a foreign action issues, not to protect some duty owed by one resident
to another, but to preserve the court's jurisdiction in order that the
court may be able to decree adequate and final justice to the parties
before it. In this type of case, unlike those in the first class, it does
not matter whether the party enjoined be a resident or a non-resident
of the enjoining state; in either event equity has the right to protect its
jurisdiction. 31
Third, an injunction will issue against the prosecution of a foreign
proceeding where that proceeding conflicts with the prosecution of a
local quasi-in-rem action, such as receivership,3 2 insolvency,3 3 and the
administration of estates in probate. 34 In these cases the local court
has taken possession of the property in controversy to determine
the respective rights of the litigants therein, and to administer and
distribute the property accordingly. Here again it usually does not
matter whether the party enjoined is a resident or a non-resident of
the enjoining state; all that is required is that the foreign action have
a disruptive effect upon the local court's effort to settle the rights of
the parties in the property over which the local court has assumed
35
possession.
It is readily apparent that these broad classifications are not
mutually exclusive and consequently that some cases will fall appro-
priately into more than one class, as indeed, the principal case itself
may be placed in both the first and third classes. The fact situations
and the legal circumstances that have been found sufficient to warrant
the issuance of these injunctions are so multitudinous and diverse
that no such pedagogical classification can be truly adequate.
In the light of the above principles the decision of the New Jersey
Supreme Court, in affirming the interlocutory injunction against the
widow and the executors, would appear to be sound. The decision
rests ultimately upon the common sense consideration that neither
the estate, nor the widow, nor the beneficiary plaintiff would derive

"'This second class of cases is more fully discussed in Note (1949) 6 A. L. R. (2d)
896 at 9o2. For a breakdown of the cases falling within this class see in the same an-
notation at: § 17 (suits conflicting with general equity jurisdiction); § 18 (cancellation
and rescission); § 19 (relief against judgments); § 20 (title to property); § 21 (inter-
pleader); § 22 (trusts and fiduciary relations); § 23 (performance of contracts).
-For discussion and illustrative cases, see Note (1949) 6 A. L. R. (2d) 896 at 938.
'For discussion and illustrative cases, see Note (1949) 6 A. L. R. (2d) 896 at
941.
3&For discussion and illustrative cases, see Note (1949) 6 A. L. R. (2d) 896 at
938 and 943-
nSee Note (1949) 6 A. L. R. (2d) 896 at 902.
258 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

any benefit from simultaneous litigation in two states determining the

issue of domicile. Such multiplicity would serve no useful purpose, but
rather would increase the expense of probate for the estate as well as
for the plaintiff. It also would place an unnecessary burden on the
already over-crowded courts, and thus increase the expense to be
borne by the tax-paying public. These considerations must have been
recognized by the New York court, inasmuch as it has indicated its
willingness to act in deference to the New Jersey injunction by order-
36
ing "appropriate reservation and adjournment" of the New York
action.
It is important to note, however, that New Jersey's determination
on the issue of the decedent's domicile will not be binding on the New
York court, because by the great weight of authority domicile is a juris-
37
dictional fact.
Thus, New York may still decide that the decedent was domiciled
in New York, even if New Jersey decides on the merits that he was
domiciled in New Jersey. 38 That the New Jersey court was fully aware of
this fact is implicit in its statement that "the interests of the estate as
well as the interests of sound judicial administration would be notably
disserved by the parties' active prosecution of simultaneous proceedings
in New Jersey and New York for the original determination of domi-
cile." 39 But even though it be admitted that a final New Jersey decision
on the merits will not be conclusive, that does not render this prelimi-
nary decision any the less sound. On the contrary, it way well be
argued that the danger of a finding of double domicile would have
been greater if the two states were deciding this question simultaneously
than where one of the states first makes the original determination, thus
giving the second state the benefit of its findings. This is manifestly so
because it must be presumed that a court will decide the issue fairly and
impartially. In lessening, though not eliminating, the danger of a find-
W22N. J. 587, 127 A. (2d) 19, 26 (1956).
3nNote (1935) 121 A. L. R. 12oo. See Hopkins, The Extraterritorial Effect of
Probate Decrees (1944) 53 Yale L. J. 221.
A graphic example of a finding of double domicile is In re Dorrance's Estate,
115 N. J. Eq. 268, 17o At. 6oi (1934) aff'd 118 N. J. Eq. 1, 176 At. 902 (1935) aff'd
116 N. J. L. 362, 184 At. 743 (1936), cert den., 298 U. S. 678, 56 S. Ct. 949, So L. ed.
1399 (1936), rehearing den., 298 U. S. 692, 56 S. Ct. 957, 8o L. ed. 1410 (1936). The Dor-
rance litigation is discussed in Harper, Final Determination of Domicile in the
United States (1934) 19 Pa. Bar. Quar. 213, reprinted in Notes (1934) 9 Ind. L. J.
586; (1934) 34 Col. L. Rev. 1151; (1934) 1$ Minn. L. Rev. 736; (1934) 82 U. of Pa.
L. Rev. 796; (1932) 81 U. of Pa. L. Rev. 177.
1022 N. J. 587, 127 A. (2d) 19, 26 (1956). Italics supplied.
1957] CASE COMMENTS

ing of double domicile, the principal decision thus tends to avoid a

situation in which the estate would be subjected to greatly increased
taxation, to the disadvantage of all parties concerned in this contro-
versy.
LYNN F. LusAmus

EVIDENCE-PRIOR CRIMINAL CONVICTION AS EVIDENCE OF GUILT IN SUB-

SEQUENT CIVIL ACTION. [Arkansas].
One convicted of a crime may thereafter become involved in a civil
suit in which the vital question arises as to whether he actually did
commit the offense of which he was found guilty in the criminal prose-
cution. In such situations, the courts have been unable to agree on
whether a copy of a criminal conviction is admissible as evidence in a
subsequent civil proceeding to prove the facts on which it was based.,
This recurring problem was recently illustrated in the Arkansas case of
Smith v. Dean,2 where it was again demonstrated that sound logic and
the weight of authority are in opposition to each other on this question.
In this case, a wife who had been convicted of her husband's murder
came into the probate court to claim a statutory allowance in his estate.
Other interested parties, with claims adverse to the wife, introduced
in evidence a copy of the murder conviction in an attempt to bar
her claim against her husband's estate. In view of a common law doc-
trine adopted by this court that, if one spouse murders the other spouse,
the guilty spouse cannot share in the estate of the other,3 the probate
court accepted the copy in evidence and rejected the wife's claim. On
appeal, however, the majority of the Arkansas Supreme Court, fol-
lowing the view which prevails generally in both America and England,
ruled that a certified copy of a criminal conviction is inadmissible as
evidence in a later civil suit to prove the facts upon which that criminal

'There are four divergent views: (i) the traditional view holding the copy in-
admissible, see text at note 4; (2) the view holding criminal convictions admissible
as conclusive evidence, see text at notes 22 and 23; (3)the rule holding the copy
admissible as prima fade evidence subject to rebuttal, see text at note 26; and (4)
authority allowing the admission of the conviction as persuasive evidence, see text
at note 25.
o
229 S. W. (2d) 439 (Ark. 1956).
o
'29 S. W. (2d) 439 at 44o (Ark. 1956). The state statute [5 Ark. Stat Ann. (1947)
§ 61-230] preventing a spouse convicted of murder from being "endowed" in the
estate of the other spouse was held applicable to dower and curtesy only, and not
to the statutory allowance claimed here.
260 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

conviction was based. 4 The court reasoned that "the practical advant-
age of the traditional view lies in its assurance that in every case the
triers of the fact will have the testimony itself before them and not
merely a written record of the conclusion reached by some other tri-
bunal." 5 Thus, the adverse claimants will be required to re-try, in
the probate proceedings, the question of the wife's actual guilt.
On cursory examination this ruling appears to be a repudiation
of the doctrine of res judicata,6 or more aptly here, the subdivision
thereof termed "collateral estoppel," in view of the fact that two sepa-
rate actions, rather than the same cause of action is involved.7 How-
ever, collateral estoppel is not pertinent in this instance as that rule
is designed to prevent a second litigation of facts and issues already
decided upon in another cause of action where the same parties have
been involved in both adjudications. The same parties are not in-
volved in this situation in which a criminal conviction is followed
by civil proceedings between private litigants, because the state, which
prosecuted the criminal case, is not a party to the subsequent civil
suit.8
The fact that the parties do differ in the two proceedings is the
basis for the principal reason advanced in support of the traditional
rule adopted in the instant case. It is argued that a private party's
claim for remuneration against an alleged wrongdoer should be al-

'Eggers v. Phillips Hardware Co., 88 S. (2d) 507 (Fla. 1956); Silva v. Silva,
297 Mass. 217, 7 N. E. (2d) 6oi (1937); Girard v. Vermont Mutual Fire Ins. Co.,
1o Vt. 330, 154 Ad. 666 (1931); Interstate Dry Goods Stores v. Williamson, 91 W.
Va. 156, 112 S. E.3oi, 31 A. L. R. 258 (1922); Hollington v. F. Hewthorn & Co.,
[1943] 1 K. B. 587; 2 Freeman, Judgments (5 th ed. 1925) § 635; 5 Wigmore, Evidence
(3rd ed. 194o) § 1671 (a); 2o Am. Jur. 854; 5o C. J. S. 269; Coutts, The Effect of
a Criminal Judgment on a Civil Action (1955) 18 Mod. L. Rev. 231 at 233; Notes
(1943) 39 Va. L. Rev. 995; (1951) 4 Fla. L. Rev. 115; (1927) 41 Harv. L. Rev. 241; (1951)
18 A. L. R. (2d) 1289. Note, however, that many of the cases cited in support of
the majority view actually involve the inadmissibility of acquittals, not convictions.
5Smith v. Dean, 290 S.W. (2d) 439, 440 (Ark. 1956).
6
Under the doctrine of res judicata, once a cause of action has been litigated, it
cannot be relitigated as to those same parties in a new proceeding. 3o Am. Jur.,
Judgments § 161 et seq.; 37 W. & P., Res Judicata (Perm. ed. 195o) 616.
7The force of res judicata not only prevents relitigation of the same cause of
action between the same parties but also prevents a second adjudication of such
facts and issues, between those same parties, as have already been passed on by
a court in a different cause of action; this latter phase of the doctrine is called col-
lateral estoppel. State v. Hoag, 21 N. J. 496, 122 A. (2d) 628 at 632 (1956); Scott, Col-
lateral Estoppel by judgment (1942) 56 Harv. L. Rev. 1; 7A W. 9- P. Collateral
Estoppel (Perm. ed. 1952) 212; Restatement, Judgments (1942) § 68.
sThis distinction is pointed out in United States v. Gramer, 191 F. (2d) 741 at
744 (C. A. 9th, 1951); Interstate Dry Goods Stores v. Williamson, 91 W. Va. 156 at
159, 112 S.E. 3oi at 303, 31 A. L. R. 258 at 260 (1922); Notes (1924) 31 A. L. R.
261 at 262; (1927) 41 Harv. L. Rev. 241.
1957] CASE COMMENTS

lowed to proceed independently of the success or failure of a criminal

case, to which the private person was not a party, brought by the
public against that same alleged wrongdoer. 9 Yet this argument, which
justifies the exclusion of the conviction in the criminal case as evi-
dence, on the ground that it protects the private litigant from pos-
sible hardship, is suspect because the private litigant is not the party
who objects to the admission of such evidence. To have the conviction
of the wrongdoer admitted, far from creating hardship, will be of
considerable benefit to the private litigant in that it relieves him of
proving anew the facts indicating that the other party committed
the criminal act.
A second reason often advanced for the traditional exclusion rule
is the variation in the degree of proof required for criminal as distinct
from civil suits.' 0 However, this consideration seems to provide support
for admitting the conviction in evidence rather than for excluding
it. Defendant's commission of the offense having been proven in the
criminal case beyond a reasonable doubt, the conviction would ap-
pear to be strongly convincing proof of the same fact in the civil
case, where only a preponderence of the evidence is required."
Perhaps the courts which are troubled by the variation in the
degree of proof factor are taking into consideration a third basis
upon which the exclusion rule has been rested: that inasmuch as an
acquittal in the criminal case is almost never admissible in evidence

"This reason (often referred to under the maxim of res inter alios acta by
which is meant: Things done between two strangers ought not to operate to the
disadvantage of a third not a party to them) has been mentioned in the following:
Burt v. Union Central Life Ins. Co., 187 U. S. 362 at 367, 23 S. Ct. 139 at 141, 47
L. ed. 216 at 220 (1902); Stone v. United States, 167 U. S. 178 at 185, 17 S. Ct. 778 at
781, 42 L. ed. 127 at 13o (1897); Diamond v. New York Life Ins. Co., 42 F. (2d)
gio at 912 (N. D. Ill. 193o); Schindler v. Royal Ins. Co., 259 N. Y. 31o, 179 N. E.
711, 8o A. L. R. 1142 (1932); Eagle, Star and British Dominions Ins. Co. v. Heller,
149 Va. 82 at 87, 140 S. E. 314 at 316, 57 A. L. R. 490 at 492 (1927); Interstate Dry
Goods Stores v. Williamson, 91 W. Va. x56 at 159, 112 S. E. 3oi at 303, 31 A. L. R.
258 at 260 (1922); Hollington v. F. Hewthorn & Co., [1943] 1 K. B. 587 at 596; 2
Freeman, Judgments (5 th ed. 1925) § 654; Coutts, the Effect of a Criminal Judgment
on a Civil Action (ig55) 18 Mod. L. Rev. 231 at 238; Notes (1953) 39 Va. L. Rev.
995 at 999; (1927) 41 Harv. L. Rev. 241 at 243.
1
OUnited States v. Gramer, 191 F. (2d) 741 at 743 (C. A. 9th, 1951); Schindler v.
Royal Ins. Co., 258 N. Y. 310, 179 N. E. 711, 8o A. L. R. 1142 (1932); Interstate
Dry Goods Stores v. Williamson, 91 W. Va. 156, 112 S. E. 3oi at 303, 31 A. L. R. 258
at 260 (1922); Coutts, The Effect of a Criminal Judgment on a Civil Action (1955)
i8 Mod. L. Rev. 231 at 240; Note (1927) 41 Harv. L. Rev. 241 at 243.
uInterstate Dry Goods Stores v. Williamson, 91 W. Va. 156, 112 S. E. 301 at
3o3, 31 A. L. R. 258 at 260 (1922); 2 Freeman, Judgments (5th ed. 1925) § 656.
262 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

in the civil case on behalf of the defendant, 12 a conviction must not

be admitted on behalf of the plaintiff, lest a lack of mutuality re-
sult. 13 This reasoning, however, overlooks the fact that there is a dif-
ference between the reliability of the conviction and the acquittal when
admitted in the civil case. The conviction is highly reliable evidence
of defendant's commission of the offense, because it demonstrates that
that fact was proved beyond a reasonable doubt in the criminal
case. But the acquittal merely indicates that the state failed to prove
commission of the offense beyond a reasonable doubt; it does not in-
dicate that plaintiff could not prove that fact by a mere preponderence
of the evidence in the civil case. Thus, to admit a conviction but ex-
clude an acquittal' 4 would not be an unwarranted discrimination
between plaintiff and defendant, but rather would be a recognition of
the difference in the reliability of the evidence provided by the two
results of a criminal case, even though this practice would not result
in a strictly mutual rule.' 5
A fourth reason given for the traditional rule is that such evidence
as is contained in the record of a criminal conviction is hearsay be-
cause the conclusions of the judge and jury in the criminal court are
based on testimony heard in that court, and thus they do not have the
personal knowledge necessary to permit their testimony to be admis-
sible in the civil proceedings. 16 The fallacy here, however, appears

1-This view is adhered to almost uniformily despite the divergent views on con-
victions. Eagle, Star and British Dominion Ins. Co. v. Heller, 149 Va. 82 at 88,
140 S. E. 314 at 316, 57 A. L. R. 490 at 492 (1927); Maybee v. Avery, 18 Johns. 352
at 354 (N. W. 182o); Notes (1953) 39 Va. L. Rev. 995; (1927) 41 Harv. L. Rev. 241;
(1951) 18 A. L. R. (2d) 1289 at 1315; (1941) 13o A. L. R. 69o at 691.
"Schindler v. Royal Ins. Co., 258 N. Y. 31o, 179 N. E. 711 at 712, 8o A. L. R. 1142
at 1144 (1932); 2 Freeman, Judgments (5 th ed. 1925) § 654; Coutts, The Effect of a
Criminal Judgment on a Civil Action (1955) 18 Mod. L. Rev. 231 at 239; Notes (1953)
39 Va. L. Rev. 995 at 996; (1927) 41 Harv. L. Rev. 241 at 243; (1924) 31 A. L. R.
261 at 266. This lack of mutuality is explained as follows: Since the criminal de-
fendant could not introduce evidence of an acquittal because of the lesser degree of
proof required in a civil suit, why let the civil plaintiff use evidence of a conviction
against the criminal defendant?
AThis is what the minority of courts have in fact done. See text at notes 22,
23, 25, and 26, infra. Also see text at note 12, supra, with reference to continued
exclusion of acquittals.
"See note 13, supra.
165 Wigmore, Evidence ( 3rd ed. 1940) §§ 1635, 1671(a); Coutts, The Effect of a
Criminal Judgment on a Civil Action (1955) 18 Mod. L. Rev. 231 at 238; Note (1953)
39 Va. L. Rev. 995 at 996. Note that while Wigmore assigns hearsay as a reason
for exclusion, he affirmatively discredits it, noting that other reports and inquisi-
tions are admissible both at common law and by statute. 4 Wigmore, Evidence
(rd ed. 1940) § 1346(a); 5 Wigmore, Evidence (3rd ed. 194o) 688. According to one
writer: "... to classify the deliberate verdict of a jury and judgment of a court
as mere hearsay strikes a blow at the pillars of our judicial system." Note (1953)
39 Va. L. Rev. 995, 996.
1957] CASE COMMENTS

to be that the conviction record is not presented in the civil suit as

testimony of the criminal court's judge and jury acting as witnesses,
but is rather offered as proof that the commission of the act charged
has already been passed on by a prior valid judicial proceeding.
Closely connected with this fourth reason is the fifth: namely, that
such evidence constitutes mere opinion17 According to the leading
English case of Hollington v. F. Hewthorn & Co.,'5 the evidence is at
best only an indication that some other court and jury thinks that the
defendant is guilty, and the thinking of that other court should not
control in subsequent litigation.' 9 This view, however, seems to be an
indictment of the Anglo-American judicial system and a refusal to ac-
cept the verdict of a duly constituted court and jury that the accused
was guilty of the act with which he was charged after a full trial of
20
the same issues.
Perhaps recognizing these fallacies in the arguments supporting
the traditional view, and not wishing any party to benefit by his own
wrong,21 some authorities, including the dissenting judge in the
principal case,22 have advocated a rule which goes to the opposite ex-
treme and makes a copy of a criminal conviction not only admissible
as evidence in a later civil case, but conclusive of the facts on which
it is based.23 A holding to this effect in the 1927 Virginia case of
Eagle, Star and British Dominions Insurance Co. v. Heller24 played
an important role in the development of this view. There, the court,
in admitting the evidence of the arson conviction of an insured party
who was suing to recover insurance on the burned property said: "To
permit a recovery under a policy of fire insurance by one who has been
convicted of burning the property insured. .,would discredit the ad-

17Hollington v. F. Hewthorn & Co., [1943] 1 K. B. 587 at 594 and 595; 5 Wig-
more, Evidence (3rd ed. 1940) § 1671(a); Coutts, The Effect of a Criminal Judgment
on a Civil Action (1955) 18 Mod. L. Rev. 231 at 240.
'[1943] 1 K. B. 587.
"([1943] 1 K. B. 587 at 594.
"See Smith v. Dean, 29o S. W. (2d) 439 at 441 (Ark. 1956).
"Note (1951) 18 A. L. R. (2d) 1289.
"Smith v. Dean, 290 S. W. (2d) 439 at 441 (Ark. 1956).
"Austin v. United States, 125 F. (2d) 816 (C. C. A. 7th, 1942); Eagle, Star and
British Dominions Ins. Co. v. Heller, 149 Va. 82, 140 S. E. 314, 57 A. L. R. 490 (1927);
Notes (1953) 39 Va. L. Rev. 995 at 998; (1941) 5o Yale L. J. 499. See Commarano v.
Gimino, 234 I1. App. 556 at 563 (1924); Poston v. Home Ins. Co., 191 S. C 314, 4
S. E. (2d) 261 at 262 (1939). Cf. Burt v. Union Central Life Ins. Co., 187 U. S. 362,
23 S.Ct. 139, 47 L. ed. 216 (1902); Diamond v. New York Life Ins. CO., 42 F. (2d)
91o (N. D. III. 593o).
2149 Va. 82, 14o S.E. 314, 57 A. L. R. 490 (1927). For a full discussion of this
case, see Note (1953) 39 Va. L. Rev. 995 at 998.
264 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

ministration of justice, defy public policy and shock the most unenlight-
25
ened conscience.
Two intermediate views have also been advocated: (i)that crim-
inal convictions are admissible as merely persuasive evidence; 20 and
(2) that criminal convictions are admissible as prima facie evidence
in a later civil proceeding, subject to the right of rebuttal by defend-
ant.27 This latter procedure is exemplified by the New York case of
Schindler v. Royal Insurance Co.,28 in which an insured had been
convicted of making fraudulent representations in taking out an
insurance policy but later sued to force the insurer to pay on the
policy which had been fraudulently obtained. The court, referring to
the former adherence to the traditional rule, recognized that "estab-
lished precedents are not to be lightly set aside, even though they seem
archaic," 29 but admitted the evidence in the civil case as presumptive
proof of the commission of the crime, noting that: "It would be an
unedifying spectacle if the courts should now apply the strict rule which
excluded all reference to the judgment of conviction in the civil action
as evidence tending to establish the material facts."3 0 These inter-
mediate views have definite merit in that they lessen the likelihood of
inconsistent results being reached on the question of a defendant's
guilt 3 ' and yet guard against that defendant being "shut off from
32
showing there was a miscarriage of justice in the criminal case."
The two views differ only in that the admission of the prima facie

"149 Va. 82, 111, 140 S. E. 314, 323, 57 A. L. R. 490, 503 (1927).
"4 Wigmore, Evidence (3rd ed. 1940) § 1346(a); McCormick, Evidence (1954)
§ 295; Cowen, The Admissibility of Criminal Convictions in Subsequent Civil
Proceedings (1952) 40 Calif. Law Rev. 225 at 248; Uniform Rules of Evidence (1954)
Rule 63 (20); Model Code of Evidence (1942) Rule 521; Note (1951) 18 A. L. R.
(2d) 1289. The comment by Wigmore cited above points out the analogy that
other reports, returns, and certificates are receivable both at common law and by
statute and that therefore the evidence of conviction has value as admissible per-
suasive evidence.
"North River Ins. Co. v. Militello, 100 Colo. 343, 67 P. (2d) 625 (1937) rehearing
den. 104 Colo. 28, 88 P. (2d) 567 (1939); Geissler v. Accurate Brass Co., 271 App.
Div. 980, 68 N. Y. S. (2d) 1 ('947); Schindler v. Royal Ins. Co., 258 N. Y. 310, 179
N. E. 711, 8o A. L. R. 1142 (1932); Maybee v. Avery, 18 Johns. 352 (N. Y. 1820);
Notes (1953) 39 Va. L. Rev. 995; (1927) 41 Harv. L. Rev. 241 at 242. Section 5 of
the Clayton Act provides that any final judgment in a criminal prosecution with
reference to anti-trust legislation brought in behalf of the United States as prima
facie evidence against the defendant in any suit brought by any other party.
38 Stat. 731 (1914), 15 U. S. C. A. § 16 (1951).
"258 N. Y. 31o, 179 N. E. 711, 8o A. L. R. 1142 (1932).
"258 N. Y. 310, 179 N. E. 711,712, 8o A. L. R. 1142, 144 (1932).
"258 N. Y. 310, 179 N. E. 711, 712, 8o A. L. R. 1142, 1144 (1932).
"See text at notes 34 and 35 for an example of a possible inconsistent result.
"Sovereign Camp W. 0. W. v. Gunn, 227 Ala. 400, 150 So. 491, 493 (1933)-
1957] CASE COMMENTS

evidence will bind the jury in the civil suit to find for plaintiff unless
there is rebuttal by defendant, whereas evidence admitted merely
persuasively has no such binding effect whether rebutted or not, and
33
the jury in the civil case would be free to find for either party.
The possible absurdities which could arise from the operation of
the traditional rule are well illustrated by reference to Diamond v.
New York Life Insurance Co.,34 in which the court broke away from
the exclusion rule. Inasmuch as the convicted defendant had already
been electrocuted for murder, it would have been astonishing to have
refused to admit a copy of the murder conviction in the subsequent
civil suit and to have decided there that the deceased defendant was
innocent after all. Such a result would, if reached, only serve to under-
mine public confidence in the judicial system and, in addition,
waste the time of the court. 35 As was pointed out by the dissent in the
principal case, "To require the [adverse claimants] to prove over again
that the [wife] killed her husband, in the teeth of a jury verdict and
the solemn decision of this [very court in a prior decision] that she did,
36
would be little short of ridiculous."
Logic and reason seem to stand in favor of allowing a copy of a
criminal conviction to be admissible in a civil suit at least as prima
facie, if not conclusive, evidence. Since the criminal conviction has been
obtained by a finding of guilt beyond a reasonable doubt in a valid
judicial proceeding, the convicted criminal has already "had his day
in court ... under conditions most favorable to himself;37 and there
is no apparent reason why such a judgment should not be civilly ad-
missible as conclusive or as prima facie evidence of the same facts in
a subsequent proceeding in which only a preponderance of the evi-
dence is required. "... [I]f the Bench, whose constant complaint is
that of overwork, ever determines to modify the present strict stand-

:WVigmore supports this view strongly. See 4 Wigmore, Evidence (3rd ed.
1940) § 1346(a): "...many kinds of returns, reports, and certificates made by an
official who has investigated in the course of duty, are receivable, both at common
law and by statutes. Is not the finding of a judge, or the verdict of a jury based on
at least as thorough an inquiry as those other reports and certificates? Has it not
some value as evidence, even though not conclusive?" This quotation shows how
incompletely the Supreme Court of Arkansas quoted Wigmore by saying that such
a prominent authority only favored the relaxation of the traditional rule in "ex-
ceptional situations." Smith v. Dean, 290 S. W. (2d) 439, 440 (Ark. 1956).
3142 F. (2d) gio (N. D. Ill. 1930).
Such logical reasoning was shared in Burt v. Union Central Life Ins. Co., 187
U. S. 362 at 368, 23 S. Ct. 139 at 141, 47 L. ed. 216 at 220 (1902).
:"See Smith v. Dean, 290 S. W. (2d) 439, 441 (Ark. 1956).
3Eagle, Star and British Dominions Ins. Co. v. Heller, 149 Va. 82, 89, 140 S. E.
314, 316, 57 A. L. R. 490, 493 (1927).
266 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

ard of exclusion, with its inevitable repetitious proceedings and oc-

casional injustice, a theoretical ground for the acceptance of con-
victions as evidence in civil proceedings is... ready at hand, it is [that
8
which is done is presumed to have been done rightly]." s
GAVIN K. LETrs

FEDERAL JURISDICTION-EXHAUSTION OF STATE REMEDIES AS PREREQ-

UISITE To INVOKING JURISDICTION OF FEDERAL COURT UNDER CIVIL
RIGHTS ACTS. [Federal]

The long-standing reluctance of the federal courts to take jurisdic-

tion of equitable and declaratory judgment proceedings where a con-
comitant remedy is available in the state courts is the natural out-
growth of the judicial desire to retain the proper balance in the federal
system by recognizing duality of federal and state control.1 The federal
courts' traditional discretionary refusal to act where state remedies are
open proceeds from the basic premise that state officers acting in
good faith and under color of law in performing their duties should not
be enjoined from that action, in the absence of danger of immediate
and great irreparable injury, until the state courts have ruled on the
2
controversy.
This doctrine of abstention has had perhaps its greatest force in
the requirement which is now statutory law, 3 that the petitioner must
have exhausted all available state remedies through which he might
obtain relief sought before the federal judiciary can grant petitions for
writs of habeas corpus, unless there is a showing of exceptional cir-

' Coutts, The Effect of a Criminal Judgment on a Civil Action (1955) 18 Mod
L. Rev. 231, 243. Accord: Note (1926) 42 L. Q. Rev. 144.
"'It is in the public interest that federal courts of equity should exercise
their discretionary power with proper regard for the rightful independence of state
governments in carrying out their domestic policy." Pennsylvania v. Williams, 294
U. S. 176, 185, 55 S. Ct. 380, 385, 79 L. ed. 841, 847 (1935); Railroad Commission
of Texas v. Pullman Co., 312 U. S. 496, 61 S. Ct. 643, 85 L. ed. 971 (1941).
2'Caution and reluctance there must be in special measure where [the federal
courts interfere] with the activities of state officers discharging in good faith their
supposed official duties." Hawks v. Hamill, 288 U. S. 52, 60, 53 S. Ct. 240, 243,
77 L. ed. 61o, 618 (1933); ". . . no injunction ought to issue against officers of a State
clothed with authority to enforce the law in question, unless in a case reasonably
free from doubt and when necessary to prevent great and irreparable injury."
Massachusetts State Grange v. Benton, 272 U. S. 525, 527, 47 S. Ct. 189, 190, 71 L. ed.
387, 391 (1926).
162 Stat. 967 (1948), 28 U. S. C. A. § 2254 (1950).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

cumstances that manifest the need for immediate federal action. 4 At-
tempts to circumvent this rule by the device of alleging a case for injunc-
tive or declaratory relief under the federal Civil Rights Act have been
frustrated by applying the exhaustion requirement to such cases, even
though the enactment does not by its terms contain any such restric-
tion.5
The recent case of Williams v. DaltonG indicates that the federal
courts give particular force to their general policy against interceding in
cases where a state remedy is available if taking jurisdiction would al-
low an evasion of the rule applicable to federal habeas corpus proceed-
ings. Plaintiff had been committed to a state mental hospital in Michi-
gan after a hearing in the state probate courts. After several years of
confinement, she brought an action for declaratory and injunctive re-
lief under the Civil Rights Act, alleging that the state hearing had
been inadequate and had deprived her of her rights in contravention
of the Fourteenth Amendment and asking the federal district court
to compel her release. The court declined to take jurisdiction on the
ground that the suit was an attempt to circumvent the exhaustion
requirement applicable to federal habeas corpus proceedings. It was
held that the plaintiff must first pursue the remedy available in the
Michigan state courts. The Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit
affirmed, agreeing that an adequate state remedy existed, and pointing
out that "Federal Courts have been chary of granting declaratory or
equitable relief in an area of possible friction between federal and
state jurisdictions." 7 Referring to the statute applicable to habeas
corpus proceedings, the court declared: "Congress has dearly ex-
pressed the policy that persons confined pursuant to a judgment of a
state court shall first utilize available state corrective processes before
resorting to a federal court to review the validity of the judgment. The
statute evincing that policy... does not by its terms apply to this case;
the policy itself does."

'Potter v. Dowd, 146 F. (2d) 244 (C. C. A. 7th, 1944); United States ex rel.
Johnston v. Carey, 141 F. (ad) 967 (C. C. A. 7 th, 1944), cert. den., 323 U. S. 717,
65 S. Ct. 45, 89 L. ed. 577 (1944); United States ex rel. Ray v. Martin, 141 F. (2d) 3oo
(C. C. A. 2nd, 1944). Such exceptional circumstances normally are found where there
is a danger of irreparable injury which renders the technically available state remedy
inadequate in view of the time element and other urgent considerations. E.g., Thomas
v. Teets, 2o5 F. (2d) 236 (C. A. 9th, 1953).
rSee 17 Stat. 13 (1871), 42 U. S. C. A. § 1983 (1955 Supp.).
e2 31 F. (2d) 646 (C. A. 6th, 1956).
231 F. (2d) 646, 648 (C. A. 6th, 1956).
,231 F. (2d) 646, 649 (C. A. 6th, 1956). See In re Ryan, 47 F. Supp. 1o23 (E. D.
ra. 1942).
268 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

The Civil Rights Act imposes liability on "Every person who,

under color of any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage, of
any State or Territory, subjects... any.., person... to the deprivation
of any rights, privileges or immunities secured by the Constitution .and
laws . . .- 9 Congress has provided that the federal district courts shall
have original and removal jurisdiction over all cases arising under the
Civil Rights Act.' 0 The federal district courts are thus seemingly pro-
vided with the power to give relief that is broad in scope and in ap-
plication, the injured party being authorized to seek redress "in an ac-
tion at law, suit in equity, or other proper proceeding. ... ""., However,
the Supreme Court has pointed out that the Civil Rights Act was
"not to be used to centralize power so as to upset the federal system."' 2
In equitable and declaratory proceedings under the Act, the federal
courts have adopted as a general rule the policy of discretionary re-
fusal to take jurisdiction while there is yet a concurrent remedy
available to the complainant in the state courts, unless there is danger
of great and immediate injury. "It is well settled ...that accepted
principles governing equitable and declaratory relief are no less ap-
13
plicable where such relief is sought under the Civil Rights Act."'
Closely paralleling the principal case is a group of decisions also
arising under the Civil Rights Act involving interference with crim-
inal prosecution, or the enjoining of state officials acting under state
5
criminal statutes. 4 1n Stefanelli v. Minard,1 the Supreme Court held
that a federal court should not enjoin state officials bringing crimi-
nal prosecution (especially where that prosecution was already pend-

17 Stat. 13 (1871), 42 U. S. C. A. § 1983 (1955 Supp.).

1062Stat. 932, 938 (1948), 28 U. S. C. A. §§ 1343, 1443 (195o). See Moore, Com-
mentary on the U. S. Judicial Code (1949) 257-259, for summary of the scope and
coverage of the two sections as applied to Civil Right Act cases.
217 Stat. 13 (1871), 42 U. S. C. A. § 1983 (1955 Supp.)
'Collins v. Hardyman, 341 U. S. 651, 658, 71 S. Ct. 937, 940, 95 L. ed. 1253,
1257 (1951). "This Act has given rise to differences of application here. Such dif-
ferences inhere in the attempt to construe the remaining fragments of a compre-
hensive enactment, dismembered by partial repeal and invalidity, loosely and
blindly drafted in the first instance, and drawing on the whole constitution itself
for its scope and meaning. Regardless of differences in particular cases, how-
ever, the Court's lodestar of adjudication has been that the statute 'should be con-
strued so as to respect the proper balance between the states and the federal govern-
ment in law enforcement'." Stefanelli v. Minard, 342 U. S. 117, 121, 72 S. Ct
118, 120, 96. L. ed. 138, 143 (1951).
"Williams v. Dalton, 231 F. (2d) 646, 648 (C.A. 6th, 1956).
"*E.g., Ackerman v. International Longshoremen's Union, 187 F. (2d) 86o
(C. A. 9 th, 1951); Cooper v. Hutchinson, 184 F. (2d) 119 (C. A. 3rd, 1950); City
of Manchester v. Leiby, 117 F. (2d) 661 (C. C. A. 1st, 1941).
"5342 U. S. 117, 72 S. Ct. 118, 96 L. ed. 138 (1951).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

ing) in the absence of danger of great and irreparable injury.16 It

concluded that "The consequences of exercising the equitable power
here invoked are not the concern of merely a doctrinaire alertness to
protect the proper sphere of the States in enforcing their criminal
law. If we were to sanction this intervention, we would expose every
State criminal prosecution to insupportable disruption. Every question
of procedural due process of law-with its far-flung and undefined
range-would invite a flanking movement against the system of State
courts by resort to the federal forum ... "17 This deference has been ap-
parent even in some cases in which the criminal statutes allegedly violate
such fundamental liberties as freedom of speech and religion.' 8 This is

"c"The maxim that equity will not enjoin a criminal prosecution summarizes
centuries of weighty experience in Anglo-American law. It is impressively rein-
forced when not merely the relations between coordinate courts but between
coordinate political authorities are in issue." Stefanelli v. Minard, 342 U. S. 117, 120,
72 S. Ct. 118, 120, 96 L. ed. 138, 142 (1951). In reference to merely threatened prose-
cution, the Supreme Court has indicated that "courts of equity in the exercise of
their discretionary powers should conform to this policy by refusing to interfere
with or embarrass threatened proceedings in state courts save in those exceptional
cases which call for the interposition of a court of equity to prevent irreparable
injury which is clear and imminent...." Douglas v. City of Jeannette, 319 U. S.
157, 163, 63 S. Ct. 877, 881, 87 L. ed. 1324, 1329 (1943). This rule would seem to be
more stringent when applied to pending criminal proceedings: "The rule that
equity jurisdiction does not extend to enjoining pending criminal prosecutions,
has no exceptions. No extraordinary circumstances will serve to create such jurisdic-
tion." Ackerman v. International Longshoremen's Union, 187 F. (2d) 86o, 868 (C. A.
9th, 1951). In spite of this particularly strong statement of the rule as it applies to
pending state action, it would seem that there is still an area of discretion in the
equity jurisdiction of the federal district courts under the broad scope of 62 Stat.
932 (1948), 28 U. S. C. A. § 1343 (1950). For example, in Alesna v. Rice, 74 F. Supp.
865 (D. C. Hawaii 1947) the court took jurisdiction of a controversy in which com-
plainants were challenging a restraining order of a territorial judge which they
had violated and for which they were being held in criminal contempt, on the
grounds that the restraining order deprived them of freedom of speech and assembly.
1
Stefanelli v. Minard, 342 U. S. 117, 123,72 S. Ct. 118, 121, 96 L. ed. 138, 143 (1951)
' Douglas v. City of Jeannette, 319 U. S. 157, 63 S. Ct 877, 87 L. ed. 1324 (1943)
(This case arose on petition by members of a religious sect to enjoin threatened
criminal prosecution for failure to obtain licenses to vend religious literature in
city streets. The Supreme Court refused to enjoin local officials even though the
ordinance in issue had been found to be unconstitutional in a companion case,
Murdock v. Pennsylvania, 319 U. S. 105, 63 S. Ct. 870, 87 L. ed. 1292 (1943), because
there was no ground for the supposition that great harm would be done petitioners
or that the state judiciary would construe the ordinance in contravention of the
Supreme Court's ruling in the Murdock case.); Sellers v. Johnson, 163 F. (2d) 877
(C. C. A. 8th, 1947); Whisler v. City of West Plains, 137 F. (2d) 938 (C. C. A. 8th,
1943); Oney v. Oklahoma City, 10o F. (2d) 861 (C. C. A loth, 1941); City of Man-
chester v. Leiby, 117 F. (2d) 661 (C. C. A. Ist, 1941). Cf. Hauge v. C. I. 0., 3o7
U. S. 496, 59 S. Ct. 954, 83 L. ed. 1423 (1939), where it was found that state and
city officials acting under color of law were absolutely prohibiting peaceable
assembly of petitioners and others, and in some cases forcibly deporting corn-
270 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

especially true where the constitutional issues are uncertain because the
state courts have yet to place a definite interpretation on the exact
scope and meaning of the statute under which the state officials are
acting. 19
This pattern of non-interference may be departed from, however,
in situations in which the courts find special reason for doing so. In
Stapleton v. Mitchell,20 complainants brought an action for declara-
tory and injunctive relief from the enforcement of a Kansas labor en-
actment on the ground that it deprived them of freedom of speech. The
federal district court declared a portion of the statute unconstitutional
prior to any adjudication on the new law in the state judiciary, point-
ing out a distinction which has apparently become an approved de-
parture from the general rule: "It is noteworthy, however, that the
'doctrine of abstention'... was evolved in cases where property rights
under the Fourteenth Amendment and not personal rights under
the First were the subject of adjudication. Apparently the courts now
make a distinction in the appropriate exercise of Federal jurisdiction
where only the due process and equal protection clause of the Four-
teenth Amendment are involved, and those cases where the legislation
is challenged because it collides with the fundamental principles of the
2
First." 1

plainant labor organizers from the state. There is some authority supporting ex-
ercise of the federal courts' discretion to grant relief where fundamental personal
rights are involved. See Alesna v. Rice, 74 F. Supp. 865 (D. C. Hawaii 1947); Stapleton
v. Mitchell, 6o F. Supp. 51 (D. C. Kan. 1945).
19Railroad Commission of Texas v. Pullman, 312 U. S. 496, 498, 61 S. Ct. 643,
644, 85 L. ed. 971, 973 (1941), in which the Court refused to adjudicate the con-
troversy because it touched "a sensitive area of social policy upon which the federal
courts ought not to enter unless no alternative to its adjudication is open. Such con-
stitutional adjudication plainly can be avoided if a definitive ruling on the state issue
would terminate the controversy. A. F. L. v. Watson, 327 U. S.582, 595, 66 S.Ct. 761,
767, go L. ed. 873, 881 (1946): "The merits involve substantial constitutional issues
concerning the meaning of a new provision of the Florida constitution which, so
far as we are advised, has never been construed by the Florida courts. These courts
have the final say as to its meaning.... In absence of an authoritative interpreta-
tion, it is impossible to know with certainty what constitutional issues will finally
emerge." C. I. 0. v. Windsor, 116 F. Supp. 354 (N. D. Ala. 1953). Cf. Stapleton v.
Mitchell, 6o F. Supp. 51 (D. C. Kan. 1945); Snypp v. Ohio, 70 F. (-d) 535 (C. C. A.
6th, 1934), cert. den., 293 U. S.563, 55 S. Ct. 74, L. ed. 663 (1934).
16o F. Supp. 51 (D. C. Kan. 1945).
26o F. Supp. 51, 54 (D. C. Kan. 1945). The court qualified this distinction fur-
ther: "The right of a state to regulate property rights as far as the due process
clause is concerned includes the power to impose all the restrictions 'which a
legislature may have a rational basis for adopting,'... [while] freedom of speech,
press and assembly 'may not be infringed on such slender grounds. They are suscep-
tible of restriction only to prevent grave and immediate danger to interests which
the state may lawfully protect'." See Hogue v. C. I. 0., 307 U. S.496, 531, 59 S. Ct.
1957] CASE COMMENTS

One area in which federal district courts have on occasion shown

significant readiness to take jurisdiction and to rule on the merits
regardless of whether the complainant has exhausted available state
remedies has been in those controversies in which state officials have
allegedly exceeded their authority under the laws of the state, and
have made applications of apparently constitutional statutes in such
a way as to bring about an alleged deprivation of equal protection
under the laws. 22 The historical background of the Civil Rights Act,
which was an important part of Reconstruction legislation, manifests
that the Act was passed primarily to aid the Negro in attaining the
rights and privileges secured to him through the adoption of the Four-
teenth and Fifteenth Amendments. 23 Although the federal courts were
somewhat reluctant in early cases to make use of the Act, 24 actions at law
for damages were successfully maintained as a means of redress for the
deprivation, solely on the basis of race or color, of the right to vote,
even though a concurrent state remedy was in existence. 25 More re-
cently in the field of equitable and declaratory relief, the federal

954, 971, 83 L. ed. 1423, 1445 (1939). Cf. Alesna v. Rice, 74 F. Supp. 865, 870 (D. C.
Hawaii 1947): "...where the constitutional rights of individuals are at stake, a
Federal Court has a peculiar duty to step in, in a proper case, and if need be pro-
tect the individual against a threatened unjustifiable exercise of the power of a
state or Territory. The adequacy of an opportunity to become a defendant in a
criminal case and [sic] to then raise the same question of law before a court also
bound by the Constitution is questionable." The court refused relief in this case
on the merits of the controversy, finding that the restraining order which was chal-
lenged by petitioners did not violate their rights to free speech and peaceable as-
sembly.
In a few instances, federal courts have followed the practice of retaining the
case pending adjudication in the state courts. Peay v. Cox, 19o F. (2d) 123 (C.A. 5th,
1951), cert. den., 342 U. S.896; 72 S. Ct. 230; 96 L. ed. 671 (ig5); Cooper v. Hutchin-
son, 184 F. (2d) 119 (C. A. 3rd, 1950); Cook v. Davis, 178 F. (2d) 595 (C. A. 5 th, 1949),
cert. den., 340 U. S. 811, 71 S. Ct. 38, 95 L. ed. 596 (195o); Tribune Review Publish-
ing Co. v. Thomas, 12o F. Supp. 362 (f. D. Pa. 1954).
NVestminster School District v. Mendez, 161 F. (2d) 774 (C. C. A. 9th, 1947);
Mitchell v. Wright, 154 F. (2d) 924 (C. C. A. 5 th, 1946); Morris v. Williams, 149
F. (2d) 703 (C. C. A. 8th, 1945); Heard v. Ouachita Parish School Board, 94 F. Supp.
897 (IV. D. La. 1950. Cf. City of Manchester v. Leiby, 117 F. (2d) 661, 665 (C. C. A.
1st, 1941).
alSee Collins v. Hardyman, 341 U. S.651 at 656, 71 S.Ct. 937 at 939, 95 L. ed.
1253 at 1257 (1951); Emerson & Haber, Political and Civil Rights in the United
States (1952) 13-16.
2
'Giles v. Harris, 189 U. S.475 at 486, 23 S. Ct. 639 at 642, 47 L. ed. 909 at 912
(1903). Cf. United States v. Mosley, 238 U. S.383, 35 S.Ct. 904, 59 L. ed. 1355 (1915).
2Lane v. Wilson, 307 U. S. 268, 59 S. Ct. 872, 83 L. ed. 1281 (1939); Nixon v.
Herndon, 273 U. S.536, 47 S. Ct. 446, 71 L. ed. 759 (1927); Myers v. Anderson, 238
U. S.368, 35 S. Ct. 932, 59 L. ed. 1349 (1915). The federal courts have distinguished
between actions at law and proceedings in equity. In this connection, see discussion in
the principal case: Williams v. Dalton, 231 F. (2d) 646 at 649 (C. A. 6th, 1956).
272 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

courts have taken jurisdiction in controversies brought by Negro

school teachers to enjoin local school boards from maintaining dis-
criminatory salary scales, although clear and adequate state remedies
were apparently available. 26 Injunctive relief has also been granted
where state election officials were allegedly depriving complainant of
the right to vote because of his race, in spite of apparent state remedies
which had not been exhausted.2 7 However, even in this field relief
does not seem to be forthcoming in those cases in which the statute
under which the state officials are acting is also challenged as depriv-
ing complainants of equal protection of the laws, when the statutory
authory is not well defined and its limits have never been drawn by
the highest court of the state.28 Also, when state remedies still untried
are administrative in nature, it has been held that they must be ex-
30
hausted, 29 unless they are clearly inadequate.
From this review of the various segments of the law where the
federal and state courts have concurrent jurisdiction of controversies
arising under the Civil Rights Act and involving equitable and de-
claratory relief, it can be seen that there is some degree of uncertainty
as to the limits of equitable discretion which the federal district courts
exercise. While some of this uncertainty is attributable to the differing
facts in individual cases, it nonetheless appears that the federal courts
reach their results as to granting or refusing relief, and then pay
tribute to the general policy of deference to the state judiciary only if
they find that the case before them does not present a situation de-

"Morris v. Williams, 149 F. (2d) 703 (C. C. A. 8th, 1945); Mills v. Board of Edu-
cation, 3o F. Supp. 245 (D. C. Md. 1939).
Mitchell v. Wright, 154 F. (2d) 924 (C. C. A. 5 th, 1956), cert. den., 329 U. S. 735,
67 S. Ct. 96, 91 L. ed. 633 (1946).
28Railroad Commission of Texas v. Pullman, 312 U. S. 496 at 499, 61 S. Ct. 643
at 644, 85 L. ed. 971 at 974 (1941)
2Peay v. Cox, 19o F. (2d) 123 (C. A. 5 th, 1951) (different test for registering to
vote used by state registrar in examining Negroes); Cook v. Davis, 178 F. (2d) 595
(C. A. 5th, 1949) (alleged salary discrimination against Negro school teacher)-
Davis v. Arn, 199 F. (2d) 424 (C. A. 5 th, 1952) (complainant was refused right to take
police examination, allegedly on grounds of race). Cf. Trudeau v. Barnes, 65 F.
(2d) 563 (C. C. A. 5 th, 1933) (plaintiff in action at law for damages for being denied
right to register to vote was required to exhaust state remedy afforded by state
constitution which was administrative in nature).
m1Bruce v. Stilwell, 2o6 F. (2d) 554 (C. A. 5 th, 1953) (remaining administrative
bodies set up by state could not determine constitutional issues because of limits
on their authority; thus petitioner need not apply to those agencies as they were
inadequate to settle controversy.
Of course the exhaustion-of-administrative-remedies requirement is satisfied
when the only untried state remedies have all the indicia of judicial proceedings.
E.g., see Mitchell v. Wright, 154 F. (2d) 924 (C. C. A. 5 th, 1946).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

manding, in the eyes of the court, the relief sought. It would seem that
this relief is generally forthcoming only in those cases in which the
constitutional issue concerns fundamental personal rights or alleged
racial discrimination. As to the latter, the federal district courts can
look to the historical background of the Civil Rights Act to derive
singular justification for passing over the doctrine of abstaining from
interference with state action. This treatment of such controversies
seems to amount to an admission that the federal courts consider the
state judiciaries involved either incapable or unwilling to take any
action to remedy the alleged deprivation of rights, and that it is use-
less to force the complainant to wait out his state remedies. While as
a practical matter this may in some cases be true, 31 it seems far better,
in the light of careful regard for the federal-state relationship under
the Constitution, to preserve the concept of state preference in all
adjudications of an equitable nature arising under the Civil Rights
Act, and to reserve the original jurisdiction of the federal district
courts for cases in which the state manifestly provides no remedy.

ROBERT H. MANN, JR.

MORTGAGES-OPEN-END MORTGAGE PROVIDING SECURITY FOR DEBT OF

MORTGAGOR TO THIRD PARTY ASSIGNEE OF MORTGAGE. [Georgia]
Under a recent ruling of the Georgia Court of Appeals, it becomes
possible in certain situations for an unsecured creditor to transform
his claim into a security interest superior to interests of prior secured
creditors. This result was obtained in Vidalia Production Credit Asso-
ciation v. Durrence' by means of a rather unorthodox use of a mort-
gage securing future advances, the so-called open-end mortgage. The
mortgagor in 1952 executed a mortgage to Overstreet, "his successors,
heirs, executors, administrators and assigns." It was provided in the
instrument that "this conveyance is made to secure a debt of $920 ...
and any other present or future indebtedness or liability of mine to
second party."'2 In 1954, the mortgagor gave a second mortgage on the

3E.g., Westminster School District v. Mendez, 161 F. (2d) 774 at 781 (C. C. A.
9th, 1947),where the state remedy was held inadequate "since the practice com-
plained of [segregation of Mexican school children] has continued for several
consecutive years, apparent to California executive and peace officers.
294 Ga. App. 368, 94 S. E. (2d) 609 (1956).
294 Ga. App. 368, 94 S. E. (2d) 609, 6io (1956).
274 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

same realty to plaintiff. In 1955, defendant became a judgment credi-

tor of the mortgagor and a month thereafter purchased the 1952 open-
end mortgage and the debt secured by it from the mortgagee. This
instrument being in default, defendant commenced foreclosure pro-
ceedings for both the amount of the original mortgage debt and the
amount of his own independent claim which he had acquired against
the mortgagor prior to the mortgage assignment. Plaintiff, the junior
mortgagee, brought this action for declaratory judgment and injunc-
tive relief, seeking to establish its right to redeem the senior mortgage
by paying the defendant the amount of the original mortgage debt only.
The trial court sustained a general demurrer to plaintiff's petition
on the ground that it stated no cause of action, and the Court of Ap-
peals affirmed that judgment, relying on a 195o decision by the Georgia
Supreme Court in Rose City Foods v. Bank of Thomas County.3
The state of the law with regard to the mortgage for future advances
is characterized by varied and sometimes inconsistent judicial reaction.
However, all authorities who have considered the question agree
that an instrument securing future advances as well as present in-
debtedness may be valid according to its terms as between the parties
to it. 4 Generally the only problem inter partes is one of construction
to determine what debts the parties intended that the mortgage secure.
In answering this question, the courts in a number of cases have dem-
onstrated a notable reluctance to extend the scope of the so-called
"dragnet" clause to any debts which are deemed not likely to have

'207 Ga. 477, 62 S. E. (2d) 145 (195o), noted (1951) 5 Miami L. Q. 6o8. See
discussion in text at note 22, infra.
4See generally, 3 Glenn, Mortgages (1943) §§ 392-408; Jones, Mortgages Secur-

ing Future Advances (193o) 8 Tex. L. Rev. 371; Notes (1956) 25 U. of Cin. L. Rev.
82; (1919) 1 A. L. R. 1586; (1932) 81 A. L. R. 631; (1942) 138 A. L. R. 566; (1948)
172 A. L. R. 1079.
There are several different types of mortgages by which future indebtedness
is secured. The instrument may on its face appear to secure only a stated amount
of present indebtedness whereas in fact some portion of that amount may not be
advanced to the mortgagor until a future time. Such mortgages are generally valid
as to any advances made up to the face amount. 3 Glenn, Mortgages (1943) § 397. At
least this is so between the parties. Matz v. Arick, 76 Conn. 388, 56 Ad. 630 (19o4).
Cf. First Nat. Bank v. National Grain Corp, 1O3 Conn. 657, 131 At. 404 (1925). The
instrument may provide that it is to secure certain future advances which the
mortgagee is contractually obligated to make, or it may provide that the mortgagee
is entitled to make certain payments without the consent of the mortgagor to
protect his security interest. See Blackburn, Mortgages To Secure Future Advances
(1956) 21 Mo. L. Rev. 2og, for a discussion of the various types and cases upholding
the validity of each. See Note 21, par. 2, infra. However, this comment is primarily
concerned with the so-called open-end mortgage, such as that in the principal case,
which purports to secure optional and unlimited future advances.
19571 CASE COMMENTS

been specifically contemplated by the parties.5 Thus, it has been held

that an advance to one of the two co-mortgagors was not intended
to be included;6 and the Georgia court itself, applying the doctrine
of ejusdem generis, has refused to include within the scope of such
a clause a subsequent claim arising out of damages for the breach of
an unrelated contract.7 In this connection, the exact language of the
instrument may be decisive. For example, where the mortgage was to
secure, in addition to a specified named indebtedness, any "amounts
furnished me," it was held by the Alabama court not to include a sub-
sequent advance to one other than the mortgagor for which he became
liable only as a surety.8 And similarly the Georgia court has held that
a provision that the instrument was "to secure whatever indebtedness
I may owe said bank" does not cover an obligation as surety which
became fixed subsequent to the execution of the mortgage. 9
Where the debt which is sought to be brought under the "dragnet"
clause is one which originated as an obligation owed by the mortgagor
to someone other than the original mortgagee-as was the situation in
the principal case-the few courts which have considered the question
have, as a matter of contract construction, generally refused to permit
its inclusion. 10 In what was perhaps the first American case on the point,
the Michigan court held that this "very unusual clause" does not ex-

u"A court of equity should be reluctant to adopt the first construction suggested
above [a broad construction]. 'Dragnet' clauses are not highly regarded in equity.
They should be 'carefully scrutinized and strictly construed'." First v. Byrne, 238
Iowa 712, 28 N. W. (2d) 509, 511 (x947). "Mortgages of this character have been
denominated 'Anaconda mortgages' and are well named thus, as by their broad
and general terms they enwrap the unsuspecting debtor in the folds of indebtedness,
embraced and secured in the mortgage which he did not contemplate, and to extend
them further than has already been done would, in our opinion, be dangerous
and unwise...." Berger v. Fuller, i8o Ark. 372, 21 S. W. (2d) 419, 421 (1929).
Cases construing the scope of "dragnet" clauses are collected in Note (1948) 172
A. L. R. 1079.
I'Monroe County Bank v. Qualls, 220 Ala. 499, 125 So. 615 (1929). Cf. Walters
v. Merchants & Mftrs. Bank, 218 Miss. 777, 67 S. (2d) 714, 718 (1953), where the
clause read "any and all debts that the said grantors or either of them may incur,"
with Americus Finance Co. v. Wilson, 189 Ga. 635, 7 S. E. (2d) 259 (1940), and Bank
of La Fayette v. Giles, 208 Ga. 674, 69 S. E. (2d) 78 (1952).
7Beavers v. Le Sueur, x88 Ga. 393, 3 S. E. (2d) 667 (1939). For another applica-
tion of ejusdem generis to limit the scope of a "dragnet" clause, .see Dempsey
v. Portis Mercantile Co., 196 Ark. 751, 119 S. W. (2d) 915 (1938).
'Cotton v. First Nat. Bank, 228 Ala. 311, 153 So. 225, 228 (1934). Italics supplied.
'Citizens First Nat. Bank v. Jones, 161 Ga. 655, 131 S. E. 529, 533 (1926).
1OBerger v. Fuller, i8o Ark. 372, 21 S. W. (2d) 419 (1929); First Nat. Bank v.
Combs, 208 Ky. 763, 271 S. W. 1077 (1925); Campbell Bros. v. Bigham, 149 Miss.
214, 115 So. 395 (1928); Belton v. Farmers' & Merchants' Bank & Trust Co., 186 N. C.
614, 12o S. E. 220 (1923); Republic Nat. Bank v. Zesmer, 187 S. W. (2d) 227 (Tex. Civ.
App. 1945); National Fin. Co. v. Fregia, 78 S. W. (2d) io8i (Tex. Civ. App. 1935).
276 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

tend beyond dealings between the mortgagor and mortgagee unless it

dearly so specifies." And it has been held in Vermont that a clause
which read "all other indebtedness... to the said mortgagees, their
heirs and assigns, heretofore or hereafter contracted" was not sufficiently
broad to include an obligation which the mortgagor owed to a third
party who subsequently became assignee of the mortgage. 12 It seems
relatively safe to assume, in the light of what little authority exists
on the subject, that most courts would agree that the usual wording
of a "dragnet" clause does not justify the conclusion that the parties
intended it to secure claims against the mortgagor which originated
with third parties and which are related to the mortgage only by a
subsequent assignment of the claim to the mortgagee or of the mort-
gage to the third party creditor.
The situation become more complex when the property covered
by a recorded open-end mortgage subsequently becomes subject to
the interest of an intervening lienor or purchaser. The issue, of course,
is the extent to which the subsequent interest holder is subordinate to
the claims of a mortgagee who has acquired later additional claims
against the mortgagor under a mortgage for future advances. An early
English case has been interpreted as having decided that the lien of
any such later additional claim, regardless of when it arises, has priority
equivalent to that of the original mortgage.13 Since the mortgagee
was then regarded as the true owner of the mortgaged property, it
is not particularly surprising that he was permitted to retain title as
long as any claim under the mortgage remained unsatisfied. 14 In 1876
a state court in this country reached the same conclusion. 15 However,
this view had by then been expressly rejected in England' 6 and since
7
has received only limited acceptance in American courts.'

nLashbrooks v. Hatheway, 52 Mich. 124, 17 N. W. 723 (1883).

' 2Strong Hardware Co. v. Conyow, 105 Vt. 415, 168 At. 547 (1933). But as to
claims acquired by the assignee after the assignment of this mortgage to him, it was
held that the assignee had all of the rights of the mortgagee. The court indicated its
disapproval of the earlier case of Lamoille County Savings Bank & Trust Co. v.
Belden, 90 Vt. 535, 98 At. 1002 (1916), in which the mortgagee under an open-end
mortgage had been permitted to include a note of the mortgagor's to a third
party which had been assigned to the mortgagee. See also Clifford v. West Hart-
ford Creamery Co., 103 Vt. 229, 153 Ad. 205, 211 (1931).
"Gordon v. Graham, 2 Eq. Ga. Abr. 598, 22 Eng. Rep. 502 (1716).
143Glenn, Mortgages (1943) 16o2.
'5Witczinski v. Everman, 51 Miss. 841 (1876). But see note 17, infra.
"6Hopkinson v. Relt, 9 H. L. C. 514, 11 Eng. Rep. 829 (1861).
7
1 1t is doubtful if even Mississippi, assuming it still follows the Witczinski case,

note 15, supra, would agree with the holding in the principal case. In Campbell Bros.
v. Bingham, 149 Miss. 214, 115 So. 395 (1928), the court refused as a matter of public
policy and contract construction to permit the assignee of an open-end mortgage to
1957] CASE COMMENTS

It seems clear that modern courts, with few exceptions, will hold
that debts which arise from advances made by the mortgagee prior
to the time when the junior interest attaches are superior to it-assum-
ing of course that the debts involved are found to be within the con-
templated scope of the "dragnet" clause.' s It may be reasoned that,
under the recording acts, the holder of the junior interest cannot
justifiably contend that he has been misled, since he should have been
forewarned by the record of the existence of a prior open-end mort-
gage and presumably could have inquired to determine the exact ex-
tent of the mortgagee's security interest.19
But where the additional claims of the mortgagee arise after a
properly recorded junior interest has attached, it becomes necessary
to determine whether they are to be regarded as swelling the original
lien of the mortgage or as creating new liens effective only from the
date the claims arose. A few courts have analyzed the "dragnet" clause

include under it a debt owed him by the mortgagor prior to the assignment, even
though no intervening interests were involved. In any event, it seems certain that
where there are intervening interests, the Witczinski case is no longer law in Mississip-
pi. In North v. J. IV. McClintock, Inc., 208 Miss. 289, 44 S. (2d) 412, 414 (1956), the
court explicitly adopted the rule that advances made by the holder of an open-end
mortgage are subordinate to any intervening interest of which he had actual know-
ledge. The majority opinion made reference to the Witczinski case as follows: "It is
uncertain from the report of the case ... whether it announces a different rule from
the one here adopted. We have not been able to find the original record." The dis-
sent felt that there "should be a forthright overruling of the Witczinski case,"
and pointed out that it had been "cited several times in Jones on Mortgages, 8th
Edition, as an example of the minority rule...." 208 Miss. 289, 44 S. (2d) 412,
415 (1950)-
"Price v. Williams, 179 Ark. 12, 13 S. W. (2d) 822 (1929); Oaks v. Wengartner, 1o 5
Cal. App. (2d) 598, 234 P- (2d) 194 ('95i); Decatur Lumber and Supply Co. v.
Baker, 21o Ga. 184, 78 S. E. (2d) 417 (1953); Monticello State Bank v. Schatz, 222
Iowa 335, 268 N. W. 6o2 (1936); 3 Glenn, Mortgages (1943) § 400.
In Maryland and New Hampshire the validity of a mortgage securing future
advances has been curtailed by statute. In the former, the instrument must indi-
cate the amount and time of future advances. 2 Md. Code Ann. (Flack 1947 Supp.)
Art. 66 § 2. In the latter, the mortgagee must contractually bind himself to make
future advances of a certain sum. 2 N. H. Rev. Laws (1942) C. 261, §§ 3 & 4.
In Connecticut the courts have by decision limited the effectiveness of
mortgages securing future advances. Apparently, in order for future advances to
be secured against any other encumbrancer of the property, it is essential that the
record give a clear indication of the amount of indebtedness intended to be se-
cured. Pettibone v. Griswold, 4 Conn. 158, io Am. Dec. io6 (1822); Blach v. Chafee,
73 Conn. 318, 47 At. 327 (190o). Also it has been held in that state that where the
amount intended to be secured is stated, it must be indicated what if any portion
of the amount is to be advanced in the future. Matz v. Arick, 76 Conn. 388, 56
At. 63o (19o4). Cf. Andrews v. Connecticut Properties, Inc., 137 Conn. 170, 75 A.
(2d) 402 (1950).
2Eg., Oaks v. Weingartner, 1o5 Cal. App. (2d) 598, 234 P. (2d) 194 (1951); Frei-
berg v. Magale, 7o Tex. 116, 7 S. W. 684 (1888).
278 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

in a mortgage for future advances as merely an offer by the mortgagor

to provide security for subsequent indebtedness; this reasoning leads
to the conclusion that new liens arise and take effect only from the
time new debts are incurred and are therefore inferior to intervening
20
liens acquired by third parties.
Usually, however, it appears that the courts proceed from the
basic premise that the mortgagee has a right to be protected fully as to
all his claims acquired in reliance on the mortgage provisions for future
indebtedness, but that this right is qualified by a duty not to impair the
interest of others unnecessarily and intentionally. Thus, it is generally
held, in this country and in England, that if the mortgagee has know-
ledge of the existence of an intervening interest in the mortgaged prop-
erty when he extends new credit, such intervening interest will be
superior to the mortgagee's subsequently acquired claims unless those
claims arise pursuant to a binding obligation on the mortgagee to
extend further credit to the mortgagor. 21 In this way most courts which
have considered the problem have sought to strike a kind of equitable
balance.
Prior to the decision in Rose City Foods v. Bank of Thomas

'ILadue v. Detroit & M. Rd. Co., 13 Mich. 38o, 87 Am. Dec. 759 (1865), cited and
quoted with approval in Ginsberg v. Capitol City Wrecking Co., 3oo Mich. 712,
2 N. W. (2d) 892 at 894 (1942). See Second Nat. Bank v. Boyle, 155 Ohio St. 482, 99
N. E. (2d) 474, 476 (1951): "Obviously, where there is no obligation to make future
advances, a mortgage, purporting to secure such future advances, cannot secure
such advances until the advances have been made.... At most, those provisions [to
secure future advances] represent an offer by the mortgagor to provide the security of
the mortgage for such advances if and when they are made.... If such offer is ac-
cepted by the mortgagee in making a subsequent advance, then the necessity of ex-
ecuting and recording a new mortgage to secure such advances may be avoided." See
Note (1956) 25 U. of Cin. L. Rev. 82 where the Ohio view and pending legislation
designed to change it are discussed.
n'Axel Newman Heating and Plumbing Co. v. Sauers, 234 Minn. 140, 47 N. W.
(2d) 769 at 772 (1951); North v. McClintock, 2o8 Miss. 289, 44 S. (ad) 412 (1950)
(changing the rule in Mississippi to accord with the prevailing view). For a full dis-
cussion, see leading case: Hopkinson v. Rolt, 9 H. L. C. 514, 11 Eng. Rep. 829 (1861).
The courts adopting this view are almost unanimously agreed that actual notice, not
mere record notice, is necessary in order to subordinate advances made under a
senior open-end mortgage. See cases cited, Note (1942) 138 A. L. R. 566 at 585.
But see 3 Glenn, Mortgages (1943) 16io.
Where the mortgagee is obligated to make future advances, he will prevail
regardless of actual notice. Willard v. National Supply Co., 51 Cal. App. (2d) 555, 125
P. (2d) 519 (1942). Cf. Hyman v. Hauff, 138 N. Y. 48, 33 N. E. 735 (1893). Also it has
been held that the general rule does not apply to advances which the mortgagee was
entitled to make for the protection of his security interest. Auburn Ins. Agency v.
First Nat. Bank, 263 Ala. 3o, 81 S. (2d) 600 (1955). For other cases and discussion
applying the general rule and its exceptions, see authorities cited in note 4, supra.
1957] CASE COMMENTS

County,22 the position of the Georgia courts on this issue was perhaps
not completely clear.23 However, it now seems certain that Georgia has
aligned itself with the vanishing minority 4 which has adopted the
view that all claims within the scope of the "dragnet" clause become
liens on the mortgaged property as of the date of the original instru-
ment, regardless of whether they were acquired with actual knowledge
of intervening interests and even though they did not arise pursuant to
an obligation on the part of the mortgagee to extend further credit. In
the Rose City Foods case, a junior mortgagee, who had also become
purchaser of the mortgaged property, attempted to redeem from the
mortgagee of a senior open-end mortgage by paying the full amount
of all indebtedness then secured by the senior instrument.2 5 The senior
mortgagee declined the offer to redeem, saying that he must first
confer with his attorney, and immediately thereafter took an assign-
ment of a debt which the mortgagor owed to a third party. In an
action by the junior mortgagee for injunctive relief, the Georgia
Supreme Court held that the claim obtained by the assignment was
entitled to priority over the interest of the junior mortgagee and
purchaser, "and this is true notwithstanding the fact that the account
was purchased by the [senior mortgagee] after it had actual know-
ledge of the [junior mortgagee's] purchase and possession of the prop-
erty in question."20
In the principal case, the Georgia Court of Appeals felt that by
analogy the rule laid down by the Rose City Foods case should apply
with equal force where the third party creditor of the mortgagor, in-
stead of assigning his claim to the mortgagee, takes from the mort-
gagee an assignment of the mortgage, and under it claims all indebted-
ness then oweing him by the mortgagor. Thus, an unsecured creditor

o207
Ga. 477, 62 S. E. (2d) 145 (1950).
21Cf. Moultrie Banking Co. v. Mobley, 17o Ga. 402, 152 S. E. 9o3 (198o); Hurst v.
Flynn-Harris-Bullard Co., 166 Ga. 480, 143 S. E. 503 (1928); A. Leffler Co. v.
Lane,2 146 Ga. 741, 92 S.E. 214 (1917); Note (1951) 5 Miami L. Q. 6o8.
'Some textwriters assert that such a minority still exists. E.g., i Jones, Mort-
gages (8th ed. 1928) § 452. But no modem cases have been found which would
support this view. For discussion of the case most cited in support of the "minority,"
see note 17, supra.
25It is perhaps worth noting that the instruments used in this case and in the
principal case were not technically mortgages, but rather were bills of sale (in the
case of personalty) and deeds (in the case of realty) to secure debts, which under
Georgia statute pass legal title to the grantee-mortgagee. 2 Ga. Code (1933) § 67-
13o. Although the Georgia courts have treated the distinction as purely a tech-
nical one, Merchants' & Mechanics Bank v. Beard, 620Ga. 446, 134 S.E. 107 at 1o8
(1926), it may be that the unique holding in these two cases is partly attributable
to it. See 3 Glenn, Mortgages (1943) § 399.
-"o27Ga. 477, 62 S.E. (2d) 145, 148 (195o).
280 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

may, by purchasing an open-end mortgage outstanding against his

debtor, secure his claim by a lien which is legally effective from the
date of the purchased mortgage and which will be superior to any
interest which attached to the mortgaged property subsequent to that
date. The court, having stated its position indicated that it was well
aware of its significance: "The rule ... has ... been a thorn in the side
of title attorneys and title companies, giving rise to the contention
that... [it] places the junior lien holder in the unfortunate po-
sition of not knowing what obligations and priorities are his. This
adversely affects the opportunity of a debtor obtaining junior loans
from another than the first lien holder and places him at the mercy
of the holder of the first lien where additional credit is necessary. It
also places at a disadvantage an investor in the junior liens. Never-
27
theless the principle is well established in the state."
It seems likely that the conclusion reached in these two Georgia
cases would in most courts be summarily rejected, either because the
scope of the usual "dragnet" clause cannot as a matter of contract
construction be extended to include unrelated third party claims, or
because claims acquired by the holder of an open-end mortgage after
he has actual knowledge of intervening interests cannot justifiably be
given priority over such interests.
ROBERT R. HUNTLEY

PATENTS-APPLICATION OF LITERAL TERMS OF MISUSE SECTION OF

PATENT ACT To DEFEAT MISUSE DEFENSE. [Federal]
Because a patent gives its owner a limited monopoly, the question
has often arisen in regard to combination patents' as to whether a
patentee exceeds the scope of his monopoly if he insists that, as a
condition to obtaining a license to use his patent combination, the
licensee purchase unpatented components from him. 2 For example,

294 Ga. App. 368, 94 S. E. (2d) 60g, 611 (1956).

"'A combination is a composition of elements, some of which may be old and
others new, or all old or all new. It is, however, the combination that is the in-
vention, and is as much a unit in contemplation of law as a single or noncomposite
instrument." Leeds & Catlin v. Victor Talking Mach. Co., 213 U. S. 325, 332, 29 S. Ct.
503, 505, 53 L. ed. 816, 819 (19og). Although this decision was later overruled, the
definition here quoted was not questioned.
This comment is not specifically concerned with the broader field of antitrust
violations. It is limited to a consideration of the application of the doctrine of patent
misuse with regard to a patent owner's rights to use the courts to protect his
monopoly. It is not necessary to ". . . deny the existence, in certain respects, of a
1957] CASE COMMENTS

if the owner of a patent for a method of making fountain pens insists

that the unpatented metal used in all pens made under patent be
secured through his sales office, does he still have standing in the
courts to enjoin another from infringing his patent? The same ques-
tion arises if the owner of a patent claiming a product, a fountain pen,
insists that all metal points used in his pen be purchased from his
representative, even though the points themselves are unpatented.
While the answer to the question seems to have been provided by
Congress in Section 271 of the Patent Act of 1952, 3 it is believed that
the answer has not been properly applied by a court until the recent
case of Sola Electric Co. v. GeneralElectric Co.4
This decision is the latest of a series of cases involving the doctrines
of patent misuse and contributory infringement. The doctrine of
patent misuse is a specific application to patent law of the equity
5
maxim that he who comes into court must come with clean hands.
The defendant's conduct is immaterial; aid is withheld from the plain-
tiff because of the wrong the plaintiff has done. The doctrine is applied
to prevent an unwarranted expansion of the patent right beyond a strict
wording of the claims. 6 Contributory infringement is an application to
patent law of the common law doctrine of joint tortfeasors.7 A sup-

division-with patent law as one branch and antitrust as the other.... [Pjatent
misuse is not invaribly per se an antitrust violation." Oppenheim, Patents and
Antitrust: Peaceful Coexistence (1955) 54 Mich. L. Rev. 199, 200.
166 Stat. 811 (1952), 35 U. S. C. A. § 271 (1954).
'146 F. Supp. 625 (N. D. Ill. 1956).
n.., the equitable maxim that a party seeking the aid of a court of equity
must come into court with clean hands applies... [w]here the patent is used as a
means of restricting competition with the patentee's sale of an unpatented pro-
duct.... Equity may rightly withhold its assistance from such a use of the patent
by declining to entertain a suit for infringement, and should do so at least until it
is made to appear that the improper practice has been abandoned and that the
consequences of the misuse of the patent have been dissipated." Morton Salt Co. v.
G. S. Suppiger Co., 314 U. S. 488, 492, 62 S. Ct. 402, 405, 86 L. ed. 363, 366 (1942).
Accord: B. B. Chemical Co. v. Ellis, 314 U. S. 495, 62 S. Ct. 406, 86 L. ed. 367 (1942);
Rich, Infringement Under Section 271 of the Patent Act of 1952 (1953) 21 Geo.
Wash. L. Rev. 521, 525.
r"A patent operates to create and grant to the patentee an exclusive right
to make, use and vend the particular device described and claimed in the patent.
But a patent affords no immunity for a monopoly not within the grant... and the
use of it to suppress competition in the sale of an unpatented article may deprive
the patentee of the aid of a court of equity ... " Morton Salt Co. v. G. S. Suppiger
Co., 314 U. S.488, 491, 62 S. Ct. 402, 404, 86 L. ed. 363, 365 (1942).
7
"It cannot be, that, where a useful machine is patented as a combination of
parts, two or more can engage in its construction and sale, and protect themselves
by showing ... [that] each makes and sells one part only, which is useless with-
out the others, and still another person ... puts them together for use.... In
such case, all are tortfeasors...." Wallace v. Holmes, 29 Fed. Cas. 74, 8o (C. C. D.
282 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

plier who furnishes a component to another for that other to use in

an infringing manner is considered to be a joint wrongdoer with the
user.8 Liability is imposed on the defendant supplier because of the
wrong he has done. This doctrine prevents multiplicity of suits, as
under it a patentee may obtain relief by enjoining a few component
suppliers (contributory infringers) from selling the components
rather than by bringing a multitude of suits against those who pur-
chased the components and actually put them to use in the invention
(direct infringers).
The misuse doctrine evolved in 1931 in Carbice Corp. of America
v. American Patents Dev. Corp. wherein the Supreme Court denied
relief "because the [plaintiff] is attempting, without sanction of the
law, to employ the patent to secure a limited monopoly of unpatented
material used in applying the invention." 9 Plaintiff had required
purchase from his exclusive licensee of an unpatented stapleO0 (dry ice)
which was a necessary constituent of the refrigerated package (product)
claimed in the combination patent involved. The Garbice rule was later
extended to apply where the patentee gave an implied license to all
who purchased from him the staple, unpatented, necessary constitu-
ent for his patented process and sued all other suppliers for con-
tributory infringement; 1 where the patentee tried to monopolize the
sale of a staple, unpatented, necessary constituent by suits for direct

Conn. 1871). Significant cases in the development of the contributory infringement

doctrine include: Heaton-Pennisular Button Fastner Co. v. Eureka Specialty Co.,
77 Fed. 288, 35 L. R. A. 728, (C. C. A. 6th, 1896); Henry v. A. B. Dick CO., 224 U. S.
1, 32 S.Ct. 364, 56 L. ed. 645 (1912); Motion Picture Patents Co. v. Universal Film
Mfg. Co., 243 U. S. 502, 37 S. Ct. 416, 61 L. ed. 871 (1917).
866 Stat. 811 (1952), 35 U. S. C. A. § 271(c) (1954). Applied in Southern States
Equipment Corp. v. USCO Power Equipment Corp., 2o9 F. (2d) iii (C. A. 5 th,
1953).
'283 U. S. 27, 33, 51 S. Ct. 334, 336, 75 L. ed. 819, 823 (1931). For another view
to the effect that the Supreme Court's decision in Motion Picture Patents Co. v.
Universal Film Mfg. CO., 243 U. S. 502, 37 S. Ct. 416, 61 L. ed. 871 (1917), laid the
basis for misuse, see Note (1953) 66 Harv. L. Rev. 909 at 911. The term "misuse"
was first used by the Supreme Court in the Morton Salt Co. v. G. S. Suppiger Co.,
314 U. S.488, 62 S. Ct. 4o2, 86 L. ed. 363 (1942). ". .. another quirk on the edges of
misuse is the notion that every patent is a dynamo for generating market power
requisite to antitrust illegality. This has been given credence and authority in the
tying clause cases." Oppenheim, Patents and Antitrust: Peaceful Coexistence? (1955) 54
Mich. L. Rev. 199, 213. Oppenheim lists tying clause cases at p. 213, n. 79.
1
Staple is defined as: "Established in commerce; occupying the markets...."
Webster's New International Dict. (2nd ed. 1950) 2457. Accordingly, a non-staple is an
article which is not established in commerce; it would have no substantial use were
it not for the patented invention.
nLeitch Mfg. Co. v. Barber Co., 302 U. S.548, 58 S. Ct. 288, 82 L. ed. 371 (1938).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

infringement; 12 and where the patentee discriminated in royalty rates

between those who purchased the staple, unpatented, necessary con-
13
stituent from him and those who purchased it from a competitor.
However, in an earlier decision in which the patentee was monopoliz-
ing the sale of a non-staple, unpatented, necessary constitutent usable
only in the invention, the Court granted the patentee relief. 14
Thus, although there was some conflict of authority,15 it appears
that the law resulting from these decisions was that a patentee had
standing to enjoin a direct or contributory infringement if he was not
guilty of misuse, and further, that a patentee was not guilty of mis-
use merely because he monopolized the sale of a non-staple, unpatent-
ed component, or merely because he sought an injunction against
another who was selling the non-staple knowing that it was to be used
in the patented system; but if a plaintiff tried to monopolize staples,
he was barred by misuse even if he taught his customers his system
in addition to selling them its constituents.16
However, it is possible that in 1944 the law was radically changed
when the Supreme Court handed down its decision in Mercoid Corp. v.
Mid-Continent Investment Co.,1 7 involving a patentee who was trying

1-Morton Salt Co. v. G. S. Suppiger Co., 314 U. S. 488, 62 S. Ct. 402, 86 L. ed. 363
(1942).
"Dehydrator's Ltd. v. Petrolite Corp., 117 F. (2d) 183 (C. C. A. 9th, 1941); Bar-
ber Asphalt Co. v. La Fera Greco Contracting Co., 116 F. (2d) 211 (C. C. A. 3 rd, 194o).
See note 42, infra. A group of cases touching on the border of misuse involves price
fixing, primarily an antitrust consideration. However, there is language to the effect
that a patentee cannot control the resale price of patented articles, either by resort
to an infringement suit or by stipulating for price maintenance by his vendees.
See, e.g., United States v. Univis Lens Co., Inc., 316 U. S. 241, 62 S. Ct. lo88, 86 L. ed.
1408 (1942). Cf. United States v. General Electric Co., 272 U. S. 476, 47 S. Ct. 192, 71
L. ed. 362 (1926).
"'Leeds & Catlin Co. v. Victor Talking Mach. Co., 213 U. S. 325, 29 S. Ct. 503,
53 L. ed. 816 (19o9), see note 18, infra. For a definition of the term non-staple, see
note io, supra.
21See note 18, infra.
1
B. B. Chemical Co. v. Ellis, 314 U. S. 495, 62 S. Ct. 406, 86 L. ed. 367 (1942).
Even if the supplier's infringement extended beyond mere sale, he cannot be en-
joined if the patentee's acts constitute misuse, and it is misuse to monopolize
staples even where a patentee also teaches his customers his process. For a com-
plete discussion of the patentee's conduct, see B. B. Chemical Co. v. Ellis, 117 F.
(2d) 829 (C. C. A. 1st, 1941). Many writers have considered the Supreme Court's
decision in this case to pertain only to staples; however, it is likely that the Su-
preme Court considered the case as pertaining to non-staples, because the product
was originally a staple (canvas sole) but had been coated in a particular way for
use in the invention.
1732o U. S. 661, 64 S. Ct. 268, 88 L. ed. 376 (1944). Mercoid Corp. v. Minneapolis-
Honeywell Regulator Co., 320 U. S. 68o, 64 S. Ct. 278, 88 L. ed. 396 (1944), was a
companion case which applied the same doctrine but did not expound it.
284 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

to monopolize the sale of non-staple switches and who brought suit

for contributory infringement. Relief was denied on the ground that
the patentee had misused his patent by his attempt to monopolize
unpatented wares. This meant, at least, that the misuse doctrine was
definitely expanded to apply to a patentee who had sought to monopo-
lize non-staples.'s Some authorities interpreted the decision more
broadly as meaning that the bringing of a contributory infringement
suit involved an attempt to monopolize an unpatented item, and,
therefore, that any patentee who brought a contributory infringement
suit was guilty of misuse. 19 Such an expansion of the misuse concept
nullified for all practical purposes, the patentee's contributory in-
fringement remedy, but the broad interpretation was supported by
language in the Mercoid opinion: "The result of this decision, to-
gether with those that have preceded it, is to limit substantially the
doctrine of contributory infringement. What residuum may be left we
need not stop to consider. It is sufficient to say that in whatever posture
the issue may be tendered courts of equity will withhold relief when
the patentee and those claiming under him are using the patent
20
privilege contrary to the public interest."
As a result of the Mercoid decision, the courts were uncertain as to
whether the mere bringing of a suit for contributory infringement
constituted misuse. In one decision of this period, Judge Learned Hand
stated: "Indeed, it appears from the discussion in the opinions (in

1There appears to have been a legitimate basis for distinguishing between sta-
ples and non-staples prior to the Mercoid decision. In Leeds &.Catlin v. Victor Talking
Mach. Co., 213 U. S. 325, 29 S. Ct. 503, 53 L. ed. 816 (1909), the Court allowed plain-
tiff recovery even though he was monopolizing non-staples. In later cases, involving
monopolization of staples, the Court distinguished the Leads & Catlin decision, but
made no reference to a distinction between staples and non-staples. Carbice Corp.
of America v. American Patents Dev. Corp., 283 U. S. 27, 51 S. Ct. 334, 75 L. ed.
819 (1931); Leitch Mfg. Co. v. Barber Co., 3o2 U. S. 458, 58 S. Ct. 288, 82 L. ed.
371 (1938). Subsequent to these later decisions, some lower courts accepted the non-
staple exception to the misuse doctrine, Johnson Co. v. Philadelphia Co., 96 F.
(2d) 442 at 447 (C. C. A. 9th, 1938), while others rejected the distinction, Philadel-
phia Co. v. Lechner Laboratories, Inc., 107 F. (2d) 747 at 748 (C. C. A. 2nd, 1939).
B. B. Chemical Co. v. Ellis, 314 U. S. 495, 62 S. Ct. 4o6, 86 L. ed. 367 (1942), which
was decided subsequent to the conflicting decisions discussed above, may have made
the distinction between staples and non-staples academic. See note 16, supra. How-
ever, the Mercoid decision was the first to spell out that result clearly. In the Mercoid
case, the Court apparently recognized that such a distinction previously existed,
but rejected it. Mercoid Corp. v. Mid-Continent Inv. Co., 320 U. S. 661 at 668, 64
S. Ct. 268 at 272, 88 L. ed. 376 at 382 (1944).
"9Rich, Infringement Under Section 271 of the Patent Act of 1952 (1953) 21
Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 521 at 536; Note (1953) 66 Harv. L. Rev. 9o9 at 913.
2Mercoid Corp. v. Mid-Continent Inv. Co., 320 U. S. 661, 669, 64 S. Ct. 268,
273, 88 L. ed. 376, 383 (1944).
 1957] CASE COMMENTS

Mercoid] that the doctrine of contributory infringement is itself

not wholly free from doubt." 21 However, many courts preferred to
believe that the contributory infringement remedy was still available. 22
In 1952, Congress adopted Section 271 (d) of the present Patent
Act, which declares: "No patent owner otherwise entitled to relief for
infringement or contributory infringement shall be denied relief
or deemed guilty of misuse or illegal extension of the patent right by
reason of his having done one or more of the following: (i) derived
revenue from acts which if performed by another without his consent
would constitute contributory infringement of the patent; (2) licensed
or authorized others to perform acts which if performed by another
without his consent would constitute contributory infringement of
the patent; (3)sought to enforce his patent rights against infringement
or contributory infringement." 23
There is no doubt that subsection (d)(3 ) makes it clear that bring-
ing suit for contributory infringement is not misuse per se.24 However,
subsections (d) (1) and (2) are not, in themselves, complete. They de-
fine misuse by a patentee in terms of conduct which, in another, would
be contributory infringement, and because of this phraseology, sub-
section (d) must be interpreted with reference to subsections (b) and
(c) of Section 27 1.25 Subsection (b) states that one who actively in-
duces infringement is liable as an infringer, and subsection (c) states
that one who sells a non-staple, unpatented, necessary constituent is
not. Because subsection (d) incorporates subsections (b) and (c), it
appears that a patentee is not guilty of misuse either when he monopo-
lizes the sale of non-staples or when he monopolizes the sale of staples

"Stokes & Smith Co. v. Transparent-Wrap Mach. Corp., 156 F. (ad) 198, .0
(C. C. A. 2nd, 1946). For other cases illustrative of the confusion of the courts, see
Landis Mach. Co. v. Chaso Tool Co., 141 F. (2d) 8o0 at 8oi (C. C. A. 6th, 1944);
Stroco Products v. Mullenback, 67 U. S. P. Q. 168 (S. D. Cal. 1944).
"Detroit Lubricator Co. v. Toussaint, 57 F. Supp. 837 (N. D. Ill. 1944); Hall v.
Montgomery Ward & Co., 57 F. Supp. 430 (N. D. W. Va. 1944); onmar Products
Corp. v. Tibony, 63 F. Supp. 372 (E. D. N. Y. 1945); Metallizing Engineering Co.
v. Metalling Co. of America, 62 F. Supp. 274 (S.D. N. Y. 1945). For a discussion of
cases immediately following the Mercoid decision, see Note (1947) 15 Geo. Wash.
L. Rev. 463.
"66 Stat. 811 (1952), 35 U. S. C. A. § 271 (1954).
-'Cole v. Hughes Tool Co., 215 F. (ad) 924 (C. A. ioth, 1954); Electric Pipe Line
v. Fluid Systems, Inc., 231 F. (ad) 370 at 372 (C. A. 2nd, 1956); Dr. Salsbury's Labs.
v. I. D. Russell Co. Labs., 12 F. (ad) 414 at 417 (C. A. 8th, 1954), cert. den., 348
U. S.837 (1954); Sola Electric Co. v. General Electric Co., 146 F. Supp. 625 (N. D.
Ill. x956). See Freedman v. Friedman, 142 F. Supp. 426, 431 (D. C. Md. 1956).
'From the legislative history, it appears that subsection (d) was intended to
include subsection (b). See 2 U. S. Code Cong. & Adm. News (1952) 2394 at 2402.
286 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

provided, in the latter case, that he at the same time actively induces
use of his patent.
Three cases have arisen involving subsections 271 (d) (i) and (2)
specifically. 26 The first two of the cases involved the patentee's at-
tempt to monopolize staples and avoid the bar of misuse by actively
inducing use of the patented process. The third case involved a
patentee's attempt to monopolize the sale of non-staples.
In the first of these three cases, 27 the patent covered a solution for
poultry treatment. Patentee sold a pill composed of two staple, un-
patented chemicals with instructions that the consumer mix the
pill with a certain amount of water to obtain the proper solution.
He sought to enjoin defendant, another supplier of a like pill, from
selling the pill with instructions on how to mix it with water. In sus-
taining a defense of misuse because the patentee was monopolizing
staples, the court, realizing that under Section 271 (d) plaintiff's con-
28
duct must be judged in terms of an alleged infringer's conduct,
considered what acts by a hypothetical alleged infringer constitute
contributory infringement. In reference to that consideration, the
court stated: "Though subsection (c) ... defines a contributory in-
fringer to be anyone who sells a component of a patented machine or
composition knowing it to be especially adapted for infringing use,
it specifically provides that said component not be 'a staple article or
commodity of commerce suitable for substantial noninfringing use.'
Whatever the significance of other provisions of the Act, we believe the
excepting clause is controlling here.... In the respect noted Section
271 (d) is readily harmonized with prior case authority .... -29
But the court did not consider subsection (b) of Section 271 which
seems to be most significant in this case, because a supplier who sells
with instructions on how to infringe the patent would logically be an

8There have been cases in which §271 (d) was applicable but not considered-e.g.
Technical Tape Corp. v. Minnesota Mining and Mfg. Co., 143 F. Supp. 429 (S. D.
N. Y. 1956). See note 35, infra.
nDr. Salsbury's Labs v. I. D. Russell Co., Labs, 212 F. (2d) 414, 415 (C. A. 8th,
1954): "In I. D. Russell Co. v. Dr. Salsbury's Laboratories, 8 Cir., 1952, 198 F.
(2d) 473, we held under identical facts that the plaintiff's own patent misuse
effectively barred recovery. It is plaintiff's instant contention that, as a result of
legislation enacted subsequent to the earlier litigation, the law of misuse has been
changed, thereby creating this, a new cause of action for continuing infringement."
nsSec. 271 (d): "No patent owner otherwise entitled to relief for... contributory
infringement of a patent shall be ... deemed guilty of misuse... by reason of his
having... (i) derived revenue from acts which if performed by another without
his consent would constitute contributory infringement of the patent.... 66 Stat.
811 (1952), 35 U. S. C. A. §271 (d) (1954).
2Dr. Salsbury's Labs. v. I. D. Russell Co. Labs., 212 F. (2d) 414, 417 (C. A. 8th,
1954).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

active inducer of infringement.0 0 Thus, the court appeared to treat

Section 271 (d) as no more than an expression of the expanded misuse
doctrine which had developed in the pre-Act era, and to believe that
courts are under a duty to apply that section in such a way as to ob-
tain results consistent with prior case authority. In this case, this
interpretation of the Act resulted in the patentee being denied possibly
the only reasonable means of exploiting his patent, 31 because, under
the decision, in order to obtain a monopoly he must sell only the
patented product as a whole, which means that he must ship gallons
of water instead of a box of pills with instructions on the label for
32
mixing.

3'Possibly the only authority prior to the passage of the Act'relating to what con-
stitutes active inducement appears in Judge Magruder's concurring opinion in
B. B. Chemical Co. v. Ellis, 117 F. (2d) 829, 836 (C. C. A. ist, 1941): "Here the de-
fendants are engaged in actively inducing unlicensed shoe manufacturers to prac-
tice the process. They furnish to such manufacturers the machines [and the materi-
als] all especially designed and prepared for the particular use, and, in addition
they furnish 'instruction ...and advice ...and assistance'...." For support of the
view that defendant's acts in the Dr. Salsbury's Labs case constitute active induce-
ment, see Note (1954) 28 Temp. L. Q. 148 at 152. For cases concerning active in-
ducement subsequent to the passage of the Act, see, e.g., Marks v. Polaroid Corp.,
237 F. (2d) 428, 435 (C. A. ist, 1956) (infringer supervised and directed the infringe-
ment: "he, individually, was the moving, active, conscious force behind [the] in-
fringement. This is clearly enough to make him personally liable under general
principles... as well as under 35 U. S. C. A. §271 (b)."); Freedman v. Friedman,
142 F. Supp. 426 (D. C. Md. 1956); Carter Products, Inc. v. Colgate-Palmolive Co.,
13o F., Supp. 557 (D. C. Md. 1955), aff'd, 236 F. (2d) 855 (C. A. 4th, 1956); Jones v.
Radio Corp of America, 131 F. Supp. 82, 83 (S. D. N. Y. 1955) ("The complaint
charges that [defendant], intending to bring about infringement of plaintiff's patent,
secured from plaintiff and passed on to other defendants, confidential information
making infringement possible.... The claim ... comes within subsection (b) [of
Section 271]. This subdivision included in its definition of 'infringer' one who does
that which the courts had previously held [?] to be contributory infringement
wherein there was intent to infringe, but not necessarily the sale of a component
part of a combination patent. It protects against one who aids and abets the direct
infringer.')
mSee I. D. Russell Co. Labs. v. Dr. Salsbury's Labs., 198 F. (2d) 473, 476 (C. A. 8th,
1952): "It further seems obvious to me that, if the poultry industry is to be able
to get the benefit of the discovery, the only way in which this can be made to occur
is through the method of sale which the patentee has used.... I am unable to see
here any engaging by the patentee in some tangential exploitation or any producing
by it of some collateral monopoly. To me, all that the patentee is doing is vending
its poultry medicine.... The patentee is not trying to sell the [unpatented com-
ponent]...."
rFor the view that the unpatented article is possibly a non-staple and there-
fore that the Act sanctions the patentee's activities in the Dr. Salsbury's case, see
Note (1952) 41 Geo. L. J. 112 at 114.
It has been suggested that Section 271 (d) is capable of a very narrow interpre-
tation. "This narrower interpretation would limit the exploitation of combination
patents primarily to the collection of royalties on freely available licenses; the con-
tributory infringement action would serve largely as an indirect device to en-
288 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

In the second case, 33 the court based its decision on the fact that the
patentee did more than sell the unpatented, staple components, inas-
much as it designed and inspected the patented system in which the
unpatented components were used; but the court did not apply the
Act. To the patentee's allegation of contributory infringement, the
purported infringer pleaded misuse, and the patentee answered that
his acts were not misuse by virtue of Section 271 (d). The court said:
"Although this argument has some merit, we need not here determine
its validity, since we have decided that [patentee's] method of doing
business is not proscribed by Mercoid."3 4 This court distinguished the
case before it from the Mercoid case and avoided an application of
the Act, apparently on the unexpressed assumption that the Act could
not have expanded the misuse doctrine beyond the limits suggested
by the Mercoid case. Apparently, since the court felt that there was
uncertainty as to the effect of the Act, the safer procedure was to dis-
tinguish the Mercoid case rather than to apply the Act. However, the
result was the same as would have been reached had the Act been
applied-that is, that the patentee has not misused his patent if he
does not merely sell staples but also performs services which, if per-
formed by another, would amount to active inducement of infringe-
35
ment.
Considered together, the two cases appear to have indicated that
misuse still was to be governed by the narrow interpretation of the Mer-
coid decision-that the misuse doctrine does not completely nullify
contributory infringement, though in most instances it has that effect.

courage application for licenses by deterring parts suppliers from selling to non-
licensed users." Note (1953) 66 Harv. L. Rev. 909 at 917. This narrower interpretation
would be consistent with the decision in the Dr. Salsbury's Labs case. However,
by requiring the patentee either to refrain from supplying unpatented components or,
should he enter the market, by denying him a contributory infringement remedy,
the narrow interpretation would prevent a patentee such as the plaintiff in the Dr.
Salsbury's Labs. case from protecting his monopoly, unless he himself stayed out of
the market, for he could not afford to sue, for example, the individual farmers
who use the medicine.
'Electric Pipe Line, Inc. v. Fluid Systems, Inc., 231 F. (2d) 370 (C. A. 2nd, 1956).
"Electric Pipe Line, Inc. v. Fluid Systems, Inc., 231 F. (2d) 370, 372 (C. A. 2nd,
1956).
*'The result is also consistent with the decision reached, without citation of
authority on the misuse point, in Great Lakes Equip. Co. v. Fluid Systems, Inc.,
217 F. (2d) 613 (C. A. 6th, 1954). Section 271 (b), as incorporated by Section 271
(d) (i), was applicable in that case, and, accordingly proper application would have
yielded the same result, but the court made no reference to Section 271. However,
the result is inconsistent with prior Supreme Court case law. See note i6, supra.
It seems doubtful that the Supreme Court would have distinguished a patentee who
designs and sells from one who couples his sales with instructions, advice and as-
sistance. See Note (1956) 1o4 U. of Pa. L. Rev. 1123.
 CASE COMMENTS

However, when a court felt that the monopoly did not have a serious
adverse effect on the public, it could allow recovery against a con-
tributory infringer and distinguish its decision from the Mercoid
case.
The Sola case 36 suggests a contrary approach. There, a patent cover-
ing an electrical circuit for igniting cold cathode fluorescent tubes was
involved. The claims of the patent covered a system sold by neither
plaintiff nor other manufactures it had licensed; both plaintiff and
its licensees sold unpatented, non-staple, necessary constituents, and
coupled with such sales an implied license to use the patented system
without charge. Plaintiff alleged infringement, to which defendant
pleaded, inter alia, misuse.3 7 Defendant's contention was that the
suppression of competition in the unpatented, non-staple component
constituted misuse and disqualified the patentee from suing for in-
fringement, but the court, although it denied plaintiff relief in this
case, did not accept defendant's contention with regard to misuse.
This conclusion was stated in terms of the Patent Act of 1952: "It seems
to the court that the defendant's thesis.., merely shows that the plain-
tiff has derived revenue from acts which, if performed by another
without plaintiff's consent, would constitute contributory infringement
of the patent, that the plaintiff has licensed or authorized others to
perform acts which if performed without the plaintiff's consent would
constitute contributory infringement of the patent, and that the plain-
tiff has sought to enforce its patent rights against infringement and con-
tributory infringement. These acts are by paragraph (d) of Section
271 ... declared not to be misuse of the patent right.... The. .Act
of 1952 makes proper and lawful that which under the doctrine of
the Mercoid cases... would have been a misuse of the patent." 38 To
the court which handed down the Sola decision, the patent law has
undergone reconstruction, 39 and cases are to be decided, where possible,
on the literal terms of the Act without reference to pre-existing law.
From the legislative history, it is apparent that the purpose of the
Act was to enable a patentee to derive profit from his own manufac-
ture and sale without being subject to the restrictive view of patent

'Sola Electric Co. v. General Electric Co., 146 F. Supp. 625 (N. D. Ill. 1956).
3-Defendant also pleaded invalidity and non-infringement in defense. On both
of these defenses he prevailed, and consequently the court's language regarding mis-
use would be considered dictum by some authorities.
ssSola Electric Co. v. General Electric Co., 146 F. Supp. 625, 647 (N. D. Ill.
1956).
3'Subparagraph (d) of Section 271 is the paragraph with which we are par-
ticularly concerned at this time. It certainly makes substantial changes in the law
as announced in the Mercoid cases." Sola Electric Co. v. General Electric Co., 146
F. Supp. 625, 647 (N. D. M11. 1956).
290 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

monopoly advanced in the Mercoid cases.4 0 In the words of one authori-

ty, "There is no reason why a patent owner should not be encouraged to
himself remain active in the industry.... The small manufacturer
particulary needs this right. It is only where the patent owner en-
gages in activities not reasonably necessary to enjoy his patent rights
that he should be held.., to have misused his patents." 4' Since the
Act defines what in the eyes of Congress is reasonably necessary to
this enjoyment, it seems that the example set by the court in the
Sola case should be adopted and followed, and that the attempt to
follow pre-existing law, found in other recent cases, is the wrong ap-
proach.4 2 If the Sola approach is adopted, the public policy, as ex-
pressed in the Patent Act of 1952, will serve to restore to the patent
43
system the necessary element of incentive.
SAmUEL L. DAVIDSON

'0See 2 U. S. Code Cong. & Adm. News (1952) 2394 at 2402.

4
Malley, Patent Antitrust Problems and the Attorney General's Report (1955)
24 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 20, 27.
,""It is hoped that the Dr. Salsbury's Laboratories decision, in its confusing
interpretations of section 271, will not set off a nullification of the congressional
objective of making contributory infringement a meaningful remedy." Oppenheim,
Patents and Antitrusts: Peaceful Coexistence? (1955) 54 Mich. L. Rev. i99, 213.
In National Foam System v. Urquhart, 202 F. (2d) 659, 662 (C. A. 3rd, 1953), the
patent owner, in view of the Barber Asphalt and Petrolite decisions, note 13, supra,
printed a patent notice on its "invoices to the effect that 'consumer licenses to use
the process of the ... patents upon payment of fair royalities with apparatus and
chemicals, however obtained, are available upon application to us'." A form known
as a consumer license was printed and placed in the company files. It was con-
ceded that no such licenses were ever issued, but there was no evidence that they
were ever applied for. The court looked to surrounding circumstances and found
that a higher rate would be paid for the unpatented, necessary constituent bought
from others, than would be paid if such constitutents were purchased from the
patent owner. It was argued that the higher royalty rate to be paid under the
consumer licenses was justified because the patent owners would supply services
to direct licensees in the form of technical "know how," sales engineering, and
advice. The court said: "This is not borne out by the evidence. If such services
were to have been included in the license, it would have been a simple task to
mention this in that form.... [I]n instances where a license can be obtained only
by purchasing the unpatented materials from the person granting the license.... or,
where given a choice of purchasing from that source or another, the royalty to be
paid in the latter situation is so much higher that the would-be-licensee is given
Hobson's choice ... [patentee's] have unlawfully enlarged their patent monopo-
ly...." National Foam System v. Urquhart, 202 F. (2d) 659, 663 (C. A. 3 rd, 1953).
The case was argued before the effective date of the Patent Act of 1952. Would
the result have been different under the Act? If the unpatented product was a
staple, would a mention of supplying services with the sale make Section 271(b)
applicable under a consideration of Section 271(d)? The Act does not supply an
answer to the latter question; however, it could serve as a basis for courts' de-
cisions of the ultimate question in such a case.
"Cf. Notes (1956) 25 U. of Cin. L. Rev. 521; (1956) 42 Va. L. Rev. 1140.
1957] CASE COMMENTS

PROPERTY-TENANCY BY ENTIRETY CREATED BY CONVEYANCE FROM ONE

SPOUSE TO HIMSELF AND OTHER SPOUSE. [North Carolina]
The tenancy by the entirety, in a sense a surviving remnant of an
ancient fiction of the common law, is a modification of the joint
tenancy estate. The principal feature of both is the right of survivorship
by which the last surviving tenant takes the whole.1 However, tenancy
by the entirety differs from joint tenancy in that the former can exist
only between husband and wife, and in legal contemplation each
spouse owns the whole.2 Absent statutory modification, the interest
of each is inalienable except by joint conveyance with the other, and
is not subject to the claims of creditors of either spouse.3 Thus, from
the point of view of the husband and wife, it is a desirable way to
hold property. Although the tenancy by the entirety has never been
recognized or has been abolished in some jurisdictions, 4 it still is recog-
nized under the property law of almost half of the states. 5
An especially controversial aspect of this estate is the problem of
its creation by a conveyance from one spouse to himself and his spouse,
the deed expressing the intention to create a tenancy by the entirety.
Such a problem was recently presented to the Supreme Court of North
Carolina in the case of Woolard v. Smith.6 There the husband,
owning the land in fee, executed a deed from himself as party of the
first part to himself and his wife, parties of the second part. The deed
stated that "party of the first part is desirous of having the title vested
in parties of the second part and known as an estate by the en-
tirety... ."7 After the death of the husband, plaintiffs, as his heirs at

i American Law of Property (1952) § 6.6(b); 2 Blackstone, Commentaries (1807)

183; 2 Coke on Littleton (17th ed. 1817) § 181(b); 4 Kent, Commentaries (iith ed.
1866) 397; 2 Tiffany, Real Property (3rd ed. 1939) § 430; 26 Am. Jur., Husband
and Wife § 82.
-2 American Law of Property (1952) § 6.6(a); 2 Blackstone, Commentaries (1807)
181; 2 Coke on Littleton (17th ed. 1817) § 187 (b); 4 Kent, Commentaries (n1th ed.
1866) 397; 2 Tiffany, Real Property (3rd ed. 1929) §430; 26 Am. Jur., Husband
and Wife § 66.
3
Freestone v. Parratt, 5 T. R. 652, io Eng. Rep. 363 (1794); 2 American Law of
Property (1952) § 6.6(b); 2 Tiffany, Real Property (3rd ed. 1939) § 430; 26 Am. Jur.,
Husband and Wife §§ 81, 84.
'Phipps, Tenancy by Entireties (1951) 25 Temp. L. Q. 24, 32 lists 29 states in
which the tenancy does not exist.
Thipps, Tenancy by Entireties (1951) 25 Tem. L. Q. 24, 33 lists the following
jurisdictions in which the tenancy exists in varying forms: Arkansas, Delaware, Dis-
trict of Columbia, Florida, Indiana, Kentuck, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan,
Missouri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode
Island, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, and Wyoming.
0 44 N. C. 489, 94 S. E. (2d) 466 (1956).
7-44 N. C. 489, 94 S. E. (2d) 466, 467 (1956).
292 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

law, brought this suit for partition against the widow contending that a
tenancy in common was created. Plaintiffs based their claim on two
closely related grounds: first, that since one cannot be grantor and
grantee in the same deed, the grant to the husband was void; and
second, that a tenancy by the entirety could not have been created
because the common law unities of time and title were not satisfied in
that the husband received his interest at one time and the wife received
her interest at another-the husband by a prior deed and the wife by the
deed from her husband. The court held that a tenancy by entirety was
created, answering plaintiff's first contention by ruling that the grantee
was not the husband and wife as individuals, but was the marital unit,
an entity separate and distinct from either individual spouse. This
ruling was also the basis of the answer given to the plaintiff's second
contention: the common law unities of time and title were satisfied in
that each spouse, as a component part of the entity which was the
grantee, took his interest at the same time. Finally, it was concluded
that "the unity of husband and wife suffices to effectuate the express
and declared intention of the grantor."8
Varying results have been reached by different courts in adjudicat-
ing the effect of this type of conveyance. This diversity of holdings is
generally attributed to the effect of one or more of three common
law rules of property: first, one cannot be grantor -and grantee in
the same deed; 9 second, there must be unity of time, title, interest, pos-
session and person for the creation of a tenancy by the entirety; 10 third,
a husband cannot convey to his wife.'1

6244 N. C. 489, 94 S.E. (2d) 466, 471 (1956).

ODeslauries v. Senesac, 331 Ill. 437, 163 N. E. 327, 62 A. L. R. 511 (1928). See
Pope v. Brandon, 2 Stew. 401, 407, 2o Am. Dec. 49, 53 (Ala. 183o); Dupree v. Dupree,
45 N. C. 149, 150 (1852).
An exception to this generally accepted rule occurs in the case of a deed which
is executed by the Statute of Uses. In Thatcher v. Omans, 3 Pick. 521 (Mass. 1792),
W and H owned land in fee in W's right, and in consideration of marriage and
twenty shillings deeded the land to J. S. in fee to hold to the use of H and W, their
heirs and assigns, and the heirs and assigns of the longest lived of them. Held:
the deed was not a bargain and sale, nor a covenant to stand seised to uses where-
by there would be a use on a use (and void), but it was a feoffment to uses.
Therefore, J. S. stood seised to the use limited in the deed, and then the Statute
of Uses executed the use, thereby making the H and W complete owners of the
land as joint tenants in fee.
"Hiles v. Fisher, 144 N. Y. 3o6, 39 N. E. 337 (1895); Moore v. Greenville
Banking & Trust Co., 178 N. C. 118, 'oo S.E. 269 ('919); Freeman v. Belfer, 173
N. C. 581, 92 S. E. 486, L. R. A. 1917E 886 (1917); 2 Blackstone, Commentaries
(1807) 179-181.
"Erickson v. White, 288 Mass. 451, 193 N. E.25 (1934); Ames v. Chandler, 265
Mass. 428, 164 N. E.616 (1929). (This disability has been removed by the married
women's property acts.)
1957] CASE COMMENTS

The North Carolina court, in considering and overcoming the

obstacles created by the first two of these rules, joined the group of
states which followed the New York or "modern" view.'12 The case which
has become the landmark authority for this result is In re Klatzl's
Estate.13 There, four of seven judges agreed that a conveyance from
the husband to himself and his wife can create a tenancy by the en-
tirety, holding that the grantor reserved to himself the same rights he
would have been granted under a deed from a third person to himself
and his wife. It was indicated that the unity of title was satisfied, since
the husband and wife were "the legal unity of persons receiving the
indivisible, inseverable title to the property conveyed." 14 The unity
of time is achieved under the New York view on the theory that the
spouses' interest in the jointly held estate is created at the same time-
by the conveyance between themselves-and any interest either spouse
may have had in the property prior to this conveyance is disregarded. 15

I'Ebrite v. Brookhyser, 219 Ark. 676, 244 S. V. (2d) 625, 44 A. L. R. (2d) 587
(1951); Johnson v. Landefeld, 138 Fla. 511, x89 So. 666 (1939); Cadgene v. Cadgene,
17 N. J. Misc. 3g2, 8 A. (2d) 858 (1939); In re Klatzl's Estate, 216 N. Y. 83, 1io N. E.
181 (1915); In re Vandergrift's Estate, 105 Pa. Super. 293, 161 At. 898 (1932). Cf.
Creek v. Union Nat. Bank, 266 S. W. (2d) 737 (Mo. 1954); Therrien v. Therrien,
94 N. H. 66, 46 A. (2d) 538, 166 A. L. R. 1023 (1946), adopting the same principle in
allowing creation of a joint tenancy.
12216 N. Y. 83, 11o N. E. 181 (igi5). It should be noted that the case was not
decided on this precise point. The facts were that H deeded land to H and W, ex-
pressing in the deed his intention to create a tenancy by the entirety. The issue was
whether any interest in this property passed to W by H's will, which named W the
devisee. Held: a one half interest in the property passed by H's will, upon which
the transfer tax may be assessed. Judges Seabury, Cuddeback and Hogan were of
the opinion that the deed created a tenancy in common, which created a half in-
terest in W, leaving a half interest in H which passed by his will. Chief Judge
Bartlett concurred in this result, deciding that the deed created a tenancy by the
entirety, but that W became entitled to the use of only half of the property by
virtue of the deed, and that the undivided half of which H had the use and en-
joyment during his lifetime did not pass to W until H's death and therefore was
subject to the transfer tax. Judges Collin, Hiscock and Cardozo dissented on the
ground that the deed created a tenancy by the entirety and W took no new interest
at H's death, since she (and H) was seised of the whole upon the vesting of the
estate by the deed. This case has since been construed to stand for the proposition
that such a deed does create a tenancy by the entirety, in that Chief Judge Bart-
lett and Judges Collin, Hiscock and Cardozo were of that opinion. Boehringer v.
Schmid, 254 N. Y. 355, 173 N. E. 220 (1930).
14216 N. Y. 83, 92, 11o N. E. 181, 184 (1915).
'1 Cadgene v. Cadgene, 17 N. J. Misc. 332, 8 A. (2d) 858 (1939); In re Horler's
Estate, i8o App. Div. 6o8, 168 N. Y. Supp. 221 (1917). Cf. Boehringer v. Schmid,
133 Misc. 236, 237, 232 N. Y. Supp. 36o, 361 (1928) where, in answer to the conten-
tion that the necessary unities were lacking, the court held: "This contention rests
upon the erroneous premise that the original title or interest of the husband
remained in him after the giving of his own deed, while the wife's title, coming to
her by that deed, created a situation in which there did not exist a unity of time
 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

The rule prohibiting the grantor from also being a grantee is not
violated, since "The husband did not convey to himself, but to a legal
unity or entity which was the consolidation of himself and another."' 0
The reasoning of the New York court that the grantor reserves
to himself the same rights he would have been granted by a deed from
a third person to himself and his wife is subject to criticism in at
least one respect. Each tenant by the entirety holds per tout et non per
my-each owns the whole.17 Therefore, in a deed from a third person,
each spouse is granted the whole estate. If the grantor spouse reserves
this interest in his deed to his spouse and himself, he grants nothing.
However, any divergence from orthodox property doctrine seems to
be justified by the result reached. Courts which have adopted this
"modern" view emphasize the intention of the grantor's and con-
strue the deed in the light of present day legal relations of the hus-
band and wife19 rather than in the light of the vastly different rela-
20
tions that existed at the time these rules of property were formulated.
Jurisdictions which hold that the husband and wife, as grantees,

and title at least. On the contrary, the ownership, title and interest devolved upon
both husband and wife as one person at the same time by virtue of his deed. The
husband's original estate was lost in the newly created estate. Each was seised of a
whole and not a separate part, and there was, therefore, unity of title, interest, time,
and possession."
"In re Klatzl's Estate, 216 N. Y. 83, 94, 11o N. E. 181, 185 (1915).
172 Blackstone, Commentaries (18o7) 181.

"B"The right to contract and to convey property ought not to be limited or

circumscribed unless prohibited by sound public policy or valid statute.... To hold
that the deed created a tenancy in common would not be a construction of the
deed. It would be a creation by the courts of a new and entirely different deed
from the one the grantor signed. It would create an estate we have no right to
think the grantor ever contemplated." Woolard v. Smith, 244 N. C. 489, 94 S. E. (2d)
466, 467 (1956).
"Coon v. Campbell, 138 Misc. 567, 569, 240 N. Y. Supp. 772, 775 (1930): "It
seems to me that the drift of present legislation is towards the elimination of the
archaic. That the present day decisions of the courts are in accord with this spirit,
to use and interpret language in accordance with the understanding of the
average man with the view to clarify rather than to obscure. This is especially true,
in view of the changed legal relations during the last hundred years between hus-
band and wife." The New York decisions present a paradox in that they utilize
the common law fiction of unity of husband and wife, which is repugnant to the
present legal status of the spouses, to arrive at a result in accord with the present
status-i.e., allowing a direct conveyance between the spouses to create this estate.
"'E.g., Therrien v. Therrien, 94 N. H. 66, 46 A. (2d) 538, 166 A. L. R. 1023 (1946),
wherein the court, in avoiding the effect of the unities requirement in order to
effectuate the intention of the grantor, quoted Holmes, Collected Legal Papers (19.o)
187: "It is revolting to have no better reason for a rule of law than that so it was
laid down in the time of Henry IV. It is still more revolting if the grounds upon
which it was laid down have vanished long since and the rule simply persists from
blind imitation of the past."
1957] CASE COMMENTS

are distinct personalities rather than an entity do not construe a

deed such as was involved in the principal case as creating a tenancy
by the entirety. Either the rule prohibiting one from being both
grantor and grantee in the same deed, or the rule which requires the
unities of time and title is sufficient to prevent creation of a tenancy
by the entirety.
Those courts which have based their decisions on the unity
factor look to the time each spouse was first granted his interest and
find that both spouses do not acquire an interest by the deed which
purports to create the jointly held estate. 21 Although the courts state
that the reason for finding that a tenancy by the entirety is not created is
the lack of the requisite unities, it seems that the underlying rea-
son is that the grantor cannot also be grantee. Because of this latter
rule the deed is valid only to the extent of transfering an interest
to the non-grantor spouse, and therefore her interest is acquired at a
time and by a deed which is not the same as the time and deed by which
the grantor spouse acquired his interest. Thus, the unities of time and
title are not satisfied, and it is on this ground that the decisions are
based.2 2 The effect of the deed is to transfer to the non-grantor spouse
an undivided half interest, creating a tenancy in common. 23 In such
a jurisdiction, if one spouse owns the property and wishes to create
in himself and his wife a tenancy by the entirety, there are two essen-
tial steps. First he must completely divest himself of his title, and
second the new owner of the title must convey to both spouses by
the same deed 24-i.e., conveyance to and reconveyance from a "straw
man."25
'Stone v. Culver, 286 Mich. 263, 282 N. V. 142, l19 A. L. R. 512 (1938); Union
Guardian Trust Co. v. Vogt, 263 Mich. 33o, 248 N. W. 639 (1933); Michigan State
Bank v. Kern, 189 Mich. 467, 155 N. W. 502 (1915); Wright v. Knapp, 183 Mich.
656, i5o N. W. 315 (1915). The Arkansas court departed from its former holdings,
which were in accord with the view of the Michigan court, in Ebrite v. Brookhyser,
219 Ark. 676, 244 S. W. (2d) 625, 44 A. L. R. (2d) 587 (1951), in which the court
adopted the reasoning of the Klatzl case.
"Union Guardian Trust Co. v. Vogt, 263 Mich. 330, 248 N. W. 639, 640 (1933):
"Thus, although the intention could not be doubted, by reason of express declara-
tion in a deed, that an estate by the entireties or survivorship is meant to be created
by it, a deed from husband to the wife or both does not create an estate by the
entireties because of lack of unity of time and title, the estate not being created by
one and the same act and at one and the same time, as the husband still retains
part of his original title." (Italics supplied.)
nStone v. Culver, 286 Mich. 263, 282 N. V. 142, 119 A. L. R. 512 (1938); Michi-
gan State Bank v. Kern, 189 Mich. 467, 155 N. W. 502 (1915); Wright v. Knapp, 183
Mich. 656, 15o N. W. 315 (1915).
"Union Guardian Trust Co. v. Vogt, 263 Mich. 330, 248 N. W. 639, 640 (1933).
• Cf. Therrien v. Therrien, 94 N. H. 66, 46 A. (2d) 538, 539, 166 A. L. R. 1023,
1024 (1946): "The necessity of requiring an extra deed makes a fetish out of form
296 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

Proceeding from the premise that the husband and wife, as

grantees, are not an entity, it seems that the logic of the holding
that a tenancy by the entirety is not created is unassailable. However,
this result disregards the intention of the grantor by failing to construe
the deed in the light of the fact that in modem times a husband can
convey land to his wife. At the time of the crystallization of the unities
requirement, the spouses could not convey between themselves, and
therefore a conveyance such as is here under consideration was not then
contemplated. Under the earlier conditions the requirement was quite
reasonable and in accordance with the status of the spouses in the
marital relationship. In fact, it seems that at the time the unities
of time and title were not so much prerequisites to creation of a
tenancy by the entirety as mere descriptions of how the property
necessarily must be held. Courts which require a conveyance through a
"straw man" are disregarding this change in the legal status of the
spouses, and are failing to adapt their rules of conveyancing to modem
conditions.
Other courts which hold that the type of conveyance in question
does not create an estate by the entirety because the spouses, as
grantees, are not regarded as an entity, base their view on the rule
that one cannot be grantor and grantee in the same deed. 26 It is ap-
parent that, if the grantor spouse is considered a distinct personality
in his role as grantee, this rule of conveyancing prevents the intended
tenancy by the entirety from being created. In determining what in-
terest such a deed does establish, these courts have reached three dif-
ferent results.
27
The first is that the non-grantor spouse takes the entire estate.
This conclusion follows logically from the rule of property that if a
deed names both capable and incapable grantees, only those who are
capable will take an interest, and the incapable grantees will be re-
garded as surplusage. 2s Since the husband, being grantor, is incapable

and compels the parties to the instruments to employ an indirect manoeuvre of the
eighteenth century merely to satisfy the outmoded unities rule."
"'Two historical reasons are given for this rule. The first is that one could
not make livery of seisin to himself; and secondly, that one could not take as
purchaser from himself, thereby acquiring a new title and breaking the line of
descent of the property. Note (1948) 1 Fla. L. Rev. 433 at 436, n. 18.
,Hicks v. Sprankle, 149 Tenn. 310, 257 S. W. 1o44 (1924); Cameron v. Steves,
9 New Bruns. 141 (1858). The result in Tennessee would be othenvise today due
to statutory changes. See note 35, infra.
"McCord v. Bright, 44 Ind. App. 275, 87 N. E. 654 (1909); Cameron v. Steves,
9 New Bruns. 141 (1858); Humphrey v. Tayleur, i Ambler's Eng. Ch. Rep. 136, 27
Eng. Rep. 89 (1752). See Wright v. Knapp, 183 Mich 656, i5o N. W. 315, 316 (1915).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

of being grantee, the wife, the sole capable grantee, takes the whole
interest. This result is obsolete today, primarily because of statutory
changes.2 9 The second view is that a tenancy in common is created,
the reasoning being that the part of the deed which purports to grant
an interest to the grantor spouse is void, and thus the deed is effective
only to grant an undivided half interest to the other spouse. 30 In one
instance, a third (and rather strange) result was reached in order to
effectuate the intention of the grantor-husband that the surviving
spouse should take the whole estate. The deed was held to be void as
to the husband, as grantee, so that he retained a half interest in
the property, but to be effective to the extent of creating a half interest
in the wife with remainder in fee in the other half if she survived her
husband.31
Since the husband and wife are considered as individuals in their
roles as grantees rather than as an entity, the conclusion that a tenancy
by the entirety cannot be created is inescapable. Manifestly, the grantor
is conveying to himself. Adoption of the theory, for conveyancing pur-
poses, that the husband and wife are a legal entity apart from their
individual personalities would eliminate the obstacle created by the
rule that one cannot be grantor and grantee in the same deed and
would thus effectuate the intention of the grantor.
The third common law rule of property which has prevented crea-
tion of the tenancy by the entirety in this situation is that a husband

'E.g., 8 Va. Code Ann. (Michie, 1950) § 55-9: "Any person having an estate or
interest in land may, by deed, convey the same to himself and another or others,
and the fact that one or more persons are both grantors and grantees in the same
deed shall be no objection to the deed. The grantees in any such deed shall take
title in liKe manner and the estate vested in them shall be the same as if the deed
had been made by one or more persons who are not also grantees therein." This
statute seems to be broad enough in scope to dispel all the conveyancing problems
here discussed, and to render the subject academic in Virginia.
-This seems to be the underlying rule of the Michigan courts. Although these
decisions are based on the unities requirement, the lack of the unities is occasioned
by the failure of the deed to operate except as to the non-grantor spouse. According
to this view, the non-grantor spouse would take the whole "if the estate conveyed was
an estate in entirety or joint tenancy, because in both tenancies each party is seised of
the entire estate and both have the incident of survivorship, but it would not be true
if it were an estate in common." Wright v. Knapp, 183 Mich. 656, 15o N. W. 315,
316 (1915). Thus, this court recognized the validity of the rule that only capable
grantees take an interest, but holds that it does not apply in this conveyancing situa-
tion.
mDutton v. Buckley, 166 Ore. 661, 242 Pac. 626 (1926). An Oregon statute enacted
subsequent to this case, which permits creation of the tenancy by the entirety by
a direct conveyance between the spouses, renders such a strained interpretation
unnecessary. See Legler v. Legler, 187 Ore. 273, 211 P. (2d) 233, 243 (1949).
298 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

cannot convey to his wife. This rule is no longer significant, but prior
to recent statutory change, it was a conveyancing obstacle in Massa-
chusetts. Difficulty arose when the court construed strictly that portion
of the married women's property act which allows a husband to con-
vey to his wife as if she were sole. The reasoning of the court was that
it is inherent in the concept of a tenancy by the entirety that the hus-
band and wife are one person, and if the husband can only convey
property to the wife as if she were sole, the conveyance to himself and
his wife cannot create an interest held by husband and wife as if they
were one person. 32 Massachusetts has since eliminated this problem
by passage of a statute which permits creation of a tenancy by the
33
entirety by a direct conveyance between the spouses.
It is apparent that the courts which are willing to strain the com-
mon law rules of property to hold that a tenancy by entirety, or some
similar estate is created, do so because they think the estate is socially
desirable, or because their prime consideration is to effectuate the
intention of the grantor. Perhaps the tenancy is recognized as socially
desirable in some courts for the same reason that the homestead laws
are desirable-as providing the family with an exemption against
creditor claims. On the other hand, many states have abolished this
estate, and there are some good reasons for doing so. It has been said
that the estate is "an anachronism in that the married women's property
acts have almost completely obliterated the hypothesis which was the
common law basis for the creation of the estate."3 4 In addition, the
tenancy tends to restrict the alienability of property, and can serve to
create a false appearance of ownership and thus frustrate the reasonable
expectations of creditors.
It seems that the best solution is legislation, since legislatures are
the proper bodies to set policy. If it be determined that the estate is
socially desirable, then statutes should be enacted to abolish those
common law property rules which unnecessarily hinder the creation of
the estate, and definite rules of conveyancing should be formulated
which are not repugnant to present-day conditions.3 5 In the absence

2See Ames v. Chandler, 265 Mass. 428, 164 N. E. 616 at 617 (1929), for a com-
plete discussion of this approach.
16 Mass. Laws Ann. (1955) c. 184 § 8: "... a conveyance of real estate by a per-
son to himself and his spouse as tenants by the entirety shall, when recorded...
create a tenancy by the entirety."
"2 American Law of Property (1952) 32.
W11 Tenn. Code Ann. (1955) § 64-1o9. "Any married person owning property
or any interest therein in his or her own name, desiring to convert his or her
interest in such property into an estate by the entireties with his or her spouse, may
do so by direct conveyance to such spouse by an instrument of conveyance which
19571 CASE COMMENTS

of legislation, it seems that the best alternative is the course taken by

the principal case-i.e., the "modern" view, which effectuates the in-
tention of the grantor. However, considering the confused state of the
law at this time, the only safe method of creating the tenancy by the
entirety in this situation is by a conveyance through a "straw man."

ROBERT G. MCCULLOUGH

SALES-VALIDITY OF CONDITIONAL SALE LIEN AS AGAINST CREDITOR OF

VENDEE AFTER GOODS WERE REMOVED FRom STATE OF SALE. [Ver-
mont]
The conditional sales contract, in order to constitute a useful com-
mercial instrument, must provide adequate protection of the vendor's
security interest; but at the same time some means must be employed
whereby the general public is protected from possible fraud by the
beneficial owner. To serve this dual aim, the majority of states have
enacted conditional sales recording and refiling statutes,' as a means
of giving publicity to the transaction. 2 Since such statutes do not have
extra-territorial effect, 3 even the perfection of the lien by recording
in the state of the sale does not necessarily protect the vendor's inter-
est when the vendee removes the goods to another state in which
the vendor does not record the conditional sales contract. If, in such
a situation, a third party in good faith purchases those goods or levies

shall provide that it is the grantor's intention by such instrument to create an

estate by the entireties in and to the entire interest in the said property previously
held by the grantor."
"The term "refiling statute" in this comment refers to the type of statute which
requires recordation of the conditional sale when the property is removed from
one political unit which requires filing into another filing district. See 2 U. L. A.
(1922) § 14. It is necessary to refer to the statutes of the specific state which the
court decides to be applicable to the given situation to determine to what persons
the refiling is intended to give notice. The majority of the statutes give notice
to purchasers and levying creditors. For a summary of the statutes, see: 3 Jones,
Chattel Mortgages and Conditional Sales (6th ed. 1933) § 1oo8 et seq.; 2 U. L. A.
(1922) § 5-
The refiling statutes apply only if the removal of the property into another
state was made with a specific intent to make a permanent change of situs of the
property. Flora v. Julesburg Motor Co., 69 Colo. 238, 193 Pac. 545 (192o); Hare
& Chase, Inc. v. Tompkinson, 129 At. 396 at 397 (N. J. 1925); Lilliard v. Yellow Mfg.
Acceptance Corp., 196 Tenn. 686, 263 S. W. (2d) 52o at 523 (1953); Forgan v. Smedal,
203 Wis. 564, 234 N. W. 896 at 898 (1931).
23 Jones, Chattel Mortgages and Conditional Sales (6th ed. 1933) § 1004.
3In re Gray, 17o Fed. 638 at 640 (E. D. Okla. 19o8); Hampton v. Universal
Credit Co., 59 Ga. App. 568, 1 S. E. (2d) 753 at 754 (1939); Davis v. Osgood, 69 N. H.
427, 44 Atl. 432 (1899).
300 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

on them as property of the vendee, the courts must decide whether

the third party or the conditional vendor shall lose his interest in the
4
goods.
Two classes of fact situations may present this problem: first, those
in which at the time of the sale the vendor knows the property is to
acquire a situs in another state; and second, those in which the con-
tract provides, or the parties contemplate, that the goods are to remain
in the state of sale but the vendee later removes them, with or without
the knowledge of the vendor.
In the first situation, where the property is removed to another
state at the time of the sale, the courts hold that the applicable law is the
law of the state where the goods are to be held under the conditional
sale. 5 This result is reached on the theory that the vendor, by consent-
ing to the removal of the goods or by immediately transferring them to
the vendee in a foreign state at the time of the sale, has evidenced an
implied intent that the law of the new situs shall control. 6
The recent case of Boston Law Book Co. v. Hathorn7 presents
the problem in a typical fact situation and demonstrates the result
reached by a majority of the courts. Plaintiff, Boston Law Book Co.,
a Delaware corporation with its office in Boston, sought a declaration
of title paramount to that of defendants in certain law books sold
under a conditional sales contract to Hathorn, a resident of Vermont.
Defendant Hathorn failed to appear and plaintiff's bill was taken as
confessed as to him. Defendants Boudro and Dodge, creditors of
Hathorn, appeared and answered the complaint, contending that they

'Hervey v. Rhode Island Locomotive Works, 93 U. S. 664, 23 L. ed. 1oo 3 (1876)

(levying creditors); Commercial Credit v. Higbee, 92 Colo. 346, 20 P. (2d) 543 (1933)
(levying creditors); Johnson v. Sauerman Bros. Inc., 243 Ky. 587, 49 S. W. (2d)
33i (1932) (levying creditors); Fry Bros. v. Theobold, 205 Ky. 146, 265 S. W. 498
(1924) (purchaser); Land v. J. E. Roach's Banda Mexicana Co., 78 N. J. Eq. 439,
79 Ati. 365 (1911) (purchaser); First Nat. Bank v. Sheldon, 161 Pa. Super, 265, 54 A.
(2d) 61 (1947) (chattel mortgages-purchaser).
WMaguire v. Gorbaty Bros. 133 F. (2d) 675 (C. C. A. 2nd 1943) (trustee in bank-
ruptcy); Enterprise Optical Mfg. Co. v. Timmer, 7 F. (2d) 295 (C. C. A. 6th, 1934)
(trustee in bankruptcy); Summers v. Carbondale Mach. Co., 116 Ark. 246, 173 S. W.
194 (1915) (levying creditor); Ford Motor Co. v. National Bond & Inv. Co., 294 Ill.
App. 585, 14 N. E. (2d) 3o6 (1938) (levying creditor); Denkins Motor Co. v. Humph-
reys 310 Ky. 344, 220 S. W. (2d) 847 (1949) (purchaser); Johnson v. Sauerman Bros.,
Inc., 43 Ky. 587, 49 S. W. (2d) 331 (1932) (levying creditor); Finance Security Co.,
Inc. v. Mexic, 188 So. 657 (La. App. 1939) (purchaser); Restatement, Conflict of
Laws (1934) § 276.
6Denkins Motor Co. v. Humphreys, 31o Ky. 344, 220 S. W. (2d) 847 at 849 (1949)
(purchaser); Memphis Bank &Trust Co. v. West, 260 S. W. (2d) 866 at 876 (Mo. App.
1953) (purchaser); 3 Jones, Chattel Mortgages and Conditional Sales (6th ed. 1933)
§ 116o.
7127 A. (2d) 120 (Vt. 1956).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

were attaching creditors without notice of the conditional sale because

it was not recorded as required by Vermont law.8 Plaintiff contended
that Massachusetts law, which does not require recordation, controlled
because the sale was made there. The lower court adjudged title to the
books to be in plaintiff and enjoined these creditors from levying
execution or interfering with plaintiff's property; but the Supreme
Court of Vermont, in reversing, held that the question is essentially one
of property law and that it is a settled Conflict of Laws rule that the
validity of a transfer of property is governed by the law of the situs to
which the property is removed. That court further stated that if plain-
tiff's conditional sales lien were to be given effect in Vermont, it
would be solely by the doctrine of comity, 9 which the court declared
would not be applied in the instant case because the statutes of Mas-
sachusetts, in not requiring recording to protect the conditional ven-
dor's lien, are contrary to the law of Vermont.
In reaching this conclusion, the court found it necessary to deal
with a contention that the principal case was controlled by Barrett v.
Kelley,'0 a precedent of 62 years standing. In that case, on facts quite
similar to those of the principal case,'" the Vermont court held that,
since the contract of sale had to be approved by the conditional vendor's
home office in Massachusetts, it was a Massachusetts contract rather
than a contract of Vermont where the goods were delivered. Having
made this determination, the Vermont court then announced that
the principle of comity of law required the application of the law of
Massachusetts, the place of the contract.' 2 In the princpal case, the

'Vt. Rev. Stat. (1947) § 2775.

"The term 'comity' is frequently used in a loose sense in cases involving Con-
flict of Laws problems.... [I]t is misleading because it involves an inference that
a rule of the foreign law is applied as a matter of courtesy to the state whose law is
referred to." Goodrich, Conflict of Laws (3rd ed. 1949) 11."The rules of Conflict
of Laws of a state are not affected by the attitude of another state toward rights or
other interests created in the former state." Restatement, Conflict of Laws (1934) § 6.
' 66 Vt. 515, 29 Atl. 8og (1894).
"The third party in the Barrett case was an assignee for the benefit of creditors,
but the court recognized that he stood in the shoes of an attaching creditor. 66 Vt.
515, 29 At. 8o9 (1894). The court in the principal case correctly noted that
the contract in the Barrett case provided that the law of Massachusetts should govern
questions arising under the contract. Boston Law Book Co. v. Hathorn, 127 A. (2d)
12o at 124 (Vt. 1956). In the Barrett case, the chattel itself had been taken out of
the jurisdiction of the Vermont court prior to commencement of the action, but the
action for conversion, of course, turned on the property rights in the condition-
ally sold chattel. 66 Vt. 515, 29 Alt. 8o9 (1894).
"2The Barrett case, note io, supra, also relied upon Cobb v. Buswell, 37 Vt. 377
(1864), but the court in the principal case properly distinguished the Cobb case
from both the Barrett case and the principal case. Boston Law Book Co v. Hathorn,
127 A. (2d) 12o at 124 (Vt. 1956).
302 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

court, although apparently concluding that the contract in question

was a Vermont contract,'8 held that even if it were a Massachusetts
contract the law of Massachusetts would not control. 14 Thus, the
principal decision apparently overruled Barrett v. Kelley by impli-
cation. In determining what law is applicable in the second situation
postulated above, where property is sold on the assumption that it
will remain in the state of the sale but where it is nevertheless later
removed to another state, the courts, in the absence of a statute ex-
pressly covering the situation, reach different results depending upon
whether the vendor had knowledge of, or consented to, the removal
of the chattel.15
Where the vendor had knowledge of the later transfer, a few
courts have held that the vendor's lien is not lost even though he did
not record in the state of the transfer. 16 Those decisions turn on the
reasoning that since the lien has been perfected in the state where the
contract was completed, the state of the forum will recognize the lien
as valid unless the state of the forum has legislation specifically pro-
viding otherwise. However, such a rule seems undesirable because it
provides no protection for a third party. The majority of the courts,
recognizing that this situation is closely comparable to that in which
the vendor sold the property for immediate removal to another state,
7
hold that the law of the new situs of the property will govern. If

'rThe court, in determining the place of the contract, applied the center of
gravity rule. Boston Law Book Co. v. Hathorn, 127 A. (2d) 12o at 126 (Vt. 1956).
Under this rule the courts "examine all the points of contact which the transaction
has with the two or more jurisdictions involved, with the view to determine the
'center of gravity' of the contract, or of that aspect of the contract immediately
before the court; and when they have identified the jurisdiction with which the
matter at hand is predominantly or most intimately concerned, they conclude that
this is the proper law of the contract which the parties presumably had in view at
the time of contracting." Jansson v. Swedish American Line, 185 F. (2d) 212, 218
(C. A. 1st, 1950).
:"Boston Law Book Co. v. Hathorn, 127 A. (2d) 12o at 126 (Vt. 1956).
'5Spencer v. General Motors Acceptance Corp., 287 S. W. (2d) 143 at 144 (Ky.
1955); Goodrich, Conflict of Laws (3rd ed. 1949) § 157; Lee, Conflict of Laws Relating
to Installment Sales (1942) 41 Mich. L. Rev. 445.
"Shapard v. Hynes, 1o4 Fed. 449, 52 L. R. A. 675 (C. C. A. 8th, 19oo) (chattel
mortgage-attaching creditor); Handley v. Harris, 48 Kan. 6o6, 29,Pac. 1145 (1892)
(chattel mortgage-purchaser); United States Fid. & Guar. Co. v. Northwest Engi-
neering Co., 146 Miss. 476, 112 So. 58o (1927) (levying creditor). See Lee, Conflict
of Laws Relating to Installment Sales (1942) 41 Mich. L. Rev. 445 at 452.
1
"E.g., Johnson v. Sauerman Bros., 243 Ky. 587, 49 S.W. (2d) 331 (1932) (levying
creditor); C. I. T. Corp. v. Guy, 170 Va. 16, 195 S.E. 659 (1938) (levying creditor);
2A U. L. A. (1924) § 96: "In the great majority of the cases where this question
has been raised the answer has been given that the law of the state to which the
goods are to be moved... should control."
1957] CASE COMMENTS

the state to which the property is transferred requires recordation by

the vendor, the vendor's lien is lost unless he records the conditional
sales contract. "It may be a hardship; but, where one of two innocent
persons must suffer, the rule is that the misfortune must rest on the
person in whose business, and under whose control, it happened, and
who had it in his power to avert it."'' In this situation, as in the
analytically similar situation of immediate removal, it is reasoned that
the conditional vendor has impliedly intended that the law of the
situs shall govern.' 9 Complications arise, however, where the statute
is not complied with in the state of the new situs of the property but
the intervening third party had actual notice or knowledge of the
conditional sales contract. 20 On the ground that the purpose of the
conditional sales recording act is only to provide notice of the lien,
it was held in FrontierMotors, Inc. v. Chick Norton Buick Co. 21 that
failure to make literal compliance with the statute did not defeat the
vendor's lien because the purchaser from the vendee had been placed
on actual notice of the lien. Under the other statutes at least two courts
have held, however, that the vendor's security interest, unless recorded
in the state of the situs is void as against third parties even though
they had actual notice of the security interest. 22 The difference in the
decisions is apparently caused by differing views as to the intended
purpose of the recording statutes, but it is difficult to understand
what purpose they could serve other than to insure that notice is
given. For this reason it is believed that those states which have dis-
regarded the factor of actual notice are in error.
Where the vendor has no knowledge of the transfer or of the new

"qRitchie v. Griffiths, 1 Wash. 429, 434, 25 Pac. 341, 342 (i8go). Accord: First
Nat. Bank v. Sheldon, 161 Pa. Super. 265, 54 A. (2d) 61 at 63 (1947); Chambers v.
Consolidated Garage Co., 210 S.W. 565 at 567 (Tex. Civ. App. 1919).
'Hervey v. Rhode Island Locomotive Works, 93 U. S. 664 at 671, 23 L. ed. 1oo 3
at 1004 (1876); Smith's Transfer and Storage Co., Inc. v. Reliable Stores Corp.,
58 F. (2d) 511 (C. A. D. C., 1932); Spencer v. General Motors Acceptance Corp.,
287 S.W. (2d) 143 at 144 (Ky. 1955); 3 Jones, Chattel Mortgages and Conditional
Sales (6th ed. 1933) § n6o.
nFrontier Motors, Inc v. Chick Norton Buick Co., 78 Ariz. 341, 279 P. (2d) 1032
(1955); 3 Jones, Chattel Mortgages and Conditional Sales (6th ed. 1933) § 1o76. Where
the courts have held that actual notice is sufficient to supply the effect of the con-
structive notice supplied by recordation, this actual notice must exist at the time
the rights of the third parties accrue. 3 Jones, Chattel Mortgages and Conditional
Sales (6th ed. 1933) § 1078.
n 7 8 Ariz. 341, 279 P. (2d) 1032 (1955) (purchaser). See Banks-Miller Supply
Co. v. Bank of Marlinton, io6 W. Va. 583, 146 S.E. 521, 522 (1929) (creditor).
-7Thayer Mercantile Co. v. First Nat. Bank, 98 N. J. L. 29, 119 Atl. 94 (1922)
(levying creditor); Universal Credit Co. v. Finn, 212 Wis. 6oi, 250 N. W. 391 (1933)
(levying creditor).
304 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

location of the property, and accordingly cannot be considered to have

consented either expressly or impliedly to the removal, the better rule
protects the conditional seller's reserved title. 23 This view is ex-
emplified by C.I.T. Corporationv. Guy,24 wherein an automobile sold
in South Carolina, with title reserved to secure payment of the pur-
chase price, was removed without the knowledge of the seller, wrecked
in Virginia, and sold by judicial sale to satisfy a tort judgment against
the vendee growing out of the accident. The Virginia court held that
the vendor's interest would be enforced as against third parties even
though the contract upon which his rights were founded was not re-
corded in the state in accordance with local statute. Though the sub-
sequent purchaser or attaching creditor is innocent, it is said that he
will not be permitted to claim through the conditional vendee who has
become a wrongdoer by removing the property from the state of sale
without the vendor's knowledge. 25 At least one state follows an op-
posing view, holding that the vendor has lost his lien as against the
third persons even though the vendor had no knowledge of the re-
moval. 26 It is argued that to hold otherwise would prejudice the state's
own rights or the rights of its citizens, and that the spirit of comity
does not require a forum to recognize another state's law where it is
contrary to the public policy of the state of the forum. 27 This is a
harsh rule since it is impossible for the vendor to protect his lien, and
the general acceptance of the rule would greatly decrease the use of
such a security instrument.28
Two types of statutes have been suggested to provide the condi-
tional vendor with a means of protecting his interest as against a third
party acquiring an interest in the goods in the state of removal. The

"Tennessee Auto Corp. v. American Nat. Bank, 205 Ky. 541, 266 S. W. 54 (1924)
(levying creditor); Memphis Bank and Trust Co. v. West, 260 S. W. (2d) 866 (Mo.
App. 1953) (purchaser); Goetschius v. Brightman, 245 N. Y. 186, 156 N. E. 66o
(1927) (purchaser); West v. Associate Discount Corp., 2o6 Okla. 44, 240 P- (2d) 1077
(1952) (purchaser); 11 Am. Jur., Conflict of Laws § 78; Restatement, Conflict of
Laws, (1934) § 275.
24170 Va. 16, 195 S. E. 659 (1938).

2nWest v. Associate Discount Corp., 2o6 Okla. 44, 240 P. (2d) 1077 at io8i (1952),
quoting Strumberg, Conflict of Laws (1937) 366.
-OCommercial Credit v. Higbee, 92 Colo. 339, 20 P. (2d) 543 (1933) (levying
creditor); American Equitable Assurance Co. v. Hall Cadillac Co., 98 Colo. 186,
24 P. (2d) 980 (1933) (purchaser). See Lee, Conflict of Laws Relating to Installment
Sales (1942) 41 Mich. L. Rev. 445 at 457. Texas, which formerly adhered to this
minority view, joined the majority in 1950. Bank of Atlanta v. Fretz, 226 S. W.
(2d) 843 (Tex. 195o).
"Commercial Credit v. Higbee, 92 Colo. 339, 20 P. (2d) 543 (1933).
"See Bank of Atlanta v. Fretz, 226 S.W. (2d) 843 (Tex. 1950); 3 Jones, Chattel
Mortgages and Conditional Sales (6th ed. 1933) 245.
 CASE COMMENTS

Uniform Conditional Sales Act provides for filing of the contract in

the state of removal within ten days after the security holder receives
notice of the new situs of the property. 29 Though this legislation
meets the vendor's needs, there is some question as to whether it gives
a third person sufficient protection, because a longer period of time may
pass, due sometimes to the vendor's negligence, before notice is ob-
tained by the vendor. 30 During that period third parties act at their
peril, and interests acquired during the period are subject to being cut
off if the vendor records within the ten days allowed him.
The solution proposed in the Uniform Commercial Code is per-
haps more acceptable. 31 For a period of four months after removal,
the conditional vendor's interest is determined in the state of the situs
of the property by the law of the jurisdiction where it arose; but there-
after his interest continues to be protected only if he either has recorded
in the state of the transfer within the four months period or has re-
corded after the four months period but prior to the time that any
interest arises in a third party.32 Even under this provision a third party
may be defrauded by the conditional vendee during the four month
period; but it is an improvement over the Uniform Conditional Sales
Act in that the vendor's unrecorded interests are cut off at the end of
the four month period if he does not record prior to the time that a
third party obtains an interest in the subject matter, whereas under
the Uniform Conditional Sales Act the vendor's lien remains perfected
until he obtains knowledge, after which he is allowed ten days to
record in order to extend the protection of his lien. It seems that the
Uniform Commercial Code provisions do not place an undue burden
on the conditional vendor because since one of two innocent persons
must suffer, the misfortune should rest upon the person whose method
of doing business made it possible for the conditional vendee to per-

-2 U. L. A. (1922) § 14 (railroad rolling stock excluded from operation of sec-

tion). This legislation has been adopted by ten states. 2 U. L. A. (1956 Supp.) 6.
30E.g., Bradshaw v. Kleiber Motor Truck Co., 29 Ariz. 293, 241 Pac. 305 (1925).
3Uniform Commercial Code (1952) § 9-1o3 (adopted only in Pa.).
-"If the security interest was already perfected under the law of the jurisdic-
tion where the property was kept before being brought into this state, the security
interest continues perfected here for four months and also thereafter if within the
four months period it is perfected here. The security interest may also be perfected
here after expiraton of four months period; in such cases perfection dates from the
time of perfection in this state. If the security interest was not perfected under the
law of the jurisdiction where the property was kept before being brought into
this state it may be perfected here; in such case perfection dates from the time
of perfection in this state." Uniform Commercial Code (1952) § 9-1o3(3). For a
case construing a statute believed to be similar to the Uniform Commercial Code,
see Henry v. Harris, 2o6 Okla. 348, 243 P. (2d) 663 (1952).
306 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

petrate a fraud. Under the Uniform Commercial Code, the third party
is, of course, not fully protected, but the legislation would appear to be
the best reconciliation of necessarily opposed interests.

THOMAS C. BROYLES

TAXATION-VOLUNTARY PAYMENTS BY CORPORATION TO FORMER EM-

PLOYEE OR His ESTATE OR WIDOW As TAXABLE INCOME OR GIFTs.
[Federal]

Since the inception of the federal income tax in 1913 the courts
have been faced with the necessity of determining the tax consequences
of payments claimed to be gifts made by business firms to three related
types of recipients: an employee, his estate, and his widow or family.
In the years immediately following passage of the income tax act,
corporations sometimes attempted to pay the top company officers their
salaries in tax-free form by making additional payments to such of-
ficers of amounts sufficient to cover the income tax which the officers
had to pay on their salaries. This maneuver was frustrated when
the Supreme Court held that such payment was compensation for
services rendered and, therefore, was taxable income to the employee'
In an effort to avoid the effect of that ruling, one company attempted
to provide relief from the income tax burden to its five top officers
by specifically calling the payments "gifts" and by not deducting the
payments on its own income tax returns. However, that payment was
2
also held to be taxable compensation to the employee.
A variation of this approach involved former employees. In one
instance, a company, upon sale of its assets to another corporation,
set up a fund from the profits for distribution to the old employees.
This fund was to be distributed by a committee, and the amounts dis-
tributed were, for tax purposes, treated by the corporation as salary
deductions. Upon test by the taxing authorities, the court decided that,
even if the stockholders had ratified such a distribution, the payments
must have been either compensation for services rendered or a part of
the profits of the transaction, and, in either event, they were taxable
to the employees as income.3 However, where the stockholders voted
an "honorarium" to employees because of a large financial gain made

'Old Colony Trust Co. v. Com'r, 279 U. S. 716, 49 S. Ct. 499, 73 L. ed. 918 (1929).
-Levey v. Helvering, 68 F. (2d) 401 (C. A. D. C., 1933).
3
Noel v. Parrott, 15 F. (2d) 669 at 672 (C. C. A. 4th, 1926).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

by their corporation in its sale to another company, the Supreme Court,

reasoning that the intent of the payor was controlling, declared the
payments to be gifts. 4 In that case, however, the Court relied on the
fact that the recipients of the payments evidently had been otherwise
fully compensated for their services, and it emphasized that the cor-
5
poration was under no legal or moral duty to make the payments. The
Court also may well have been influenced by the further facts that the
stockholders voted the payments and that the corporation did not de-
duct the payments on its own tax returns. The one type of payment to
a former employee that consistently has been held by the Courts of
Appeals to be a gift is an honorarium paid to a retired clergyman by
his church congregation. 6 From these cases it may be supposed that in
order for a payment by an employer to a living former employee to be
considered a gift, it must be made to one who has been fully compen-
sated for past services and who will not render any further services
to the employer. An absence of even a moral duty of payment may also
7
be a requisite.

"Bogardus v. Com'r, 3o2 U. S. 34, 58 S. Ct. 61, 82 L. ed. 32 (1937). The decision
was by a 5 to 4 majority, with the dissenting Justices expressing the opinion that
the evidence would support either finding and that, therefore, the decision of the
Board of Tax Appeals should not be disturbed. In keeping with the idea of the
dissenting Justices is Peters v. Smith, 221 F. (2d) 721 (C. A. 3rd, 1955), where, in
a situation in which an employer had given the taxpayer both an annuity at re-
tirement and a check to cover the tax thereon, a jury in the District Court found
both to be gifts. The jury's verdict, which had been set aside by the District Court,
was reinstated by the Court of Appeals.
r 3 02U. S. 34 at 42, 58 S. Ct. 61 at 65, 82 L. ed. 32 at 38 (1937).
GThe Tax Court had consistently held this type of payment to be income be-
cause of past services of the employee, but in Schall v. Com'r, 174 F. (2d) 893 (C. A.
5 th, 1949), the court reversed ii T. C. 111
(1948) and decided that since the hon-
orarium was not solicited by the minister, and since there were no further serv-
ices to be performed by him, the circumstances clearly showed that a gift was
made. Then in Mutch v. Com'r, 209 F. (2d) 390, 392 (C. A. 3rd, 1954), the Tax
Court was again reversed and an honorarium to a retired minister was declared
a gift because it "was motivated solely and sincerely by the congregation's love
and affection for Dr. Mutch." Accord: Kavanagh v. Hershman, 21o F. (2d) 654
(C. A. 6th, 1954); Abernethy v. Com'r, 211 F. (2d) 651 (C. A. D. C., 1954). Rev.
Rul. 55-422 announced that the Internal Revenue Service plans to follow the Schall
case in future matters involving payments to retired cleregymen.
Such leniency by the court was not evident in a payment by a distiller to a re-
tired officer "in appreciation of services rendered"; it was held taxable. Willkie v.
Com'r, 127 F. (2d) 953 (C. C. A. 6th, 1942).
7
Bogardus v. Com'r, 3o02 U. S.34 at 42, 58 S. Ct. 61 at 65, 82 L. ed. 32 at 38 (1937).
Even if an agreement may not have been legally enforceable, the moral ob-
ligation of payor may cause the payment to be taxable income to the payee, rather
than a gift. Acme Land & Fur Co., Inc. v. Com'r, 84 F. (2d) 441 (C. C. A. 5 th, 1936).
Although moral obligations and past consideration may not constitute legal obli-
gations, their presence tends to negative the concept of a gift, and the absence
3o8 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

When a firm has made a payment to the estate of a deceased em-

ployee or officer, at least one case indicates that the courts, in deciding
whether the payments were gifts or taxable income, have been reluctant
to consider the intent of the payor and have not been persuaded that
the payments were gifts by the fact that the company was under no
legal duty to make the payments. That court made its own determina-
tion that the payment was for past services. 9 Other courts, in reach-
ing a similar result, have relied on (i) the fact that only stock-
holders can give away the corporation's money, whereas the cases
typically involve a payment ordered by officers or directors of a com-
pany, and (2) the fact that the payment was made to the estate of
the employee rather than to the widow who would be the normal ob-
ject of the corporation's benefactions in such circumstances. 10
When a widow of an employee is the recipient of the payment,
there may be observed a disposition on the part of the courts to declare
such payments to be gifts. 1" The matter of the tax consequences of
such payments to the widow seemed to have been settled following
the issuance in 1939 of I. T. 3329,12 which permitted payments to an
employee's widow to be treated by the widow as gifts but, nevertheless,
to be deductible by the company on its own income tax returns, pro-
vided that they were not made as the result of contractual obligations to
the employee for services rendered by the recipient. Reliance upon this
Income Tax Ruling, in cases in which no services had been rendered
to the payor by the recipient, led the Tax Court to hold payments to
widows to be nontaxable in two important tax decisions.' 3 However,
in 1946 a somewhat cryptic statement regarding this situation was
made by the Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit in Varnedoe v.
Allen: "[To make the payments taxable] ... it is not necessary that the
services should have been rendered by the payee. The payor is the

of a legal duty to pay does not demonstrate that the payment was a gift. United
States v. McCormick, 67 F. (2d) 867 (C. C. A. 2nd, 1933); Fisher v. Com'r, 59 F.
(2d) 192 (C. C. A. 2nd, 1932); Binger v. Com'r, 22 B. T. A. 111 (1931).
8
0'Daniel's Estate v. Com'r, 173 F. (2d) 966 (C. A. 2nd, 1949); cf. Brayton v.
Welch, 39 F. Supp. 537 (D. C. Mass. 1941).
0
O'Daniel's Estate v. Com'r, 173 F. (2d) 966 (C. A. 2nd, 1949). Accord: Bausch v.
Com'r, 14 T. C. 1433 (195o).
"Brayton v. Welch, 39 F. Supp. 537 (D. C. Mass. 1941); Bausch v. Com'r, 14 T. C.
1433 (1950)-
nThis disposition may be seen more clearly by distinctions drawn in cases in-
volving payments to estates rather than to widows. See Brayton v. Welch, 39 F.
Supp. 537, 539 (D. C. Mass. 1941); Bausch v. Com'r, 14 T. C. 1433, 1439 (195o).
Cum. Bull. 153, 1939 C. C. H. par. 6538.
2e(1939)
13Macfarlane v. Com'r, 19 T. C. 9 (1952); Aprill v. Com'r, 13 T. C. 707 (1949).
 CASE COMMENTS

one to whom the services must have been rendered."' 4 Relying on this
assertion, the Commissioner of Internal Revenue issued I. T. 4027,
effective January 1, 1951.5 This Ruling modified I. T. 3329 by re-
quiring the widow to include, in the computation of her gross income,
payments made to her by her deceased husband's employer if the pay-
ments could be found to have been in consideration of services
rendered by the deceased. However, the idea of the court in the Varne-
doe case appears to be indefensible, as it ignores the intent of the em-
ployer and bases the determination of tax consequences exclusively
upon whether the reason for the widow's receiving payments can be
found to be that her husband previously performed services for the
payor. I. T. 4027 has been followed in a district court decision' 6 and
was noted in a court of appeals case. 17 But the Tax Court first ignored
the ruling,' s and then virtually abolished it by the decision in Hell-
strom v. Commissioner'9 which denied that I. T. 4027 is controlling in
the face of clear intent to make a gift. 20 The court in the Hellstrom
case disposed of the Commissioner's contention that the words of
the payor that payment was made "in recognition of the services [of
deceased]" were within the meaning of the term "in consideration" in
I. T. 4027: "We think this argument is nothing more than an argument
in semantics. Obviously, where a voluntary payment is made by a
corporation to the widow of a deceased employee, the basic reason for
the payment is. .. the deceased employee's past association with the

"158 F. (2d) 467, 468 (C. C. A. 5 th, 1946) (one judge dissenting), cert den., 330
U. S. 821 (1947). Case criticized or questioned in Notes (1948) 42 11. L. Rev. 8o4;
(1947) 21 Tul. L. Rev. 686; (1947) 33 Va. L. Rev. 527.
"(195o) 2 Gum. Bull. 9, 1950 C. C. H. par. 6208.
"'Fisher v. United States, 129 F. Supp. 759 (D. C. Mass. 1955).
"7Bausch's Estate v. Com'r, 186 F. (2d) 313 at 314 (C. A. 2nd, 1951), aff'g
Bausch v. Com'r, 14 T. C. 1433 (1950). I. T. 4027 became effective prior to the de-
cision of the court of appeals; however, the payments in issue were made prior
to the effective date.
"A corporation's board of directors voted to pay to the widow the salary her de-
ceased husband would have received through the end of the year in which he died.
The court ignored I. T. 4027, cited Aprill v. Com'r, 13 T. C. 707 (1949), and looked
to the intent of the employer in holding the payments to be a gift. Hahn v.
Com'r, 13 T. C. M. 3o8, 1954 C. C. H. par. 7349 (1954)-
Payments to a managing partner's widow of the partner's salary for two years
after his death were held to be non-taxable gifts from the other partners. Black
v. Davis, C. C. H. 55-1 U. S. T. C. par. 9361 (N. D. Ala. 1955).
1 24 T. C. 916 (1955). The Board of Directors voted to pay the salary of the
decedent, the president of the corporation, to his widow for the remainder of
the year. The court felt the principal motive was the board's "desire to do an act of
kindness for [the widow]." Hellstrom v. Com'r, 24 T. C. 916, 920 (1955).
0"[The Commissioner], obviously, cannot by administrative ruling tax as ordi-
nary income a payment which the payor made and intended as a gift." Hellstrom v.
Com'r, 24 T. C. 916, 919 (1955).
310 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

corporation. We think it makes little difference how the corporation

formally expresses its motives for the payment. Where such payment
is a gift, as the whole record here establishes that the payments in
question were, it remains a gift regardless of the fact that the corpor-
ation may state its reasons for making the payment were 'because of'
or 'inrecognition of' or 'in consideration of' the services of the de-
21
ceased employee."
There is a recent indication that at least one district court is also
strongly inclined to treat payments to a widow of a deceased corpora-
tion officer as gifts. In Slater v. RiddelU22 a widow sought an income
tax refund on the ground that payments made to her after her hus-
band's death by the corporation of which he was an officer, were gifts
to her. Her husband had died in April, 1953, and, shortly thereafter, the
corporation had recorded a memorandum which "recommended" pay-
ment of three months' salary (totaling $7,500) to plaintiff "as further
consideration for the past services of the deceased." 23 Although the cor-
poration deducted this payment as a salary expense on its income
tax return, and although neither it nor plaintiff filed a gift tax re-
turn, and although this payment had not been approved by the share-
holders, the court held the payment to be a gift and, therefore, not
24
taxable to plaintiff as income.
Since the court wrote no opinion setting out its reasoning, the
basis of the holding is left to conjecture. However, in the type of situa-
tion out of which the Slater case arose, there are usually a number of
factors indicating that the intent of the employer was to make a gift:
(i) the employer is under no duty to provide additional compensation;
(2) the employer has not received nor does he anticipate any benefit
in return for his payment; (3)payment is made directly to the widow
and not to the estate; and (4)the occasion for payment is the death
of the husband. 25 As against those considerations, indications that a
gift was not intended normally include the fact that: (1)the stock-
holders, who have sole authority to give away the corporation's assets,
did not approve the payments; and (2) payments were deducted from
the corporation's income tax return as compensation paid by the

2'24 T. C. 916, 919 (1955).

2
-C. C. H. 56-2 U. S. T. C. par. 9892 (S. D. Cal. 1956).
23C. C. H. 56-2 U. S. T. C. par. 9892 at 56,361 (S. D. Cal. 1956).
2
'Since under the 1939 and the 1954 codes only an individual is liable for a gift
tax, corporations are not taxed on the amount of such payments. 53 Stat. 44 (1939),
26 U. S. C. A. § 1000 (1948); 68A Stat. 403 (1954), 26 U. S. C. A. § 25o (1955).
2
5Hellstrom v. Com'r, 24 T. C. 916 at 920 (1955); Hahn v. Com'r, 13 T. C. M.
3o8, 1954 C. C. H. par. 7349 (1954).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

employer.26 In the presence of such opposing factors, there is prob-

ably general agreement with Justice Brandeis' opinion that "What con-
trols is not the presence or absence of consideration... [but] the inten-
tion with which payment, however voluntary, has been made." 27 How-
ever, the problem still remains as to how the payor's intention shall be
determined in the face of conflicting implications arising from the facts
surrounding the payment.
Prior to the issuance of I. T. 4027 the problem was fairly well
settled. If the recipient of the payment performed no services and the
payor was under no contractual obligation to pay any benefits, then
I. T. 3329 applied. Under the 1939 Code, if there was a contractural
obligation to pay death benefits, the proceeds of such payment were
taxable to the recipient; but a $5ooo exclusion was permitted. 28 Per-
haps the confusion that has resulted since the issuance of I. T. 4027
will be dispelled when the courts apply the provisions of Section lo1(b)
of the 1954 code.2 0 This section impliedly, though not specifically,
grants a deduction to the employer, and explicitly permits the recipient
or recipients of a death benefit payment to claim a total exclusion of
$50003.0 It makes no difference under the section whether the recipient
is an estate or a widow. Presumably, the exclusion exists whether there
is a contractual obligation to pay the benefit or not. There is, however,

'Brayton v. Welch, 39 F. Supp. 537 at 539 (D. C. Mass. 1941). See Fisher v.
United States, 129 F. Supp. 759, 761 (D. C. Mass. 1955)-
"See dissenting opinion in Bogardus v. Com'r, 302 U. S.34,45, 58 S. Ct. 61, 66, 82
L. ed. 32, 39 (1937).
'65 Stat. 483 (1952), 26 U. S. C. A. § 22 (b) 1 (B) (1954 Supp.).
!68A Stat. 27 (1954), 26 U. S. C. A. § 101 (b) (1955)-
31Prior to the 1954 code, the $5ooo exclusion, if the payments qualified as a con-
tractual obligation, was permitted for payments from each employer of dece-
dent. 65 Stat. 483 (1952), 26 U. S. C. A. § 22 (b) i (B) (1954 Supp.). Under the 1954
code ,;5ooo is the maximum exclusion per employee, regardless of the number of
employers who make payments. 68A Stat. 27 (1954), 26 U. S. C. A. § 1o (b) 2 (A)
(1955).
Evidently, the limitation does not apply to deductions for the employer, and,
if payments of more than $5ooo are made, the entire amount may be deductible,
if the test of reasonableness is met. See 1957 C. C. H. § 1370.01298. The desirability
of encouraging such death benefits is illustrated by the Report of the Tax Study
Commission of the State of North Carolina which recommended that the state
pattern its code after the federal income tax and allow a $Sooo exclusion by recipi-
ents and that the payments by employers be deductible. Report of the Tax Study
Commission of North Carolina (1956) 23.
'See 1957 C. C. H. par. 9o8. Perhaps there was no valid reason for the courts to
have made the distinction between payments to estates and payments to widows. See
Note (1953) 28 N. Y. U. L. Rev. 896 criticizing Macfarlane v. Com'r, 19 T. C. 9
(1952). See also the unsuccessful contention of petitioner's counsel that the court
was making "a distinction without a difference." Bausch v. Com'r, 14 T. C. 1433,
1439 (1950).
312 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

a problem as to how Section Iol(b) will be applied to a payment that

is purportedly a gift and is in an amount in excess of $5ooo. The
courts may approach such a case in either of two ways: (I) by finding
that Congress did not intend Section ioi(b) to preclude employers from
making gifts to widows of employees and, therefore, that it is necessary
to look to the circumstances in order to ascertain the intent of the em-
ployer in making the payments;3 2 or (2) by finding, on the basis of
Congress' grant of an exclusion to the recipient of a payment of less
than $5ooo, that Congress did intend all payments over $5ooo to be
taxable to the recipient.3 3 Although the Slater case was decided under
the 1939 Code, its conclusion that a payment of $7,500 is a gift to the
recipient may indicate that the former interpretation will be favored.
This view seems preferable to the latter interpretation since, absent
contractual obligation, it appears quite dear that such a payment is
purely a gift-an act of kindness-and one to which is attached consider-
able social utility.
NORMAN C. ROETTGER, JR.

TORTS-DEBTORS' REMEDIES AGAINST CREDITORS RESORTING TO UN-

REASONABLE TACTICS To EXTORT PAYMENT OF DEBTS. [Ohio]
When unscrupulous or overzealous creditors or their collectors
eschew judicial collection procedures of judgment or garnishment in
favor of harassing tactics designed to extort payment, debtors are faced
with some uncertainty in determining what legal remedies are available
to them. Though debtors have on several occasions attempted to im-
pose liability on badgering collectors for violation of the right of pri-
vacy, with the recent case of Housh v. Pethl Ohio became only the
second jurisdiction to allow recovery on that theory. In this case de-
fendant collection agent initiated a pressure campaign to coerce pay-
ment of a $197 debt owed by plaintiff school teacher. Over a period of
two weeks, defendant telephoned plaintiff six or eight times daily,
both at school and at home, sometimes as late as 11:45 p.m., and publi-

32See Research Institute of America, 1954 Revenue Act Coordinator 33o6 at

3307. However, the same authority suggests that, for practical reasons, the question
will not often be litigated.
-See (1957) 6 Jour. of Taxation 288.
1165 Ohio St. 35, 133 N. E. (2d) 340 (1956), noted (1956) 32 Notre Dame Law.
168; (1956) 17 Ohio St. L. J. 346; (1956) io Vand. L. Rev. 149. The state Supreme
Court affirmed the decision reached in 99 Ohio App. 485, 135 N. E. (2d) 44o (1955),
noted (1956) Ill. L. Forum 522.
19571 CASE COMMENTS

cized the debt by calling her landlord and supervisors. Finally, he

had plaintiff called away from her classroom to the telephone three
times within fifteen minutes, with the result that her employer
threatened to discharge her unless the matter was settled. Plaintiff al-
leged an invasion of her right of privacy causing her nervousness, worry,
humiliation, mental anguish, and loss of sleep. A $2,00 judgment
for plaintiff was upheld by a 4 to 3 decision of the Supreme Court of
Ohio, which approved the intermediate court's conclusion that "The
calls... were all part of the pattern to harass and humiliate the plain-
tiff and cause her mental pain and anguish and cause her emotional
disturbance for the purpose of coercing her to pay the debt.... As a
result of the conduct of the defendant the plaintiff became ill. In our
opinion the conduct of the defendant falls outside the bounds of reason-
able methods which may be pursued in an effort to collect a debt, and
2
is actionable as an invasion of plaintiff's right of privacy."
While the offense in the instant case was designated an invasion
of privacy, defendant's willful and intentional purpose to inflict men-
tal suffering and thereby coerce payment was emphasized both by in-
structions to the jury and by the opinions of the Ohio courts. Similar
concern over the collector's intent was expressed in the two other
decisions which have allowed recovery to the debtor on the privacy
theory. In the first of those cases, defendant had placed a sign 8 feet
by 5 feet in his show window announcing the debt and implying that
plaintiff had made false promises to pay. The Court of Appeals of
Kentucky, applying the privacy theory to these facts, instructed the
jury that if defendant erected the sign "for the purpose of coercing
the payment of a debt then due plaintiff by the defendant, or for
the purpose of exposing the plaintiff to public contempt, ridicule, aver-
sion, or disgrace," plaintiff would be entitled to recover "for any
mental pain, humiliation, or mortification caused to him." 3 Fourteen
years later the same court, relying heavily upon its former decision,
held that a publication regarding a debt in the local newspaper "for
the purpose of exposing the debtor to contempt, ridicule or disgrace,
and so to coerce payment of the debt," was an actionable invasion of
4
the debtor's right of privacy.
Possibly encouraged because recovery was allowed for a single pub-
2165 Ohio St. 35, 133 N. E. (2d) 340, 344 (1956).
2
Brents v. Morgan, 221 Ky. 765, 299 S. W. 967, 971, 55 A. L. R. 964, 970 (1927).
'Trammel v. Citizens News Co., Inc., 285 Ky. 529, 148 S. W. (2d) 7o8, 71o (1941).
While coercion and intent in the passage quoted from the Brents case may appear
to be disjunctive, it is believed a conjunctive interpretation was intended, as ex-
emplified by the later Trammel case.
314 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

lication in both Kentucky cases, other debtors have since sought to re-
cover on the privacy theory where the only publication was by courte-
ous letter or telephone call to plaintiff's employer, apprising him
of the debt and of an intention in some instances to garnishee plain-
tiff's wages. However, in each of these cases, including several in
Kentucky, recovery was denied. 5 As indicated by the Indiana court,
"an employee has no right of privacy as against his employer in the
matter of the debts he owes and a creditor who gives such information
to the employer, unaccompanied by slanderous, libelous, defamatory
or coercive matter, incurs no liability in so doing."O But it is to be noted
that in none of these decisions denying recovery was defendant's design
to inflict mental anguish a serious contention.
Since the privacy theory has not often been found to be applicable
to collection cases, the harassed debtor must turn to other theories on
which to base action against oppressive collectors. Where, as in the
collection cases, the only substantial harm to plaintiff is emotional, the
courts have apparently been more willing to grant recovery if some
traditional peg such as defamation or a technical battery or trespass
can be found on which to hang it.7 If the collection attempts in-
clude defamatory utterances, recovery may be had in a libel or slander
action for special damages and accompanying mental suffering. The
cautious collector, however, adheres to truth, since truth is generally
a complete defense to an action for defamation, and in such an action
the intent or purpose behind a truthful publication is usually immater-
ial.8 Prior to the turn of the century some courts stretched the tort

TPatton v. Jacobs, i18 Ind.App. 358, 78 N. E. (2d) 789 (1948) (courteous letters to
debtor's employer); Lucas v. Moskins Stores, Inc., 262 S. W. (2d) 679 (Ky. 1953)
(courteous letter to debtor's employer); Voneye v. Turner, 240 S. W. (Rd) 588 (Ky.
1951) (courteous letter to debtor's employer); Hawley v. Professional Credit Bureau,
Inc., 345 Mich. 5o0, 76 N. W. (2d) 835 (1956) (courteous letter to debtor's employer;
but see dissent); Lewis v. Physicians & Dentists Credit Bureau, Inc., 27 Wash. (2d)
267, 177 P. (2d) 896 (1947) (telephone call to debtor's employer). Accord: Davis v.
General Finance & Thrift Corp., 8o Ga. App. 708, 57 S. E.(2d) 225 (1950) (two tele-
grams to debtor).
Where defendant distributed colored hand bills throughout the community
advertising unpaid accounts for sale and listing name, address, and amount due, and
the plaintiff's name was among those listed, the court refused to allow recovery on
the privacy theory, but the jurisdiction is one which does not recognize the right of
privacy as an independent tort. Judevine v. Benzies-Montanye Fuel & Warehouse
Co., 222 Wis. 512, 269 N. W. 295, io6 A. L. R. 1443 (1936).
6Patton v. Jacobs, 18 Ind. App. 358, 78 N. E. (2d) 789, 792 (1948).
71 Harper & James, Torts (1956) 666; Prosser, Torts (2nd ed. 1955) 43, and cases
cited in both texts.
8Statements implying that plaintiff does not pay his just debts, or a resort to
name-calling by the collector may result in an action for defamation, but the many
1957] CASE COMMENTS

of libel to allow recovery in situations in which there was seemingly

no other available remedy-e.g., where defendant advertised in the
newspaper under the "Wanted" column that plaintiff was wanted to
pay his debt; 9 or where defendant sent collection letters to plaintiff
in red envelopes marked "for collection of bad debts."1 0 But this
subterfuge, as well as that of attaching substantial damages to a tech-
nical trespass or battery, has been discarded in a growing number of
cases in favor of the imposition of liability on the theory that defen-
dant intentionally inflicted mental suffering, which was, in fact, the
harm done to plaintiff."
Early American decisions basing recovery on this theory involved
public carriers whose agents had insulted their passengers, and subse-
quently liability was extended on the same basis to innkeepers, theater
operators, and proprietors of similar places of public utility, and to a
variety of other situations. 12 The tort of intentional infliction of mental

and varied rules of defamation must be researched for the individual case as there
is no pattern for defamation peculiar to collection cases. For defamation generally,
see Prosser, Torts (2nd ed. 1955) § 92 et seq.; i Harper & James, Torts (1956) § 5.1
et seq.
'Zier v. Hofflin, 33 Minn. 66, 21 N. W. 862, 53 Am. Rep. 9 (1885).
1
"Muetze v. Tuteur, 77 Wis. 236, 46 N. W. 123, 9 A. L. R. 86 (1890). Accord:
Burton v. O'Neil, 6 Tex. Civ. App. 613, 25 S. W. 1O3 (1894).
More recently, but still prior to the first collection-privacy case, the Supreme
Court of Kentucky found to be libelous the placarding of debtor's residence with
notices that the collector had been there seeking payment of accounts due. Thompson
v. Adelberg & Berman, Inc., 181 Ky. 487, 205 S. W. 558, 3 A. L. R. 1594 (1918).
2'Prosser, Torts (2nd ed. 1955) 43, and cases cited in note 6o; Restatement, Torts
(Supp. 1948) § 46.
' 2Chamberlain v. Chandler, 5 Fed. Cas. 413, 415, No. 2,575 (C. C. D. Mass. 1823)
(allowing recovery where ship's captain by his tyrannical conduct subjected plain-
tiff passenger to severe mental suffering, Justice Story said, "It [the law] gives
compensation for mental sufferings occasioned by acts of wanton injustice, equally
whether they operate by way of direct, or of consequential, injuries."); Cole v. Atlan-
ta & W. P. R. Co., 102 Ga. 474, 31 S. E. 107 (1897) (conductor used abusive language
on plaintiff passenger); Emmke v. De Silva, 293 Fed. 17 (C. C. A. 8th, 1923) (man-
ager of hotel wrongfully accused plaintiff patron of unchastity); Saenger Theatres
Corp. v. Herndon, 18o Miss. 791, 178 So. 86 (1938) (ticket taker at theater insulted
patron); Dunn v. Western Union Telegraph Co., 2 Ga. App. 845, 59 S. E. 189 (1907)
(agent in charge of office insulted plaintiff patron); O'Connor v. Dallas Cotton
Exchange, 153 S. W. (2d) 266 (Tex. Civ. App. 1941) (plaintiff, white woman, com-
pelled to ride with Negroes in an elevator set aside for their use.)
For history and application of the tort generally, see Smith & Prosser, Inten-
tional Infliction of Mental Disturbance, Cases and Materials on Torts (1952) Chap-
ter II, § 3; Magruder, Mental and Emotional Disturbance in the Law of Torts
(1936) 49 Harv. L. Rev. 1933; Prosser, Intentional Infliction of Mental Suffering;
A New Tort (1939) 37 Mich. L. Rev. 874; Smith, Relation of Emotions to Injury
and Disease: Legal Liability for Psychic Stimuli (1944) 3o Va. L. Rev. 193; Wade,
Tort Liability for Abusive and Insulting Language (1950) 4 Vand. L. Rev. 63.
31 6 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

suffering is peculiarly adaptable to the collection cases, 13 for it often

appears that the collector's sole purpose in badgering his debtor is
to torment him into paying where resort to legal proceedings of garnish-
ment or judgment is either unprofitable 4 or impossible. 15 Thus, the
collector may come within the formulation of the rule contained in the
Restatement of Torts that "One who, without a privilege to do so, in-
tentionally causes severe emotional distress to another is liable (a) for
such emotional distress, and (b) for bodily harm resulting from it."1
A number of decisions have based recovery against the badgering
collector on this theory, even in the absence of physical manifestation
of injury;' 7 but other courts, ostensibly to keep down false claims and
to enable juries to determine when "severe" mental injury has been
caused, require some physical effect to be shown.' 8 This requirement is

"For a dynamic approach to the collection case problem and complete review
of the authorities, see Green, "Mental Suffering" Inflicted By Loan Sharks No
Wrong (1953) 3 Tex. L. Rev. 471.
"'E.g., because of the small amount of the debt, prior outstanding judgments
against the debtor, or lack of available assets.
'E.g., the collector may in truth be seeking payment of usurious interest or of
a claim barred by the statute of limitations which cannot be enforced in court.
"ORestatement, Torts (Supp. 1948) § 46. Explaining this change from the text as
it appeared in the 1934 Restatement, the American Law Institute at page 616 states:
"The change in Section 46 is necessary in order to give an accurate Restatement of
the present American law. There is a definite trend today in the United States to
give an increasing amount of protection to the interest in freedom from emotional
distress." The currently proposed revision of this section is found in Restatement of
the Law (Second), Torts, Tentative Draft No. i, April 5, 1957, § 46 (1): "One who by
extreme and outrageous conduct intentionally or recklessly causes severe emotional
distress to another is subject to liability for such emotional distress and for bodily
harm resulting from it."
See generally i Harper & James, Torts (1956) § 9.1 et seq.; Prosser, Torts (2nd ed.
1955) § 11.
17Barnett v. Collection Service Co., 214 Iowa 1303, 242 N. W. 25 (1932) (series of
coarse and vindictive letters threatening to annoy debtor's employer "until he is so
disgusted... that he ifill throw you out the back door"); Quina v. Roberts, 16 S.
(2d) 558 (La. App. 1944) (simulated legal forms inclosed in letter threatening suit
sent to debtor's employer); LaSalle Extension University v. Fogarty, 126 Neb. 457,
253 N. W. 424, 91 A. L. R. 1491 (1934) (series of 37 letters varying from moderate
reminders to accusations of dishonesty and moral turpitude, some in lurid en-
velopes, sent to plaintiff who did not owe the debt, and letters sent also to his
neighbors and employer); Gadbury v. Bleitz, 133 Wash. 134, 233 Pac. 299 (1925)
(defendant undertaker threatened to delay cremation of body of plaintiff's child
until plaintiff paid for a previous funeral, and severe illness ensued).
"8Cf. Harned v. E-Z Finance Co., 151 Tex. 641, 264 S. W. (2d) 81 (1953) (recovery
denied because no physical injury ensued), with Duty v. General Finance Co., 154 Tex.
16, 273 S. W. (2d) 64 (1954) (recovery allowed where physical illness was shown).
Clark v. Associated Retail Credit Men of Washington, 1o5 F. (2d) 62 (C. C. A. D. C.,
1939) (defendant knowingly badgered already ill debtor resulting in aggravation of
illness); Bowden v. Spiegel, Inc., 96 Cal. App. (2d) 793, 216 P. (2d) 571 (195o) (under
pretense of emergency defendant had plaintiff summoned to neighbor's telephone
1957] CASE COMMENTS

of questionable value since the determination of whether mental suf-

fering actually occurred can be more reliabily based on the nature of
the defendant's conduct intended to cause such suffering than on
the mere presence of a physical injury which may or may not have
resulted therefrom.' 9
Professor Prosser has pointed out that aside from that group of
privacy cases involving a commercial appropriation of plaintiff's per-
sonality, the great majority of privacy cases "are primarily concerned
with the protection of a mental interest, and... are only a phase of
the larger problem of the protection of peace of mind against unreason-
able disturbance"; therefore, these cases may very possibly be absorbed
by the "new tort" of intentional infliction of mental suffering.20 The
protection afforded in the Housh case was said to be against "wrong-
ful intrusion into one's private activities in such manner as to outrage
or to cause mental suffering, shame or humiliation to a person of
ordinary sensibilities," which, the jury was instructed, constituted an
invasion of the right of privacy.21 However, in the final paragraph of
this charge on privacy, the jury was further instructed: "If you find
from the evidence that.., defendants... threatened to sue the plaintiff
and threatened to appeal, or did appeal, to her employer willfully or

then berated her for not paying her bill when in fact she did not owe defendant,
and serious illness ensued); Kirby v. Jules Chain Stores Corp., 21o N. C. 8o8, 188
S. E. 625 (1936) (defendant cursed plaintiff on public street and threatened to bring
the sleriff to make her pay, and plaintiff had a miscarriage).
"'State Rubbish Collectors Ass'n v. Siliznoff, 38 Cal. (2d) 33o, 240 P. (2d) 282 at
286 (1952) (recovery allowed where threat of physical violence caused extreme fright).
-n'Prosser, Torts (2nd ed. 1955) 639. Since resulting physical illness may be
essential to a recovery for intentional infliction of mental suffering but not a
recognized prerequisite to recovery in the more common right of privacy case, the
privacy remedy might be presumed to be more adaptable to the collection situation
than is the tort of intentional infliction of mental suffering. But such a presumption
is probably not merited, since the Ohio court, one of the two courts thus far per-
mitting recovery to a harassed debtor on the privacy theory, carefully pointed
out that plaintiff had in fact suffered a resulting physical illness; the strong em-
phasis given to this effect of defendant's conduct suggests that it may have been
regarded as a determining factor in the imposition of liability.
A right of privacy has been recognized in Ala., Alaska, Ariz., Cal., Colo.,
D. C., Fla., Ga., Ill., Ind., Kan., Ky., La., Mich., Mo., Mont., Nev., N. J., N. C., Ohio,
Ore., Pa., and S. C.; but the tort is not recognized at all in R. I., Tex., and Wis., and
is limited by statute to cover only commercial appropriation of plaintiff's personality
in N. Y., Utah, and Va. Prosser, Torts (2nd ed. 1955) 636; 1 Harper & James, Torts
(1956) 682-683, n. 13, 14, and 15.
M1 65 Ohio St. 35, 133 N. E. (2d) 340, 343 (1956). However, no mention was
made of a limitation placed on the tort by its progenitors: that oral publication,
absent special damages, would not merit redress as an actionable invasion of
privacy. See Warren and Brandeis, The Right To Privacy (1890) 4 Harv. L. Rev.
193 at 217.
 18 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

intentionally for the purpose of producing mental pain and anguish

in attempting to collect a debt, or by such coercion collect such debt,
it will be your duty to return a verdict for the plaintiff ....
-22 Inten-
tional infliction of mental anguish was recognized as a separate tort
even before invasion of the right of privacy was so acknowledged, 23
and it appears that in the principal case the trial court, perhaps un-
intentionally, instructed the jury on two separate torts in one charge,
which was approved by the Ohio Supreme Court.
Regardless of the legal theory on which a debtor may seek remedy
against a collector, the widely divergent methods employed in debt col-
lection make it difficult to formulate a general rule differentiating
permissible collection practices from those which will create liability.
For example, in a recent Texas case, 24 defendant's campaign against the
debtor included nearly every type of pressure tactic in a collection
agent's repertoire. Condemning his entire course of conduct, the court
held defendant liable for such infliction of mental suffering, but of
course avoided designating what collection practices it would condone
in the future. 25 Each case must necessarily stand alone, for it is only
when the collector's conduct outrages common decency and goes be-
yond that which the debtor must reasonably expect to endure as a

2Housh v. Peth, Ohio St. 35, 133 N. E. (2d) 340, 343 (1956).
165
2Wilkinson v. Downton, [1897]2 Q. B. 57 (where defendant as a practical joke
misrepresented to plaintiff that her husband had been seriously injured, plain-
tiff was allowed to recover for accompanying shock and mental suffering).
The right of privacy cause of action was probably first alleged but rejected in
Roberson v. Rochester Folding Box Co., 171 N. Y. 538, 64 N. E. 442 (19o2), where
plaintiff's photograph was used without her consent to advertise flour.
-"Duty v.General Finance Co., 154 Tex. 16, 273 S.W. (2d) 64 (1954).
2
Duty v. General Finance Co., 154 Tex. 16, 273 S. W. (2d) 64 (1954) (collection
campaign directed against plaintiffs, husband and wife, included numerous telephone
calls at home and places of employment, threatening loss of credit and job; calling
plaintiffs "deadbeats" before neighbors and fellow employees; flooding plaintiffs
with special delivery letters and telegrams designed to arrive late at night; sending
dun cards through the mail; calling plaintiffs on neighbor's telephone pretending to
be relatives on emergency calls; calling plaintiffs' relatives long distance collect to
inform and harass them about the debt; leaving red cards in plaintiffs' door with
insulting notes and thinly-veiled threats on the back; and other similar acts).
An amazing compilation of methods employed by illegal lenders is found in
Birkhead, Collection Tactics of Illegal Lenders (1941) 8 Law and Contemp. Prob.
78. E.g.: where collector gets a wage assignment and makes debtor his agent for
collection, collector can threaten criminal prosecution should debtor fail to turn
over his pay check each month; collector may pursuade debtor to sign a check on a
bank in which he has no funds and if debtor defaults collector takes check to the
bank where it is marked not payable, then collector threatens criminal prosecution
for passing bad checks unless debtor pays up; collector may send a pretty girl to
debtor's place of employment to whisper in low tones about the debt, thus arousing
suspicions among fellow employees; a "goon squad" may be sent out to collect.
19571 CASE COMMENTS

consequence of his delinquency that the courts have granted redress

on one theory or another. A debtor must submit to some inconvenience
and notoriety from attempted collection, all of which could be avoided
if he would pay his debts as they fall due; and reasonable requests for
payment or notice of intended legal action given to the debtor or his
employer at reasonable intervals will not likely result in the imposition
of liability on the collector. Few persons wish to employ those who do
not meet their obligations promptly, even though the nature of the
job precludes temptation to embezzle, for the mental attitude of a
delinquent debtor is not conducive to maximum efficiency. Thus,
the courteous contact with the debtor's employer, devoid of defama-
tory utterance but reminding him that an employer, as garnishee
defendant, must suffer the inconvenience of appearing in court when
his employee's wages are garnished, appears to be both a powerful and
justifiable collection procedure.
EUGENE B. FORTSON

TORTs-LIABILITY FOR PERSONAL INJURIES CAUSED BY UNINTENTIONAL

AND NON-NEGLIGENT TRESPASS TO LAND. [Kentucky]

After having adhered for more than forty years to an anomalous and
much criticized doctrine imposing absolute liability for personal in-
juries caused by an unintentional and non-negligent trespass to land,
the Court of Appeals of Kentucky in deciding Randall v. Shelton'
has recently brought that state into agreement with the majority view
in this field of the law.
It is generally agreed that liability for trespass was absolute at
the early common law. Broad statements such as "a man acts at his
peril"2 and "he that is damaged ought to be recompensed" are often
cited as evidencing the existence of that view. 4 However, these state-
ments have been questioned, and the contention has been advanced
that, although at common law strict liability was imposed for trespasses,
the rule was subject to an exception when there was no intent to commit
the act which resulted in the trespass. 5 Whether or not it is true that

'293 S.W. (d) 559 (Ky. 1956).

"3 Holdsworth, History of English Law (3rd ed. 1927) 375.
'Lambert & Olliot v. Bessey, T. Raym. 421, 423, 83 Eng. Rep. 220, 221 (K. B. 1679).
'For further statements of the common law rule: Ames, Law and Morals (19o8) 22
Harv. L. Rev. 97 at 98; Bohlen, The Rule in Rylands v. Fletcher( 1911) 59 U. of Pa.
L. Rev. 298 at 3o9; Smith, Tort and Absolute Liability-Suggested Changes in
Classification (1917) 30 Harv. L. Rev. 319 at 322.
qVinfield, The Myth of Absolute Liability (1926) 42 Law Q. Rev. 37.
320 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

the common law imposed absolute liability, that assumption has con-
tinued and has been followed in a few American jurisdictions. 6
In the meantime, the English courts have revised their original
view. As far back as 1607 a decision suggested by way of dictum that an
injurious trespass to persons might be the result of an inevitable ac-
cident and therefore not actionable.7 Thus, the concept of liability
based on the trespasser's fault, rather than on the injured party's
need for compensation, entered the English law.8 But not until 1951
did the English court definitely rule that no liability would be imposed
for an unintentional and non-negligent trespass to land.9
In America, imposition of liability without fault was early rejected
in a case of trespass to the person, 1° and this view has been extended,
subject always to the "ultrahazardous activity" exception," to cases of
trespass to realty. The view that accidental trespasses-i.e., those which
are neither intentional nor negligent-are not actionable has become
the law in a majority of the jurisdictions which have passed on the

'Louisville Ry. Co. v. Sweeney, 157 Ky. 620, 163 S. W. 739 (i9i4), overruled
by Randall v. Shelton, 293 S. W. (2d) 559 (Ky. 1956); Newsom v. Anderson, 24 N. C. 3s,
2 Ired. L. 42, 37 Am. Dec. 406 (1841); Van Alstyne v. Rochester Tel. Corp., x63
Misc. 258, 296 N. Y. Supp. 726 (1937). See West Virginia Cent. 9- P. Ry. Co. v.
Fuller, 96 Md. 652, 54 Ad. 669, 672 (19o3), for dictum that trespass may be actionable
without showing negligence.
7
Weaver v. Ward, Hob. 134, 8o Eng. Rep. 284 (K. B. 16o7).
sThat trespass to persons must be either negligent or intentional to be action-
able was decided in the last century: Stanley v. Powell, [1891] 1 Q. B. 86; Holmes v.
Mather, 1o Law Rep. 261 (Ex. 1875). Accord as to trespass to goods: Manton
v. Brocklebank, [1923] 2 K. B. 212. But tresspass to land was actionable even if un-
intentional and non-negligent: Boyle v. Rodgers, [Can. 1921] 2 W. W. R. 704, 31
Man. L. R. 263, aff'd, 31 Man. L. R. 421.
ONational Coal Board v. Evans & Co., [1951] 2 K. B. 861, 2 All Eng. Rep. 31o.
"0Brown v. Kendall, 6o Mass. 292 (185o).
"For discussions of the ultrahazardous activity exception see: Harper, Liability
Without Fault and Proximate Cause (1932) 30 Mich. L. Rev. looi at 1oo5; Prosser,
Nuisance Without Fault (1942) 2o Tex. L. Rev. 399 at 4o5; Smith, Tort and Absolute
Liability-Suggested Changes in Classification (1917) 3o Harv. L. Rev. 319 at 323.
The following are examples of activities which have been classed as ultrahazard-
ous, or the same result has been reached by allowing recovery on a theory of
nuisance, even absent fault: keeping explosives, Exner v. Sherman Power Const.
Co., 54 F. (2d) 510 (C. C. A. 2nd, 1931); operating aircraft in formation, Parcell v.
United States, 1o4 F. Supp. 11o (S. D. W. Va. 1951); knowingly selling dangerous
chemicals, Chapman Chemical Co. v. Taylor, 215 Ark. 630, 222 S. W. (2d) 820 (1949);
drilling oil wells, Green v. General Petroleum Corp., 2o5 Cal. 328, 270 Pac. 952 (1928);
use of exterminating gas, Luthringer v. Moore, 181 P. (2d) 89 (Cal. App. 1947);
blasting, Brown v. L. S. Lunder Const. Co., 240 Wis. 122, 2 N. W. (2d) 859 (1942).
Restatement, Torts (1938) § 520, defines an ultrahazardous activity as one which:
"(a) necessarily involves a risk of serious harm to the person, land, or chattels
of others which cannot be eliminated by the exercise of the utmost care, and
(b) is not a matter of common usage."
 CASE COMMENTS

point, 12 has been adopted by the Restatement, 13 and has received

14
virtually unanimous support from legal writers.
Among the jurisdictions adhering to the original common law con-
cept of liability in trespass, with its strict emphasis on the sanctity of
property rights, Kentucky has occupied a prominent place since 1914
when the decision in Louisville Ry. Co. v. Sweeney'G was handed down.
In that case plaintiff was injured while standing in her front yard
when defendant's streetcar left the track and ran into a telephone
pole, which struck plaintiff's gate and knocked it against her. The case
probably could have been decided on a negligence theory, since there
was evidence tending to show that the car was being operated too rapid-
ly over track from which defendant's workmen had removed the ties
in order to effect repairs. Nevertheless, the Kentucky Court of Appeals,
in affirming a judgment for the plaintiff, declared: "The plaintiff
as the owner of her property was entitled to the undisputed possession
of it. The entry of the defendant upon it either by its street car or by
the pole which it set in motion was a trespass. One who trespasses
upon another and inflicts an injury is liable for the injuiy unless
caused by the Act of God or produced by causes beyond his control....
The defendant.., had no right to... throw things out of the street
on [plaintiff's] property."' 6 This case though strongly criticized,' 7 was
subsequently followed in a series of decisions in Kentucky.3s

12Parrott v. Wells Fargo Co., 15 Wall. 524, 21 L. ed. 206 (U. S. 1872); Brown v.
Collins, 53 N. H. 442, 16 Am. Rep. 372 (1873); Phillips v. Sun Oil Co., 3o7 N. Y. 328,
121 N. E. (2d) 249 (1954); Rightmire v. Shepard, 59 Hun. 620, 12 N. Y. Supp. 8oo
(i8g); Turner v. Big Lake Oil Co., 128 Tex. 155, 96 S. W. (2d) 221 (1936); Feiges v.
Racine Dry Goods Co., 231 Wis. 270, 285 N. W. 799 (1939) (involuntary holdover
tenant). Plaintiff's accidental trespass has been held not a defense in: Edgarton v.
H. P. Welch Co., 321 Mass. 603, 74 N. E. (2d) 674 (1947); Puchlopek v. Portsmouth
Power Co., 82 N. J. 440, 136 At. 259 (1926).
"Restatement, Torts (1934) § ,66: "Except where the actor is engaged in an
extra-hazardous activity, an unintentional and non-negligent entry on land in the
possession of another or causing a thing or third person to enter the land, does not
subject the actor to liability to the possessor, even though the entry causes harm
to the possessor or to a thing or third person in whose security the possessor has a
legally protected interest."
"Harper, Torts (1933) 69; Pollock, Torts (14 th ed. 1939) 107; Prosser, Torts
(2nd ed. 1955) § 13; Winfield, Restatement of the Law of Torts-Volume III (1939)
17 N. Y. U. L. Q. Rev. 1 at 2; Note (1942) 21 Tex. L. Rev. 78 at 81.
n 157 Ky. 620, 163 S. W. 739 (1914)-
11157 Ky. 620, 621, 163 S. W. 739, 740 (1914). Italics supplied.
""There is no great triumph of reason in a rule which makes a street railway,
whose car jumps the track, liable only for negligence to a pedestrian on the side-
walk, but absolutely liable to the owner of the plate-glass window behind him."
Prosser, Torts (2nd ed. 1955) 55.
28Kentucky Traction and Terminal Co. v. Bain, 174 Ky. 679, 192 S. W. 656
(1917) (streetcar struck plaintiff's home; finding of negligence not necessary because
322 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

However, a change was foreshadowed in 1955, when the Kentucky

Court of Appeals in Jewell v. Dell' 9 recognized the existence of the
modern trend away from absolute liability for trespass and, in dictum,
cast some doubt on the continued validity of the Sweeney doctrine.
All doubts have now been resolved in Randall v. Shelton,20 which ex-
pressly overruled the Sweeney case.
In the Randall case, plaintiff's leg was broken by a stone allegedly
thrown from the road by the wheels of defendant's truck. Plaintiff
contended that she was standing in her front yard at the time. Over
defendant's objection the case was submitted to the jury on grounds
of negligence and also of trespass, and a verdict of $6,ooo was returned
for plaintiff. However, on appeal this judgment was reversed and
a verdict was directed for defendant. The Court of Appeals first con-
sidered the possibility of sustaining the verdict on the negligence
theory, but held that there was no basis beyond mere conjecture for
finding the injury to have been caused by any negligence on the part
of defendant.21 Considering the case on a trespass theory, the court
eliminated extra-hazardous activity and intentional trespass as bases for
recovery in the situation at bar; then, referring to the streetcar cases,
it conceded that, "By some strange course of the law, in Kentucky we
seem to have created a third class of cases which recognize an absolute
liability...." 22 In repudiating the Sweeney doctrine and those cases

of Sweeney case); Kentucky Traction and Terminal Co. v. Grimes, 175 Ky. 694,
194 S. W. 1048 (1917) (streetcar struck house where plaintiff was working); Con-
solidated Fuel Co. v. Stevens, 223 Ky. 192, 3 S. W. (2d) 203 (1927) (slate car struck
plaintiff's house); Happy Coal Co. v. Smith, 229 Ky. 716, 17 S.W. (2d) ioo8 (1929)
(spool of wire got away from defendant's employees and rolled down a hill, in-
juring plaintiff; recovery allowed on grounds of trespass; finding of negligence not
required, although case probably could have been decided on negligence).
' 1Defendant's driver continued to drive defendant's truck with knowledge of
the truck's bad brakes. Verdict for plaintiff upheld on grounds of negligence, es-
pecially in view of a prohibitory statute. After recognizing the Sweeney rule, the
court declined to apply it, saying: "The trend of modem authority is that an un-
intended entry or intrusion upon the property in possession of another does not
constitute actionable trespass." But the question of the continued validity of the
Sweeney case, in view of the above development was left for a later decision. 284
S. W. (2d) 92, 94 (Ky. 1955).
2'293 S. W. (2d) 559 (Ky. 1956).
nOn appeal, plaintiff argued that it was possible for reasonable men to find that
the stone was wedged between the dual wheels of the truck and that driving a truck
in such condition, of which the driver must have been aware, constituted negligence.
The court dismissed this contention as pure speculation, especially since plaintiff
could offer no susbstantiating evidence. The court also decided that no application
of the doctrine of res ipsa loquitur could result in a finding of negligence on the
defendant's part, since the throwing of a stone by a vehicle moving along the high-
way "would not in the ordinary course of events indicate negligence in the oper-
ation of the vehicle." 293 S. W. (2d) 559, 562 (Ky. 1956).
2293 S. W. (2d) 559, 561 (Ky. 1956).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

which followed it, the court reasoned that liability should depend
on the nature of defendant's act, not on the name given to that act
because it took place on plaintiffs property. "Plaintiff is entitled to
protection from wrongful injury wherever she may lawfully be, and the
true question presented is whether or not the defendant committed a
23
culpable act, not plaintiff's geographical location.
This case was correctly distinguished from those in which the so-
called extra-hazardous duty exception is applied to impose liability
regardless of negligence upon those who engage in activities so danger-
ous as to be inherently threatening of injury.24 The operation of motor
vehicles is overwhelmingly recognized as not such an activity,2 5 although
at least one jurist has advocated that it be so regarded, as a deterrent
to reckless driving.20 The Kentucky court is to be commended for re-
pudiating the Sweeney doctrine in a straightforward manner, rather
than evading that action by finding other grounds upon which to de-
cide the case. As to the whole line of streetcar cases, it was pointed out
that the decisions should have turned on the question of negligence,
perhaps with the application of the doctrine of res ipsa loquitur to
raise a presumption of negligence. 27 By adopting the modem rule,
Kentucky has virtually destroyed the last remaining vestiges of the
concept that every unauthorized entry upon the land of another is an
actionable trespass, regardless of any fault on the part of the enterer.
In only one other jurisdiction has an unimpeached holding to this
28
effect been found, and that case was decided over a century ago.

nRandall v. Shelton, 293 S. W. (2d) 559, 562 (Ky. x956). The court further ob-
served: "To say that she could recover for injuries if she was in her yard but could
not recover if she was one step outside of it is a patent absurdity.... To further
point up the absurdity of the situation, suppose the plaintiff had been in her front
yard talking to a neighbor and the stone had struck both. Assuming no negligence,
would there be any logic in ruling that the plaintiff could recover and the neighbor
could not?" 293 S. W. (2d) 559, 562 (Ky. 1956).
-"See note i, supra.
... automobiles have come into such general use that their operation is
a matter of common usage. This together with the fact that the risk involved in
the careful operation of a carefully maintained automobile is slight, is sufficient to
prevent their operation from being an ultrahazardous activity." Restatement, Torts
(1938) § 52o, comment (e). Accord: Parker v. Wilson, 179 Ala. 361, 6o So. 15o (1912);
Martin v. Lilly, 188 Ind. 139, 121 N. E. 443 (919); Roberts v. Lundy, 3o Mich. 726,
4 N. W. (2d) 74 (1942); Wineman v. Carter, 212 Minn. 298, 4 N. W. (2d) 83 (1942);
Kirk v. Birkenbach, 32 N. E. (2d) 76 (Ohio App. 1941); Nichols v. Smith, 21 Tenn.
App. 478, M11S. W. (2d) 911 (1937).
3See Judge Clark's opinion in Behaney v. Travelers Ins. Co., 121 F. (2d) 838 at
839 (C. C. A. 3rd, 1941).
_Randall v. Shelton, 293 S. V. (2d) 559 at 562 (Ky. 1956).
sNewsom v. Anderson, 24 N. C. 33, 2 Ired. L. 42, 37 Am. Dec. 406 (1841). This
case has not been followed in a case decided solely on trespass. It was cited with ap-
324 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

One other court has approved the absolute liability rule in dicta, but
that case was actually decided on the ground of negligence,2 9 and the
same court later decided that in such a case it is more proper to give a
30
negligence instruction based on res ipsa loquitur.
ERNEST H. CLARKE

TORTs-WIFE'S RIGHT To RECOVER FOR Loss OF CONSORTIUM RESULTING

FROM NEGLIGENTLY INFLICTED INJURIES TO HUSBAND. [Iowa]
With its recent decision in Acuff v. Schmit,' the Supreme Court of
Iowa has become the only state court of last resort now repudiating
the ancient established rule that a wife cannot recover damages for
loss of consortium against one whose negligent wrongdoing has inca-
pacitated her husband. In this case, plaintiff's husband had been in-
jured by defendant's negligent operation of an automobile and had
been thereby rendered permanently disabled and incapable of carrying
on marital relations. The husband's cause of action for personal in-
juries having been dismissed with prejudice, presumably on the basis
of a settlement satisfactory to the husband, the wife sued the tort-feasor
to recover damages for loss of the aid, service, society, companionship
and consortium of her husband. The trial court sustained a motion
to dismiss on the ground that the plaintiff failed to state a cause of
action, but the Iowa Supreme Court, in a 5 to 4 decision, held that a
wife does have a cause of action for the loss of consortium against
one who has negligently and permanently incapacitated her husband.
While recognizing that the overwhelming weight of authority is
against allowing plaintiff's cause of action, the majority declared:
"... we deem precedent to be worthy of support only when it can stand
the scrutiny of logic and sound reasoning in the light of present day
standards and ideals." 2 The traditional rule denying a wife recovery
for loss of consortium was said to have grown out of the common law
restrictions of coverture under which a married woman lacked the capa-
city to bring suit in her own name or to hold a property right (which
consortium was found to be) independently of her husband. The Iowa
Married Women's Acts having long since empowered a wife to sue

proval, however, in a recent case in which damages were sought for dust being
thrown from a mica mine onto another's property. The court discussed both tres-
pass and nuisance. Hall v. DeWelch Mica Co., 244 N. C. 182, 93 S. E. (2d) 56 (1956).
2See West Virginia Cent. & P. Ry. Go.v. State, to use of Fuller, 96 Md. 652, 54
At. 669, 672 (1903).
'*Potomac Edison Co. v. Johnson, i6o Md. 33, 152 Atl. 633 (193o).
178 N. W. (2d) 480 (Iowa x956), noted (1957) 55 Mich. L. Rev. 721.
278 N. W. (2d) 480, 485 (Iowa 1956).
19571 CASE COMMENTS

and to own property in her own right, the majority of the court con-
cluded that the reason for the rule invoked against the wife in the
trial court had been obviated and so the rule itself should be repudi-
ated. While the majority opinion implies that the Iowa Married Wo-
men's Acts may be different from the Acts of other states still adhering
to the general rule, the significance of the difference in regard to the
issue at bar was not explained; and clearly the Iowa statute does not
expressly purport to create any new cause of action in favor of the
wife. The weakness in the majority's reasoning was pointed out by
the dissent, which argued that the Iowa statutes give the wife the right
to sue only if she has a cause of action. The dissenting judges found
the traditional reasons for denying the existence of a cause of action
to be sound, and contended that the majority's ruling would open
"a new door for endless, and... unsound, litigation."3
Prior to this decision in the principal case, there were only three
unimpeached decisions recognizing a wife's cause of action for loss
of consortium in negligence cases, while very strong authority existed
to the contrary. Leading the way in sustaining the cause of action
was Hitaffer v. Argonne Co., 4 decided by the United States Court of
Appeals for the District of Columbia in 195o. Subsequently it was
relied on by a federal district court 5 and a Georgia intermediate court
7
in reaching a similar conclusion. 6 At least twenty-two different states

278 N. IV. (2d) 480, 491 (Iowa 1956).

'183 F. (2d) 811, 23 A. L. R. (2d) 1366 (C. A. D. C., 1950), cert. den., 430 U. S.
852, 71 S. Ct. 80, 95 L. ed. 624 (195o) (Smither & Co., Inc. v. Coles, 242 F. (2d) 220
(C. A. D. C., 1957) overruled the Hitaffer case on a workmen's compensation point,
but the ruling on recovery for consortium was not disturbed). Hipp. v. E. I. Dupont
de Nemours & Co., 182 N. C. 9, 1o8 S. E. 318, 18 A. L. R. 873 (1921) recognized
the wife's right of action, but was overruled by Hinnant v. Tide Water Power Co.,
189 N. C. 120, 120 S. E. 307 (1925). Passalaequa v. Draper, 199 Misc. 827, 1o4 N. Y. S.
(2d) 973 (1951), sustained the wife's cause of action, following the Hitaffer case, but
this decision was reversed without opinion by the Appellate Division in 279 App.
Div. 66o, 107 N. Y. S. (2d) 812 (1951). In Best v. Samuel Fox & Co., [1951] 2 K. B.
639, the court held that no action could be maintained unless plaintiff could show
that all of the elements which make up consortium were destroyed. Two judges
expressed doubt as to whether a wife could maintain an action even for the total
loss of consortium. One judge was of the opinion that the wife was as much en-
titled to recover for the total loss of consortium as the husband.
2
Cooney v. Moomaw, io9 F. Supp. 448 (N. D. Neb. 1953), held that under Ne-
braska law an action could be maintained by the wife for the loss of consortium
of her husband, as long as consideration is given to what the husband recovers,
to prevent a double recovery.
1
Brown v. Georgia-Tennessee Coaches, Inc., 88 Ga. App. 519, 77 S. E. (2d) 24
(1953), quoted in full the opinion of the Hitaffer case on the consortium issue. In
McDade v. West, 8o Ga. App. 481, 56 S. E. (2d) 299 (1949), an evenly divided court
upheld the lower court's denial of the wife's cause of action.
7Jeune v. Del. E. Webb Const. Co., 77 Ariz. 226, 269 P. (2d) 723 (1954); Giggey
326 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

and five federal courts8 have denied the cause of action.

The reasoning contained in the various decisions in support of the
general rule is quite uniform, as is the refutation advanced by the
courts and text authorities advocating the right of a wife to recover.
Both sides recognize that the disabilities of coverture prevented the
wife from suing in her own name at common law, but that this inca-
pacity has largely been removed by the Married Women's Acts. The
general view is that the effect of the statutes in this regard is merely
procedural in that they allow the wife to sue in her own right to en-
force any cause of action which existed in her favor; but since the
wife at common law could not own property independently of her
husband, she had no property right to her husband's consortium, and
therefore, has no cause of action for the loss of consortium." In response,
advocates of the minority view argue that in the Married Women's

v. Gallagher Transp. Co., lol Colo. 258, 72 P. (2d) 1oo (1937); Sobolewski v. German,
32 Del. 540, 127 Ati. 49 (1942); Ripley v. Ewell, 61 S. (2d) 420 (Fla. 1952); McDade v.
West, 8o Ga. App. 481, 56 S.E. (2d) 299 (1949); Patelski v. Snyder, 179 Ill. App. 24
(1913); Brown v. Kistleman, 177 Ind. 692, 98 N. E. 631, 40 L. R. A.(N. S.)236 (1912);
Cravens v. Louisville & N. R., 195 Ky. 257, 242 S. W. 628 (1922); Emerson v. Taylor,
133 Md. 192, 1o4 At. 538, 5 A. L. R. 1o45 (1918); Feneff v. New York Cent. 8-
H. R. R., 203 Mass. 278, 89 N. E. 436, 24 L. R. A. (N. s.) 1024 (199o); Eschenbach
v. Benjamin, 195 Minn. 378, 263 N. W. 154 (1935); Nash v. Mobile & 0. R., 149
Miss. 823, ix6 So. loo, 59 A. L. R. 576 (1928); Bernhardt v. Perry, 276 Mo. 612, 2o8
S. W. 462, 13 A. L. R. 1320 (igi8), writ dism'd, 254 U. S. 662, 41 S. Ct. 63, 65 L.
ed. 464 (1920); Tobiassen v. Polley, 96 N. J. L. 66, 144 Ad. 153 (1921); Landwehr v.
Barbas, 241 App. Div. 769, 270 N. Y. Supp. 534 (1934), aff'd, 270 N. Y. 537, 200
N. E. 306 (1936); Hinnant v. Tide Water Power Co., 189 N. C. 12o, 126 S. E. 307,
37 A. L. R. 889 (1925); Smith v. Nicholas Bldg. Co., 93 Ohio St. 101, 112 N. E. 204,
L. R. A. 19i6E, 700 (1915); Howard v. Verdrigis Valley Electric Co-op, 2oi Okla.
504, 207 P. (2d) 784 (1949); Sheard v. Oregon Electric R., 137 Ore. 341, 2 P. (2d) 916
(1931); Garrett v. Reno Oil Co., 271 S. W. (2d) 764 (Tex. Civ. App. 1954); Ash
v. S. S. Mullen, Inc., 43 Wash. 345, 261 P. (2d) ix8 (1953); Nickel v. Hardware
o
Mutual Casualty Co., 269 Wis. 647, 7 N. W. (2d) 205 (1955).
sFilice v. United States, 217 F. (2d) 515 (C. A. 9 th, 1954); Seymour v. Union News
Co., 217 F. (2d) 168 (C. A. 7th, 1954); Werthan Bag Corp. v. Agnew, 202 F. (2d) 119
(C. A. 6th, 1953); Josewski v. Midland Constructors, Inc., 117 F. Supp. 681 (D. C. S. D.
1953); Fuller v. American Tel. & Tel. Co., 21 F. Supp. 741 (D. C. Mass. 1937), aff'd,
99 F. (2d) 620 (C. C. A. 1st, 1938).
OPatelski v. Snyder, 179 Ill. App. 24 (1913); Cravens v. Louisville 8- N. R., 195
Ky. 257, 242 S. W. 628 (1922); Bernhardt v. Perry, 276 Mo. 612, 2o8 S. W. 462, 13
A. L. R. 1320 (1918) (theory that right to sue for loss of consortium belongs to wife
at common law, but that her remedy was barred, was rejected); Howard v. Verdigris
Valley Electric Co-op., 201 Okla. 5o4, 207 P. (2d) 784, 787 (1949) (despite plaintiff's
argument that action could be maintained under Married Women's Acts, court
held that "whatever additional rights may have been extended to married women
generally under the so-called emancipation statutes, or married women's acts, such
statutes do not confer a new right upon the wife which permits recovery for loss
allegedly resulting from negligent injuries to her husband since no new cause of ac-
tion was created thereby.').
1957] CASE COMMENTS

Acts the legislatures intended to reflect the established changes in the

marital relationship in modern times by giving wives legal rights
equal to those of husbands in respect to their ability to sue and be
sued, to contract, and to own property. Therefore, they contend that
both the capacity to have a property right in the husband's consortium
and to sue for damages for its loss is recognized in the wife by the stat-
ues." The Hitaffer case expressed the view that the wife had had a right
of consortium even prior to the passage of the Married Women's Acts
which, however, she had been unable to protect merely because of her
marital disability to bring suit. Thus, since this disability was pre-
cedural only and was removed by the enactment of the Married Wo-
men's Acts, a wife may now maintain an action for the loss of con-
sortium."
Authorities supporting the general rule declare that the loss to the
wife is too "remote" or "consequential"' 12 to be recoverable. In em-
ploying these ambiguous terms, the courts purport to be referring to
the absence of proximate causation, 13 but there seems to be no inter-
vening factor between the injury to the husband and the loss to the
wife, and the wife's loss is a foreseeable consequence of the infliction
of the injury on the husband. It seems probable that in branding the
loss as remote or consequential the courts are referring either to the

' 5Hitaffer v. Argonne Co., 183 F. (2d) 811, 23 A. L. R. (2d) 1366 (C. A. D. C.,
1950); Cooney v. Moomaw, og F. Supp. 448 (N. D. Neb. 1953); dissent in Bernhardt
v. Perry, 276 Mo. 612, 208 S. W. 462, 470, 13 A. L. R. 1320, 1333 (1918) ("By the
expressed terms of the statute this is a property right, and belongs to her as such
and becomes her sole and separate property. It is therefore a right which is 'af-
fected' by a negligent injury.")
uHitaffer v. Argonne Co., 183 F. (2d) 811 at 816, 23 A. L. R. (2d) 1366 at 1372
(C. A. D. C., 1950).
nFeneff v. New York Cent. & H. R. R., 20o3 Mass. 278, 89 N. E. 436, 24 L. R. A.
(N. S.) 1024 (igog); Gambino v. Manufacturers' Coal and Coke Co., 175 Mo. App.
654, 158 S. W. 77 ('913); Hinnant v. Tide Water Power Co., 189 N. C. 12o, 126 S. E.
307, 310 (1925) [in overruling Hipp v. E.I. Dupont de Nemours & Co., 182 N. C. 9,
108 S. E.318, 18 A. L. R. 873 (1921), the first case allowing the wife to recover for the
loss of consortium resulting from negligent injury to the husband, the court declared:
"Whatever the rights of the husband may have been the wife could not maintain an
action at common law for the loss of consortium; and the prevailing opinion is
that for indirect, remote, or consequential loss she cannot maintain such action since
her emancipation from the former disabilities of married women."].
n3Feneff v. New York Cent. & H. R. R., 2o3 Mass. 278, 89 N. E. 436, 24 L. R. A.
(N.S.)1024 (1909) (where there is no intentional wrong, the ordinary rule of damages
only goes so far as to compensate the person directly injured); Stout v. Kansas
City Terminal Ry., 172 Mo. App. 133, 157 S.W. 1019, 1021 (1913) (losses to the wife
were "not of such nature as to be laid hold of as having its cause in the negligence
which resulted in his injury.").
328 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

danger of double recovery being obtained for the same wrong 4 or to

the difficulties of evaluating the wife's loss in terms of money damages.',
Unquestionably, the amount of the loss is extremely uncertain, and
fixing an award to compensate the wife must necessarily be a specu-
lative process-but the same objection does not prevent the awarding of
damages for pain and suffering or mental anguish in a personal injury
case. The force of the argument that the wife's loss is too remote and
consequential to be compensable is weakened by the fact that even
jurisdictions following the general rule allow a husband to recover
for the loss of consortium resulting from injury to his wife." Further,
the adherents to the general rule allow the wife to recover for loss of
the husband's consortium resulting from an intentional wrong.1 7 In
both of these situations the recovery seems as remote and consequential
as that denied by the general rule.
Many courts reason that the wife may not recover because services
are the dominant factor in consortium,' 8 and she is not entitled to her
husband's services. 19 Authorities favoring the wife's cause of action
consider consortium to include not only services but also comfort, so-
ciety, and conjugal affection, and therefore recovery may be had by the

"E.g., Feneff v. New York Cent. & H. R. R., 203 Mass. 278, 89 N. E. 436 at 437,
24 L. R. A. (N. s.) 1024 at 1o26 (igog). For a discussion of the double recovery argu-
ment against allowing a wife's cause of action for loss of consortium, see text at
notes 24 and 25, infra.
"Landwehr v. Barbas, 241 App. Div. 769, 270 N. Y. Supp. 534, 535 (1934) (wife
had no cause of action against a third party for the loss of opportunity of child-
bearing due to physical injuries of a husband because "There are so many elements
of doubt and conjecture in connection with the birth of children that it cannot be
said that the wrong is the proximate cause of the loss."). See Marri v. Stamford St.
R., 84 Conn. 9, 78 Ad. 582, 587 (1911) (denying recovery to a husband for loss of
consortium resulting from injury to wife: ". .. the law ... has never countenanced
any attempt to measure pecuniarily such a loss...."). See Pound, Individual In-
terests in the Domestic Relations (1916) 14 Mich. L. Rev. 177, 194.
"6Prosser, Torts (2nd ed. 1955) 698 and 701; 27 Am. Jur. ioi and io2. A few courts,
impressed with the fact that the wife is consistently denied a right of action, have
also denied recovery to the husband. Taylor v. S. H. Kress & Co., 136 Kan. 155, 12
P. (2d) 808 (1932); Helmstetler v. Duke Power Co., 224 N. C. 821, 32 S.E. (2d)
611 (1945).
"Root v. Root, 31 F. Supp. 562 (N. D. Cal. 1940) (alienation of affections);
Haynes v. Nowlin, 129 Ind.581, 29 N. E. 389 (1891) (enticement); Clark v. Hill, 69 Mo.
App. 541 (1897) (husband driven insane by defendant's wilful threats); Oppenheim
v. Kridel, 236 N. Y. 156, 14o N. E. 227, 25 A. L. R. 320o (1923) (criminal conversa-
tion); Flandermeyer v. Cooper, 85 Ohio St. 327, 98 N. E.1o2 (1912) (sale of morphine
to plaintiff's husband).
"E.g., Stout v. Kansas City Terminal Ry., 172 Mo. App. 113, 157 S. W. 1019
(1913); Hinnant v. Tide Water Power Co., 189 N. C. 12o, 126 S.E. 307, 37 A. L. R.
889 (1925); Smith v. Nichols Bldg. Co., 93 Ohio St. 1o, 112 N. E. 2o4 (1915).
"9Prosser, Torts (2nd ed. 1955) 691, 703.
19571 CASE COMMENTS

wife for impairment of these rights without showing loss of services. 20

Since the rights of consortium spring from the marriage contract and are
mutual in character, the wife's right to the conjugal affection of her
husband is just as strong as his right to her conjugal affection. Any
interference with these rights of either the husband or the wife is a
violation of a legal right. Since the wrong to the wife is of the same
21
nature as the wrong to the husband, the remedy should be the same.
Even in the majority of states denying the wife her right to sue for
loss of consortium resulting from negligent injury to her husband, she
22
is allowed to recover for intentional interference with consortium.
This seeming inconsistency is explained on the ground that since the
husband is a party to the intentional wrongdoing, he has no cause of
action and so there could be no recovery for the wrong of the third
party unless the wife is allowed to enforce a cause of action. 23 In
negligence cases, on the other hand, the husband may sue for injuries
to himself and to his family, and so there is said to be no justification
for allowing the wife to recover. The answer given to this argument is
that since consortium is a legally protected interest, there should be
no distinction between the right to recover for an intentional and a
24
negligent invasion of consortium.

n"Hitaffer v. Argonne Co., 183 F. (2d) 811, 814, 23 A. L. R. (2d) 1366, 1370
(C. A. D. C., 1950): "Consortium, although it embraces within its ambit of mean-
ing the wife's material services, also includes love, affection, companionship, sexual
relations, etc., all welded into a conceptualistic unity. And, although loss of one or
the other of these elements may be greater in the case of any one of the several
types of invasion from which consortium may be injured, there can be no rational
basis for holding that in negligent invasions suability depends on whether there is
a loss of service. It is not the fact that one or the other of the elements of con-
sortium is injured in a particular invasion that controls the type of action which
may be brought but rather that the consortium as such has been injured at all."
Acuff v. Schmidt, 78 N. W. (2d) 480, 482 (Iowa 1956), was decided on the basis of
the "sentimental version" of consortium, which was defined as: "conjugal fellow-
ship of husband and wife; and the right of each to the company, cooperation, af-
fection and aid of the other in every conjugal relation." This is also the definition
of consortium as set out in Black's Law Dictionary (4th ed. 1951) 382. Prosser, Torts
(2nd ed. 1955) 704: "The loss of 'services' is an outworn fiction, and the wife's
interest in the undisturbed relation with her consort is no less worthy of protection
than that of the husband."
"Bennett v. Bennett, 116 N. Y. 584 at 59o, 23 N. E. 17 at 18; 6 L. R. A. 553 at
556 (1889).
-2See note 17, supra.
-Foot v. Card, 58 Conn. x, 18 Ad. 1027 (1889); Turner v. Heavrin, 182 Ky. 65,
206 S. W. 23 (ig8); dissenting opinion, Acuff v. Schmit, 78 N. W. (2d) 48o at
487 (Iowa 1956); Holbrook, The Change in the Meaning of Consortium (1923) 22
Mich. L. Rev. 1, 6; Kinnaird, Domestic Relations-Right of Wife to Sue for Loss
of Consortium Due to a Negligent Injury to Her Husband (1947) 35 Ky. L. J. 220,
221.
-'Hitaffer v. Argonne Co., 183 F. (2d) 811, 817, 23 A. L. R. (2d) 1363, 1373
330 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

The reason most frequently given for denying the action to the
wife is that to allow her damages for loss of the husband's consortium
would result in double recovery for the same wrong.2 5 "In the first
place, her husband would recover full compensation for all injuries
he sustained, which includes the physical injury done to his person
and the pain and mental anguish suffered, the loss of earning capacity,
doctor's bills, etc., and in addition he would recover for all injuries
to his 'vital organs' and for being incapacitated to care for, associate
with, and protect her, as well as being deprived of his right to consort
with her.... But, notwithstanding this full compensation he is sup-
posed to have recovered and which he must expend upon her for her
proper care, support, maintenance, etc., yet, if she is authorized ...to
recover from the defendant in this action, then she would recover from
the same wrongdoer the damages she had sustained for the same in-
juries her husband had recovered for, and out of which, as before
stated, he is legally bound to support, maintain, and care for her.
This would be double compensation, which... the legislature never
intended." 26 The answer to this contention is that although the
husband may have been compensated for loss of consortium, the wife
is not suing for the same wrong for which the husband was compen-
sated, but rather for a separate and distinct wrong to her, which is not
included in the husband's cause of action.2 7

(C. A. D. C., 1950): "There can be no doubt, therefore, that if a cause of action in
the wife for the loss of consortium from alienation of affections or criminal con-
versation is to be recognized it must be predicated on a legally protected interest. Now
then, may we say that she has a legally protected and hence actionable interest in
her consortium when it is injured from one of these so-called intentional in-
vasions, and yet, when the very same interest is injured by a negligent defendant,
deny her a right of action? It does not seem so to us. Such a result would be
neither legal nor logical."
2Giggey v. Gallagher Transp. Co., 1oi Colo. 258, 72 P. (2d) 1100 (1937); Bern-
hardt v. Perry, 276 Mo. 612, 208 S. W. 462, 13 A. L. R. 132o (1918); Stout v. Kansas
City Terminal Ry., 172 Mo. App. 113, 157 S. W. 1019 (1913); Tobiassen v. Polley,
96 N. J. L. 66, 114 At. 153 (1921); Goldman v. Cohen, 3o Misc. 336, 63 N. Y. Supp.
459 (igoo); Nickel v. Hardware Mutual Casualty Co., 269 Wis. 647, 70 N. W. (2d)
205 (1955); Pound, Individual Interests in the Domestic Relations (1916) 14 Mich.
L. Rev. 177, 194: "The reason for not securing the interest of wife or child in these
cases seems to be that our modes of trial are such and our mode of assessment of
damages by the verdict of a jury is necessarily so crude that if husband and wife
were each allowed to sue, instead of each recovering an exact reparation, each
would be pretty sure to recover what would repair the injury to both."
2"Bernhardt v. Perry, 276 Mo. 612, 2o8 S. W. 462, 466, 13 A. L. R. 132o, 1326 (1918).
TKinnaird, Domestic Relations-Right of Wife to Sue For Loss of Consortium
Due to a Negligent Injury to Her Husband (1947) 35 Ky. L. J. 220, 233: "... there are
two separate and distinct injuries to two different people. Each is substantial. The
person who negligently injures one spouse cannot avoid the result of a loss of
1957] CASE COMMENTS

Perhaps the fundamental reason for the persistent adherence to

the general rule long after the Married Women's Acts have destroyed
its original basis is that the courts doubt that juries are competent
to pass intelligently on such a speculative ground for recovery of dam-
ages. 25 To recognize a wife's cause of action for loss of consortium may
be to open another avenue to fictitious claims and exorbitant awards.
Juries may be swayed too greatly by sympathy for the wife and by venge-
ful feelings against the tort-feasor, and the courts could do little to con-
trol the size of the awards because there could be no definite rules for
evaluating losses of this nature. The frequent characterization of the
wife's loss of consortium as too remote and consequential and the re-
peated emphasis on the danger of double recovery both suggest the ap-
prehension with which the courts view this claim.
Since these are policy considerations, it may be that the answer
should come from legislation which would set maximum recovery limits,
as in wongful death statutes, and revise personal injury litigation pro-
cedures to enable and require a wife to assert her claim for loss of con-
sortium in the same suit with the husband's personal injury claims.

MERRILL C. TRADER

TRUSTS-EFFECr OF RESERVATION OF CONTROL BY DONOR ON VALIDITY

AS INTER Vivos DISPOSITION. [Illinois]

When a property owner dies, his capacity to hold his property

necessarily terminates. Prior to death, he may exercise an affirmative
choice as to his successor by making a will,' but the will is ambula-
tory and thus is of little value if he wishes his disposition to com-
mence to operate at once. 2 In addition, the owner's fear of making a

consortium to the other spouse, this being an injury of prime importance, as con-
sortium is the very essence of marriage. Such an injury should not go without re-
dress of pecuniary reparation to the person so injured."
2Pound, Individual Interests in the Domestic Relations (1916) 14 Mich. L.
Rev. 177, 194.
'The personal property of one who for any reason does not exercise an affirma-
tive choice as to his successor passes under the statute of descent and distribution
of the jurisdiction in which decedent is domiciled at the date of his death; realty
passes under the similar statute of the jurisdiction of the situs of the property.
Goodrich, Conflict of Laws (3rd ed. 1949) §§ 164-165. All American states have such
statutes, but there is great diversity among their provisions. Atkinson, Wills (2nd
ed. 1953) § 14.
"'A will is a revocable unilateral instrument creating no interest whatever until
the death of the testator." 3 Am. Law of Property (1952) § 12.35.
33-2 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

will, his simple neglect to do so, or a distaste for the publicity and ex-
pense incident to probate and administration may operate to dis-
courage or prevent the passing of property by this means. These prob-
lems may be largely solved, however, through the use of an inter vivos
trust in which there is reserved to the donor the income for life, a
power to revoke the instrument, and a measure of control over the
trustee. 3 Although various reservations to the donor of the trust may
contribute to the ease with which relations between the donor and the
trustee may be adjusted, no reservation has any greater significance
than a power to revoke since, so long as the power to revoke is reserved,
4
any lesser power is perforce included.
When such attempted disposition of property by inter vivos trust
is made, it is sometimes attacked after the death of the donor by those
who would benefit were it set aside--e.g., heirs at law, next of kin,
residuary legatees or devisees under a will. The usual ground of attack
is that the disposition was testamentary in nature, that there was no
passage of a present interest (or that such a thin interest passed as to
amount to the same thing), and that because the instrument lacks
the requisite testamentary formalities it is inoperative. Such an attack
was considered by the Illinois Appellate Court in the recent case of
Merchants National Bank of Aurora v. Weinold.5 In that case, the
deceased had made a conveyance in trust to the bank, by the terms of
which she had reserved to herself the income for life, the right to
revoke, the right to amend the instrument, and the right to withdraw
all or a part of the corpus. The deceased had also provided that during
her lifetime and legal competency "the trustee should not exercise any
of the powers granted without first obtaining the written consent of the
settlor." 6 Although the trust instrument was not executed with the
formalities required by the statute of wills, 7 it was a formal, typewritten
3
An owner may of course achieve immediate operative effect by passing his
property by deed, but as the post-conveyancing difficulties of Shakespeare's Lear
convincingly illustrate, men do not often find it comfortable to be stripped of their
property during life.
'It would always be open to the donor of a revocable trust, dissatisfied with
the terms of the instrument or the management of the trustee, to revoke his trust
and to execute another upon the desired terms or with a more compliant trustee.
G138 N. E. (2d) 840 (Ill. App. 1956).
'138 N. E. (2d) 840, 846 (Ill. App. 1956).
7"It is conceded that the trust agreement was not executed ... in such a way as
to satisfy the requirements of the statute on wills ...." 138 N. E. (od) 840, 843
(Ill. App. 1956). The Illinois statute requires every will to be in writing, signed, and
attested in the presence of the testator by two or more credible witnesses. Ill. Stat.
Ann. (Smith-Hurd 1941) c. 3, § 194. The English Statute of Wills, 32 Henry VIII
1957] CASE COMMENTS

document executed by both donor and trustee, giving to the trustee

"the usual powers" and providing that powers reserved to the donor
could be exercised only in writing. Upon acceptance by the bank, it
was assigned a number and was administered by the bank for a number
of years prior to the donor's death.
In an action brought by the bank to obtain a construction of the
trust agreement, subsequent to the death of the donor, the residuary
legatee under the will contended that the trust agreement was testa-
mentary in character and therefore of no effect after the donor's
death. The trial court, accepting this contention, ordered the bank as
trustee to turn over to itself as executor the corpus of the trust to be
administered as part of the estate of the donor.3 But the Illinois Appel-
late Court reversed, holding that the trust instrument was a valid
inter vivos disposition on the ground that the trust instrument did
operate to pass an interest in praesenti, that the donor did not retain
so much ownership as to make the trustee merely her agent, and that,
in any event, "the formality of the transaction here, by which the set-
tlor's intentions were manifested by a written, rather lengthy, trust
agreement, under seal, in a solemn and formal manner.., thus ac-
complishing the substance of the historical purpose of the statute on
wills,-to prevent fraud,-is persuasive as to its validity as an inter
vivos trust.... -"
This conclusion of the Illinois court was undoubtedly in accord
with the law of Illinois, 10 and with the great preponderance of recent
judicial pronouncements upon the point. 1 It has long been settled that

testation is traceable to the provisions of the statute of frauds, 29 Car. II (1677)

c. 3,§ V, passed 137 years later. Atkinson, Wills (2nd ed. 1953) § 3.However, American
statutes on wills have, almost from the first, had provisions quite similar to that
of Illinois. i Page, Wills (3rd ed. 1941) §235.
8138 N. E. (ad) 840, 842 (Ill. App. 1956).
p,138 N. E. (2d) 840, 847 (Ill. App. 1956).
'0Farkas v. Williams, 5 Ill. (ad) 417, 125 N. E.(ad) 600 (1955); Bear v. Millikin
Trust Co., 336 Ill. 366, 68 N. E. 349 (1929); People v. Northern Trust Co., 289 Ill.
475, 124 N. E. 662, 7 A. L. R. 709 (1919); Kelly v. Parker, 181 Ill. 49, 54 N. E. 615
(1899); Massey v. Huntington, 118 Ill. 8o, 7 N. E.269 (1886). Cf. Smith v. Northern
Trust Co., 322 Ill. App. 168, 54 N. E. (2d) 75 (1944) (involving "illusory" trust doc-
trine).
"United Bldg. & Loan Ass'n v. Garrett, 64 F. Supp. 46o (W. D. Ark. 1946);
Keck v. McKinstry, 2o6 Iowa 1121, 221 N. W. 851 (1928); Stouse v. First National
Bank, 245 S. W. (2d) 914, 32 A. L. R. (ad) 1261 (Ky. 1951); Rose v. Rose, 300 Mich.
73, 1 N. W. (ad) 458 (1942); Savings Investment & Trust Co. v. Little, 135 N. J. Eq.
546, 39 A. (2d) 392 (1944); In re Ford's Estate, 279 App. Div. 152, io8 N. Y. S. (ad) 1a2
(1951), aff'd, 304 N. Y. 598, 107 N. E. (ad) 87 (1952); Ridge v. Bright, 244 N. C.
345, 93 S.E.(ad) 607 (1956); In re Sheasley's Trust, 366 Pa. 316, 77 A. (ad) 448
(1951); Talbot v. Talbot, 32 R. 1. 72, 78 Ad. 355 (1911). Contra: Dunham v. Armi-
tage, 97 Colo. 216, 48 P. (ad) 797 (1935). As evidencing the development in this
334 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

neither reservation of a life interest nor reservation of a power of

revocation makes a trust testamentary and that reservation of both
together has no greater effect in that regard.' 2 It is likewise of no avail
to one who would attack such an inter vivos trust as testamentary to
show that the trust was made in lieu of a will or for the purpose of
evading the statute of wills, or that the trust is to be terminated and
distribution to be made at the death of the donor.' 3 Nor will the
courts find, in the ordinary case, that no interest passed, or that the
interest which passed was too attenuated, merely because the donor was
one of the trustees,14 or because the donor retained the right to with-
draw portions or all of the principal. 15
Statements by respected authorities in the field of trusts and much
dicta in the cases may be found, however, to the effect that the reser-
vation of too much control in the donor will make the trustee merely
the agent of the donor 16 and that such agency will, in accordance with
the law of agency, terminate at the death of the donor.' 7 The two

field, cf. McEvoy v. Boston Five Cents Saving Bank, 2oi Mass. 50, 87 N. E. 465
(igog), with National Shawmut Bank v. Joy, 315 Mass. 457, 53 N. E. (2d) 113 (1944).
Cf. Cleveland Trust Co. v. White, 134 Ohio St. 1, 15 N. E. (2d) 627 (1938), with Cen-
tral Trust Co. v. Watt, 139 Ohio St. 50, 38 N. E. (2d) 185 (1941), and Krueger v. Cen-
tral Trust Co., 136 N. E. (2d) 121 (Ohio App. 1956). Cf. i Perry, Trusts (7 th ed. 1929)
12o, with 1 Scott, Trusts (2nd ed. 1956) § 57.1. But although recent years have wit-
nessed increasing acceptance of trusts with substantial reservations of powers,
there are also earlier recognitions of the validity of this method of disposition.
E.g., Van Cott v. Prentice, 104 N. Y. 45, 1o N. E. 257 (1887); 1 Perry, Trusts (7th ed.
1929) §97-
2'1 Scott, Trusts (2nd ed. 1956) 443; 1 Bogert, Trusts and Trustees (1951) 483;
Note (1953) 32 A. L. R. (2d) 127o at 1279.
23United Bldg. & Loan Ass'n v. Garrett, 64 F. Supp. 46o (W. D. Ark. 1946);
Young v. Payne, 283 Ill. 649, 119 N. E. 612 (1918). See cases cited in Note (1953) 32
A. L. R. (2d) 127o at 1273, n. 10.
"United Bldg. & Loan Ass'n v. Garrett, 64 F. Supp. 460 (W. D. Ark. 1946); Farkas
v. Williams, 5 Ill. (2d) 417, 125 N. E. (2d) 6oo (1955); Savings Investment & Trust
Co. v. Little, 135 N. J. Eq. 546, 39 A. (2d) 392 (1944); In re Ford's Estate, 279 App.
Div. 152, 1o8 N. Y. S. (2d) 122 (1951), aff'd 3o4 N. Y. 598, 107 N. E. (2d) 87 (1952).
15Massey v. Huntington, 118 Ill. 8o, 7 N. E. 269 (1886); Stouse v. First National
Bank, 245 S. W. (2d) 914, 32 A. L. R. (2ad) 1261 (Ky. 1951); Krueger v. Central Trust
Co., 136 N. E. (2d) 121 (Ohio App. 1956). See United Bldg. & Loan Ass'n v. Garrett,
64 F. Supp. 460, 464 (W. D. Ark. 1956). There must be a definite corpus or subject
matter of the trust, but the right to withdraw principal does not preclude the
existence of a definite subject matter as of any one point in time. Scott, Trusts and
the Statute of Wills (1930) 43 Harv. L. Rev. 521.
"See Savings Investment & Trust Co. v. Little, 135 N. J. Eq. 546, 39 A. (2d)
392, 395 (1944); In re Ford's Estate, 279 App. Div. 152, io8 N. Y. S. (2d) 122, 125
(1951); 1 Bogert, Trusts and Trustees (1951) 489; 1 Scott, Trusts (2nd ed. 1956) 449
et seq. Cf. Niles, Trusts and Administration (1957) 32 N. Y. U. L. Rev. 433; Note
(1956) 51 Nw. U. L. Rev. 113.
"7Restatement, Agency (1933) §120.
1957] CASE COMMENTS

relations, trust and agency, apparently grew from the same source' s
but one developed in equity and the other in law. As a result there are,
today, differences in the legal incidents which attend the two relation-
ships' 9 but no determinant, save perhaps the intent of the parties, 20
by which a particular arrangement may be recognized as one or the
other. When there is an attempted disposition by inter vivos trust, the
intent of the parties clearly is to create a trust rather than an agency,
and thus it would seem that the factor of intent would require the court
to apply the label "trust." Therefore, since no other determinant may
be found which requires the courts to hold that an attempted dispo-
sition by inter vivos trust is in reality an agency and accordingly fails
upon the death of the donor,21 there must be some basis for the cau-
tion of the authorities which is not to be found in abstract compari-
son of the two relations.
The rather typical statement that "While the courts have been
extremely liberal in construing instruments inter vivos to be valid
deeds and not invalid attempted wills, it is believed that they should
draw a line somewhere," 22 seems less a reason for drawing a distinc-
tion than simply a statement of a feeling that one exists and must be
respected. Examination of the cases in the field suggests that policy
considerationsmark out definite classifications of trusts which fail and
of trusts which will be considered valid inter vivos dispositions and
will operate beyond the death of the maker of the disposition. Thus,
when the effect of the inter vivos trust, if upheld, would be to deprive

S"The germ of agency is hardly to be distinguished from the germ of an-

other institution which in our English law has an eventful future before it, the
'use, trust or confidence'." 2 Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law (1895) 226.
'WBogert, Trusts (3rd ed. 1952) 36. Restatement, Trusts (1935) §8, comments
a. to e., lists five distinctions between agency and trust: (i) a trustee has title; an
agent does not; (2) an agent is subject to control; a trustee is not; (3) an agent
may subject his principal to liabilities; a trustee may not; (4) agency is consensual;
trust need not be; (5) agency is terminable at will or by death of a party; a trust
is not. Accord, i Bogert, Trusts and Trustees (1951) §1S; 1 Scott, Trusts (2nd ed.
1956) §8. But an agent may have title. i Bogert, Trusts and Trustees (1951) 69; 1
Scott, Trusts (2nd ed. 1956) 77.
lHanson v. Wilmington Trust Co., 19 A. (2d) goi at gog (Del. Ch. 1955).
"Whether a relationship of trust or of agency is created depends upon the in-
tention of the parties." i Scott, Trusts (2nd ed. 1956) 77.
2
See note 19, supra. The distinctions listed by the Restatement would seem to be
consequences rather than determinants.
23 Bogert, Trusts and Trustees (1951) 49o. The text treatment given the subject
by both Scott and Bogert gives the impression that each writer is reluctant to
acknowledge that there is not a point at which a transfer in trust becomes too
thin to be permitted to operate after the death of the transferor, but this writer
was able to find in neither work any specific grounds for this reluctance. Cf. quo-
tation from Scott, note 27, infra.
336 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

the spouse of her marital share, there are a number of cases which find
that the whole transaction was "illusory"-that is, that it was a sham
transaction which created merely an agency in the supposed trustee and
that death terminated the relation and brought the property back
into the estate of the donor.23 On the other hand, few cases 24 may be
found in which the trust arrangement has not been upheld when
the party attacking the disposition would, if successful, be merely a
volunteer-e.g., a residuary legatee.2 5 The decisions also indicate, as
does the instant case,26 that the formality of the transaction is to be
considered, 27 presumably for the reason that a requirement of formal-

'Smith v. Northern Trust Co., 322 Il. App. 168, 54 N. E. (2d) 75 (1944); Newman
v. Dore, 275 N. Y. 371, 9 N. E. (2d) 966, 112 A. L. R. 643 (1937); In re Pengelly's Es-
tate, 374 Pa. 358, 97 A. (2d) 844 (1953); Bickers v. Shenandoah Valley Nat. Bank, 197
Va. 145, 88 S. E. (2d) 889 (1955). Cf. Ascher v. Cohen, 131 N. E. (2d) 198 (Mass.
1956) (husband sought to break the trust). See In re Ford's Estate, 279 App. Div.
152, xo8 N. Y. S. (2d) 122, 126 (1951). See Notes (1956) 13 Wash. & Lee L. Rev. 117;
(1945) 157 A. L. R. 1184; (1929) 64 A. L. R. 466. "The law relating to inter vivos
trusts with substantial powers retained by the settlors would probably have been
settled before now if it had not been for the native American solicitude for the
surviving spouse .... Niles, Trusts and Administration (1957) 32 N. Y. U. L. Rev.
433, 434. In Ohio, it has been held that the entire trust does not fail, but that the
trust will be inoperative insofar as it deprives the surviving spouse of her marital
share. Harris v. Harris, 147 Ohio St. 437, 72 N. E. (2d) 378 (1947); Bolles v. Toledo
Trust Co., 144 Ohio St. 195, 58 N. E. (2d) 381 (1944). Pennsylvania has a statute to
the same effect. Pa. Stat. Ann. (Purdon 1956 Supp.) tit. 20, §301.11.
Dispositions by inter vivos trust do not necessarily avoid the burden of estate or
inheritance taxes, or statutes restricting charitable devises or bequests. However,
they may be of some use in accomplishing these purposes. See i Scott, Trusts (2nd
ed. 1956) 473- 475; Note (1956) io Ark. L. Rev. 234.
24For such cases see Note (1953) 32 A. L. R. (2d) 1270, 1298. But see cases cited,
notes io and ii, supra. See Hanson v. Wilmington Trust Co., 1ig A. (2d) 9ol, 911
(Del. Ch. 1955); In re Ford's Estate, 279 App. Div. 152, lo8 N. Y. S. (2d) 122, 127
(1951).
'"Volunteer.... One who holds a title under a voluntary conveyance, i.e. one
made without consideration, good or valuable, to support it." Black's Law Dict. (3rd
ed. 1933) 1823, 1824. "There was no attempt made by the settlor to deprive his broth-
er and sisters, of any part of his estate, for no one of them was entitled by statute to
any portion of it...." In re Ford's Estate, 279 App. Div. 152, io8 N. Y. S. (2d) 122, 127
(1951). In the principal case, a volunteer, the residuary legatee under the will of
the deceased donor, was attacking the trust. Merchants Nat. Bank of Aurora v.
Weinold, 138 N. E. (2d) 840 (Ill. App. 1956).
2'See text at note 9, supra.
"United Bldg. & Loan Ass'n v. Garrett, 64 F. Supp. 46o (W. D. Ark. 1946);
Stouse v. First National Bank, 245 S. W. (2d) 914, 32 A. L. R. (2d) 1261 (Ky. 1951);
In re Sheasley's Trust, 366 Pa. 316, 77 A. (2d) 448 (1951). "In as much as the pur-
pose of the Statute of Wills is to insure the carrying out of the considered wishes
of the testator and to prevent fraudulent claims, it is believed that the decision
[National Shawmut Bank v. Joy, 315 Mass. 457, 53 N. E. (2d) 113 (1944)] is sound
in emphasizing the definiteness in the expression of those wishes rather than making
the validity of the disposition depend upon the mere question of the extent of the
powers conferred upon the trustee." i Scott, Trusts (2nd ed. 1956) 453-
1957] CASE COMMENTS

ity protects the donor himself from an inadvertent disposition or a

forgery.2 S This being the state of the law, it seems that the writers
would more accurately describe the situation were they to note that
the reservation of control will not avoid a transaction of this sort unless
it otherwise contravenes an established public policy. An alteration to
the Restatement of Trusts is even more liberal in that it provides that
this type of disposition is not invalid as being testamentary, even
though there be reserved to the donor "a power to control the trustee
as to the administration of the trust,"2 9 and even though the marital
share of the spouse of the donor be thereby defeated.30
It may be thought that creditors of the donor of an inter vivos trust
in which some incidents of ownership are reserved are prejudiced
because the trust operates as a device whereby the property of their
debtor is placed out of their reach. But the creditors may protect
themselves in a number of ways.31 If such a transfer be made within one
year of bankruptcy, it may be set aside in bankruptcy proceedings. 32
Under the Uniform Fraudulent Conveyances Act and similar legisla-
tion, any such transfer made with intent to defraud may be set aside
apart from bankruptcy. 33 The trustee in bankruptcy may exercise the
donor's power to revoke or any other power which the donor might
have exercised for himself.34 Many states have statutes which may be
applied when the donor is not in bankruptcy, 35 and creditors of the
donor may be able to reach the corpus even at common law.3 6

-St. Louis Union Trust Co. v. Dudley, 162 S. V. (2d) 29o (Mo. App. 1942); Note
(1956) 51 Nw. U. L. Rev. 113. The instrument in the instant case specifically provided
that revocation or other exercise of reserved rights should be in writing. Mer-
chants Nat. Bank of Aurora v. Weinold, 138 N. E. (2d) 84o at 842-843 (1956).
--'Restatement (2nd), Trusts, Tentative Draft No. 4 (1957) §57.
3'Restatement (2nd), Trusts, Tentative Draft No. 4 (1957) §57, comment c.
mSee, generally, 3 Scott, Trusts (2nd ed. 1956) §330.12. For consideration of the
position of creditors of the donor of an inter vivos trust, see also, Gurnett v. Mutual
Life Ins. Co., 356 Ill. 612, 191 N. E. 25o (1934); Rose v. Rose, 3oo Mich. 73, 1 N. W.
(3-d) 458 (1942); Van Cott v. Prentice, 104 N. Y. 45, 1o N. E. 257 (1887).
-23o Stat. 564 (1898) (as amended), ii U. S. C. A. §107 (d) (2) (1953).
39 A U. L. A. (1951) 45, et seq.
113o Stat. 566 (s898) (as amended), ni U. S. C. A. §iio (a) (3) (1953).
-"Where the grantor in a conveyance reserves to himself for his own benefit,
an absolute power of revocation, he is still deemed the absolute owner of the estate
conveyed, so far as the rights of creditors and purchasers are concerned." 9 N. Y.
Consol. Law Serv., Real Property Law (Baker, Voorhis 1951) § 145. See 2 Scott, Trusts
(2nd ed. 1956) 2411-2412, for other similar. statutes.
:'2 Scott, Trusts (2nd ed. 1956) § 58.5 Although such holdings have heretofore
been confined to Totten trusts, it seems that any trust with control reserved might
be similarly treated. "Even though the trust is considered as arising when the deposit
[deed] is made, the depositor [donor] has such complete control over it that the
situation is distinguishable from the ordinary situation where a settlor merely re-
338 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

Thus, it would seem that an inter vivos trust containing the reser-
tions of the instrument of the principal case is not open to any serious
objection for which provision has not been made in the law-creditors
are adequately protected; those to whom the policy of the law gives
a preferred status have been protected by the courts; the donor is
protected by the formality of the trust agreement; volunteers who may
indeed have been hurt are not in a position to complain. When this
type of instrument is encountered in connection with a decedent's
estate, the courts have not been slow to recognize that only by up-
37
holding the trust can the intent of the donor be effectuated.
Although disposition by inter vivos trust may not meet fully all of
the suggested requirements of the property owner,3 8 it is steadily
growing in popularity. 39 Apace with that growth has come judicial
recognition of an instrument which meets the desires of the property
owner by providing him advantages over more time-honored but less
flexible modes of disposition. In upholding the trust in the principal
case, the Illinois court has contributed to this healthy growth of the
law.
JOHN S. STUMP

WILLS-VALIDITY AND SCOPE OF OPERATION OF "No CONTEST" CLAUSE.

[Virginia]
The law sets up various safeguards to avoid a disposition of a de-
cedent's estate under the terms of a purported will which in fact does
not truly reflect the disposing intent of the decedent. But though these

serves a power of revocation. In substance the deposit [corpus] belongs to him as

long as he lives, and it is only just to permit his creditors to reach it." 1 Scott,
Trusts (2nd ed. 1956) 497.
0"We ought not to put the creator of the trust in the attitude of deliberately
nullifying his own evident purpose. That he meant to create an effective trust is
beyond all question; and a construction which makes him destroy in the very effort
to create, should not prevail if there be any other rational interpretation." Van
Cott v. Prentice, 104 N. Y. 45, ,o N. E. 257, 260 (1887).
' 8For an excellent study of the various methods for meeting the requirements
of the donor, see Stephenson, Drafting Wills and Trust Agreements-Administra-
tive Provisions (1952) §15.
3lt has been noted that trust assets of national banks grew from $19.4 billion
in 1947 to $43.1 billion in 1953 to $47-9 billion in 1954. Note (1956) 51 Nw. U. L.
Rev. 113, citing Comptroller of Currency annual reports. The same source notes
that Illinois, the jurisdiction of the instant case, "has long sustained trusts where
the settlor reserves use and control" and that "It may be of signifigance that... the
number and value of living trusts in Illinois far exceed those of any other state."
In 1953, Illinois had 29,705 living trusts "worth $1.2 billion, whereas New York had
4,199 "worth" $.89 billion. Note (1956) 51 Nw. U. L. Rev. 113, 122.
1957] CASE COMMENTS

provisions are designed to prevent fraud, imposition, and mistake, a

testator occasionally tries to neutralize their effect by providing that
any beneficiary of the will who attempts to contest its validity shall
lose his benefits. The courts, recognizing the anomaly of permitting a
testator to discourage his legatees and devisees from asserting the rights
which the law provides for them, have sometimes imposed restrictions
on the operation of these "no contest" clauses.'
Traces of the uncertainty as to the scope of these restrictions were
evidenced in the recent Virginia case of Womble v. Gunter.2 The testa-
tor had left all his property to his ten living children and numerous
grandchildren, with the proviso that any of the legatees or devisees
who contested the will should forfeit all benefits under the will, and
that if all the legatees or devisees should join in a contest, the testa-
tor's entire estate should go to the Christ Episcopal Church of Eastville.
In violation of this "no contest" clause, all of the legatees and devisees
attacked the will on grounds of the testator's mental incompetency,
but the validity of the will was sustained. Subsequently, the execu-
tors brought the present action for a determination of the rights of
all of the interested parties named in the will. Facing a case of first im-
pression in the state, the Supreme Court of Appeals followed the
generally accepted view that "no contest" clauses are valid, and there-
fore held that the contesting legatees and devisees had fortified their
benefits under the will. The controlling principle was stated to be:
"The normal freedom of the owner to dispose of his property as he
sees fit should not be curtailed unless the disposition violates some rule
of law or is against public policy. Where the language is clear and
unambiguous, it is the duty of the court to give force and effect to
the intention expressed by the testator and carry out the objects
desired by him in disposing of his property.' 3 While no ground was

'Moran v. Moran, 144 Iowa 451, 123 N. W. 202, 206 (19o9): "In this country,
however, we find no authority going to the extent of holding that a testator may
not under any circumstances impose upon the acceptance of his bounty a valid con-
dition against attack upon his will by the legatee .... [S]ome courts incline to the
view that such conditions are valid only in cases where the testator names some
third person to receive the legacy in event of a breach of the condition by the
legatee first named. Others sustain all such conditions attached to devises of real
estate, but hold there must be a gift over upon its breach in order to make valid a
condition of the same kind attached to a bequest of personalty. A few courts have
held the condition inoperative where the beneficiary has probable cause for the con-
test of the will, while still others reject all these distinctions as arbitrary, and hold
the condition valid and enforceable in all cases, whether the gift be of realty or
personalty, and without regard to the cause or ground of contest."
-198 Va. 522, 95 S. E. (2d) 213 (1956).
'Vomble v. Gunter, 198 Va. 522, 532, 95 S. E. (2d) 213, 220 (1956).
340 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

found for denying the testator's right to provide for the forfeiture,
this case may be more notable for its dicta than for its actual holding.
The court found it unnecessary to pass on two issues on which sub-
stantial difference of judicial opinion exists: Whether a "no contest"
clause is valid where no gift over is provided for in the event of a
forfeiture resulting from an unsuccessful contest, and whether the
clause should be held inoperative as against a beneficiary who contests
the will in good faith and on probable cause. The existence of a gift
over in the will under consideration made the first question irrelevant,
and the failure of the beneficiaries to raise the second issue in the trial
court rendered it an improper point for decision on appeal, although
4
the court did indulge in a lengthy dictum on the subject.
In the large majority of decisions passing on the validity of "no
contest" provisions in wills, the clauses are upheld. 5 They are
given the effect of conditions subsequent-that is, if one unsuccessfully
contests a will in violation of the condition not to contest, there is a
forfeiture of the interest which was vested in the attacker by operation
of the will.7 Of course, if the will is successfully contested, the condi-
tion falls with the will, and the testator's property passes as though
he had died intestate.8
In the principal case, the Virginia court sanctioned the enforcea-
bility of "no contest" clauses, even to the extent of making the for-
feiture effective against the infant beneficiaries. The argument that
the "no contest" provision should not be enforced against infant bene-

'See Womble v. Gunter, 198 Va. 522, 525-528, 95 S. E. (2d) 21 3 , 216-218 (1956).
These problems are discussed at a later point in this comment.
5Smithsonian Institution v. Meech, 169 U. S. 398, 18 S. Ct. 396, 42 L. ed. 793
(1898); In re Miller, 156 Cal. 119, 103 Pac. 842, 23 L. R. A. (N.S.) 868 (19o9); South
Norwalk Trust Co. v. St. John, 92 Conn. 168, 1o1 Ad. 961 (1917); Rudd v. Searles,
236 Mass. 490, x6o N. E. 882, 58 A. L. R. 1548 (1928); Whitehurst v. Gotwalt, 189
N. C. 577, 127 S. E. 582 (1925); In re Friend's Estate, 2o9 Pa. 442, 58 At. 853, 78
L. R. A. 447 (19o4); Tate v. Camp, 147 Tenn. 137, 245 S. W. 839, 26 A. L. R. 755
(1922).
6Schiffer v. Brenton, 257 Mich. 512, 226 N. W. 253, 254 (1929): "... in the main
the discussions are well nigh unanimous that such conditions in wills are valid
and that they are conditions subsequent and enforceable."
7If there is a gift over, the property which was the subject of the bequest or
devise would naturally go to the person or persons named in the gift over provision;
but if there is no gift over, in those jurisdictions holding a "no contest" provision
enforceable, the property would go into the general residuum of the estate. Brad-
ford v. Bradford, 19 Ohio St. 546, 548, 2 Am. Rep. 419, 421 (1869): "We think, then,
that the court below did not err in holding this condition to be valid, and that
upon its breach the plaintiff's legacy would pass to the general residuary legatees
named in the will, without express words to that effect."
8
Atkinson, Wills (1937) 357.
1957] CASE COMMENTS

ficiaries has been accepted by a New York court, on the ground that it
would be against public policy to bind an infant because the courts are
under a duty to act for infants, and the state should not permit this
duty to be frustrated by a "testamentary paper" imposing a forfeiture
on wards of the courts. 9 However, since, as even the New York Court
recognized, a suit brought by a guardian in the name of and for the
benefit of his ward binds the ward as though he were of full age, the
principal case ruling, based on that premise, may be more sound.10
These views cannot be reconciled, as they approach the problem from
divergent angles; however, following logically the law of infancy, the
Virginia court's reasoning seems preferable. A Kentucky probate court
hit upon an effective means of forestalling a forfeiture against an in-
fant beneficiary by the simple expedient of refusing to allow a contest
to be made by the infant's next friend. This preventive ruling was held
not to be an abuse of the court's discretionary power to control
guardians acting for their wards."
One factor which may result in qualification of the general rule is
the testator's failure to provide for a gift over upon the breach of the
condition. The basis for this qualification seems to be entirely histori-
cal. 1 2 In early English law legacies were enforced in the ecclesiastical
courts and devises in the law courts. Unfortunately, two separate rules
grew up. The ecclesiastical courts followed the civil law rule that a
condition in a will, unless it was accompained by a gift over, was in
terrorem and acted merely as a threat, not as an expression of the in-
tention of the testator to cut off the legatee.' 3 The common law courts,
however, established their own rule that these conditional devises
were valid without regard to the presence of a gift over provision.
This distinction between the law as applied to personalty and realty

OBryant v. Thompson, 59 Hun. 545, 14 N. Y. Supp. 28, appeal dismissed, 128

N. Y. 426, 28 N. E. 522 (1891).
11
Womble v. Gunter, 198 Va. 522 at 530-532, 95 S. E. (2d) 213 at 219-220 (1956).
"-Moorman v. Louisville Trust Co., 181 Ky. 3o, 2o3 S. W. 856 (1918).
FNote (193o) 67 A. L. R. 52 at 60.
"Morris v. Burroughs, 1 Atk. 399, 26 Eng. Rep. 253 at 256 (1937). The in
terrorem doctrine states that when there is no gift over specified in the event of
violation of a "no-contest" provision, the forfeiture provision has the effect only
of a threat and does not work to divest the grantee of his bounty granted under
the will, as it was not the intention of the testator to deprive the legatee of his
interest, but merely to discourage contests. In Rouse v. Branch, 91 S. C. 111, 74
S. E. 133 at 134 (1912), it is stated that various reasons are given for requiring a
gift over. One reason is that it manifests a clear intention that the "no contest"
provision is not a mere threat. Another is that the naming of a devisee over creates
a real interest in that devisee to which the gift attaches.
342 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

is still alive today in some jurisdictions, 14 although the majority of

the courts have repudiated it and apply the common law rule to
testamentary dispositions of both realty and personalty. 15 There ap-
pears to be no reason for the continuance of this distinction, and the
courts still adhering to it are merely clinging to outdated precedent. 10
The principal case, while not passing on this issue, seems to have
rendered the law of Virginia even more uncertain than it had been
previously. The only decision which has been found in point was the
1897 case of Fifield v. Van Wyck's Ex'r, in which the court declared,
seemingly as part of its holding: "It must, therefore, be regarded as
settled that such conditions ["no contest" provisions] are merely in
terrorem, and inoperative, when annexed to bequests of personal estate,
where there is no gift over upon breach of the condition."' 17 However,
in the principal case this statement was rather summarily classified
as mere dictum, and the question was said still to be an open one in
Virginia.' 8 Thereafter, the court noted, with apparent approval, that

"In re Fox, 114 Misc. 368, 186 N. Y. Supp. 257 (1921): In re Arrowsmith, 162
App. Div. 623, 147 N. Y. Supp. ioi6 (1914), aff'd, 213 N. Y. 204, io8 N. E. io88 (1915);
Rouse v. Branch, 91 S.C. 111, 74 S. E. 133 (1912); Fifield v. Van Wyck's Ex'r, 94 Va.
557, 27 S.E. 446, 64 Am. St. Rep. 745 (1897). For general discussion see Note (193o)
67 A. L. R. 59-64.
"Smithsonian Institution v. Meech, 169 U. S. 398, 18 S. Ct. 396, 42 L. ed. 793
(1898); In re Hite's Estate, 155 Cal. 436, ioi Pac. 443, 21 L. R. A. (N. s.) 953 (1909);
South Norwalk Trust Co. v. St. John, 92 Conn. x68, 1o Atl. 961 (1917); Moran v.
Moran, 144 Iowa 451, 123 N. IV. 202 (1909); Bradford v. Bradford, ig Ohio St. 546,
2 Am. Rep. 419 (1869); Atkinson, Wills (1937) 357; 3 Page, Wills (1941) §819.
"Note (193o) 67 A. L. R. 52 at 59.
1794 Va. 557, 563, 27 S.E. 446, 448, 64 Am.St. Rep. 745, 749 (1897).
' 8Womble v. Gunter, 198 Va. 522, 524, 95 S. E. (2d) 213, 2016 (1956). It is be-
lieved that the court in the principal case erred in considering the Fifield state-
ment to be mere dictum. The case of Fifield v. Van Wyck's Ex'r, 94 Va. 557, 27 S.E.
446, 64 Am. St. Rep. 745 (1897), arose when Old, the executor of L. M. Van Wyck,
deceased, asked for construction of various clauses in the will and for determina-
tion of the validity of the residuary bequest. The lower court decreed the residuary
bequest valid. Apparently E. E. Van WVyck, together with other heirs and legatees,
took under the will what was bequeathed to them by its terms, and then Van Wyck
appealed the lower court's decision construing the will. Appellees contended that
the beneficiaries had no right to appeal. One argument made by appellees was
that the beneficiaries, having accepted payment of their gifts under the specific
bequests of the will, were estopped from contesting the residuary clause-i.e., that
they could not take advantage of the beneficial provisions and repudiate the dis-
advantageous provision. The court here ruled that there was no inconsistency in the
actions of appellants, since the residuary clause could be held invalid without affect-
ing the validity of the specific bequests. Appellees also argued that there being a
"no contest" clause, the beneficiaries were estopped from questioning the validity
of the will because they could not first accept the bequests and then later bring a
suit which would make the "no contest" clause operate to cause a forfeiture of those
bequests. The court ruled in answer to this contention that "no contest" clauses are
merely in terrorem and inoperative when annexed to bequests of personalty when
 CASE COMMENTS

"In most jurisdictions the distinction between such a conditional gift

of realty and personalty with no gift over and one with gift over has
been disregarded."' 9
A number of courts impose a much more significant restriction
on the effect of the "no contest" clause by refusing to allow a for-
feiture under the clause as against one who has contested the will in
good faith and on probable cause. 20 The majority of the courts, re-
fusing to make this concession, 21 have reasoned that a will, being
the expression of the intention of the testator, should be construed so
as to reflect that intent. 22 Since he is under no obligation to make any
gifts, it is said that anyone accepting his bounty should be required to
receive it subject to any reasonable condition attached. Further, it
is argued that recognition of this restriction on the effect of the "no

there is no sufficient gift over as in this case. Thus, the "no contest" clause here did
not cause a forfeiture of the bequests and payment of the bequests did not violate
any term of the will. If appellees had only raised the first argument, the court would
not have had to rule on the second, and statements concerning the second ar-
gument would have been mere dictum; but since appellees did raise the scond ar-
gument against the right of appellants to appeal, the court's ruling on it cannot
be considered dictum.
2'Womble v. Gunter, 198 Va. 522, 525, 95 S. E. (2d) 213, 216 (1956).
2,In re Cocklin's Estate, 236 Iowa 98, 17 N. W. (2d) 129, 157 A. L. R. 584 (1945);
In re Estate of Hartz v. Cade, 247 Minn. 362, 77 N. W. (2d) 169 (1956); In re Kirk-
holder's Estate, 171 App. Div. 153, 157 N. Y. Supp. 37 (1916); Ryan v. Wachovia
8
Bank & Trust Co., 235 N. C. 585, 7o S. E. (2d) 53 (1952); Wadsworth v. Brigham,
125 Ore. 428, 259 Pac. 299 (1927); In re Friend's Estate, 20o9 Pa. 442, 58 Ad. 853
(19o); Rouse v. Branch, 91 S. C. 111; 74 S. E. 133 (1912); Tate v. Camp, 147 Tenn.
137, 245 S. W. 839, 26 A. L. R. 755 (1922); In re Chappell's Estate, 127 Wash. 638,
221 Pac. 336 (1923); Dutterer v. Logan, 103 W. Va. 216, 137 S. E. 1, 52 A. L. R.
83 (1927); In re Keenan's Will, 188 Wis. 163, 20o5 N. W. 1001, 42 A. L. R. 836 (1925)-
"Smithsonian Instutition v. Meech, 169 U. S. 398, 18 S. Ct. 396, 42 L. ed. 793
(1898); Donegan v. Wade, 70 Ala. 5o (1881); In re Kitchen, 192 Cal. 384, 220 Pac.
3o, 3o A. L. R. iooS (1923); In re Miller's Estate, 156 Cal. 119, 1o3 Pac. 842, 23
L. R. A. (N.s.) 868 (1909); Moran v. Moran, 144 Iowa 451, 123 N. W. 22o (09o9)
[overruled by In re Cocklin's Estate, 236 Iowa 98, 17 N. W. (2d) 129, 157 A. L. R.
584 (1945)]; Rudd v. Searles, 262 Mass. 490, 16o N. E. 882, 58 A. L. R. 1548 (1928);
Schiffer v. Brenton, 247 Mich. 512, 226 N. W. 253 (1929); Rossi v. Davis, 345 Mo.
362, 133 S. W. (2d) 363, 125 A. L. R. 1111 (1939); Provident Trust Co. v. Osborne,
133 N. J. Eq. 518, 33 A. (2d) 103 (1943); In re Cronin's Will, 143 Misc. 559, 257 N. Y.
Supp. 496 (1932); Bender v. Bateman, 33 Ohio App. 66, 168 N. E. 574 (1929). It is to
be noted that the lower courts of New York have seemingly resolved this question
differently at different times. With the Cronin case, supra, compare In re Kirk-
holder's Estate, 171 App. Div. 153, 157 N. Y. Supp. 37 (1916).
2Smithsonian Institution v. Meech, 169 U. S. 398, 415, 18 S. Ct. 396, 402, 42
L. ed. 793, 8oo (1898): "Experience has shown that often after the death of a testator
unexpected difficulties arise, technical rules of law are found to have been tres-
passed upon, contests are commenced wherein not infrequently are brought to
light matters of private life that ought never to be made public, and in respect to
which the voice of the testator cannot be heard either in explanation or denial, and
as a result the manifest intention of the testator is thwarted."
344 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

contest" clause encourages will contests which frequently engender

family animosities and split family ties asunder.23 The courts have
also reasoned that since the state is not interested in who receives the
benefits under a will, there is no public policy which supports the
recognition of a duty upon an heir to contest a will. 24 Finally, any
rule which increases the likelihood of will contests is said to be in-
25
consistent with the law's abhorrence of litigation.
As appealing as these reasons may be at first glance, they have the
common fault of ignoring the import of the statutes adopted in all
states governing how, by whom, and by what method a will may be
made. The courts should be open to those who have reasonable grounds
for investigating the circumstances surrounding the making of a will to
determine whether it was executed in conformance with these various
statutes. These circumstances must be discovered, if at all, from those
who are closest to the testator and who would be in the best position
to know them. 26 Thus, in the interest of enforcing the public policy as
established by the wills statutes, one contesting a will in good faith
and for probable cause should not be penalized by having his legacy
forfeited in the event his claim is not allowed.27 While the state

'Rudd v. Searles, 262 Mass. 490, i6o N. E.882 at 886, 58 A. L. R. 1548 at 1555
(1928).
'-Cooke v. Turner, 14 Sim. 493, 502, 6o Eng. Rep. 449, 453 (1845): "There is
no duty, either perfect or imperfect, on the part of an heir to contest his ances-
tor's sanity. It matters not to the State whether the land is enjoyed by the heir or
by the devisee...." Also, Rudd v. Searles, 262 Mass. 490, 16o N. E. 882 at 886
(1928); Rossi v. Davis, 345 Mo. 362, 133 S. ,V.(2d) 363 at 372 (1939).
2In re Hite's Estate, 155 Cal. 436, lo Pac. 443 at 444, 21 L. R. A. (N.s.) 953 at
956 (19o9); Schiffer v. Brenton, 247 Mich. 512, 226 N. WV.253 at 255 (1929); 57 Am.
Jur., Wills §1512.
ONote (192o) 7 Va. L. Rev. 64 at 65.
'-Note (1920) 7 Va. L. Rev. 64, 66: "The tendency of this [virtual compelling
to silence those who could bring before the court matters vital to the validity of a
will] would be to suppress material facts, and thus impede the administration of the
law according to its true spirit.... The law guarantees that no instrument shall be
deemed the will of the purported testator until a judicial investigation and de-
termination of such fact be first had. This is the protection of the law to the dead
and to his estate, as well as to the living. From the very nature of the case, the
testator cannot waive or forbid it, or make it the basis for a penalty or forfeiture.
Why, then, should he be allowed to speak through an instrument that cannot be
investigated, for the investigation before a court is virtually forbidden?" In re
Cocklin's Estate, 236 Iowa 98, 17 N. W. (2d) 129, 157 A. L. R. 584 (1949); Rouse v.
Branch, 91 S.C. 111, 74 S. E. 133, 134 (1912): "It is in the interest of the state that
every legal owner should enjoy his estate, and that no citizen should be obstructed,
by the risk of forfeiture, from ascertaining his rights by the law of the land....
[I]t is against the fundamental principles of justice and policy to inhibit a party from
ascertaining his rights by appeal to the tribunals established by the state to settle and
determine conflicting claims." 57 Am. Jur., Wills § 1512.
19571 CASE COMMENTS

may not care who receives the benefits of a will, it is interested in

preventing wills from taking effect unless they were executed in ac-
cordance with the safeguards set up by the legislature to insure that
a will truly expresses the testator's wishes as to the disposition of his
estate. Though the law abhors litigation, the courts should be as read-
ily available to a will contestant as to anyone else who, with substan-
2s
tial reason, honestly believes that his rights are being infringed.
Moreover, refusal to recognize the good faith and probable cause re-
striction on the validity of "no contest" provisions affords a cover to
persons of evil design who seek to make themselves beneficiaries of a
29
will by fraud, undue influence, forgery or other criminal means.
By including a "no contest" clause in an apparently valid will pro-
duced by such illegal means, the wrongdoer may be able to coerce
the legitimate beneficaries not to attack a will which they suspect
to be invalid.30
An intermediate view has been espoused by a few authorities who
favor a more limited qualification to the strict enforcement of forfei-
tures under "no contest" clauses. This view enforces the forfeiture
unless the grounds for contest are those which may be said to be
peculiarly within the ambit of public policy-forgery and the claim of
subsequent revocation by a later will. 31 It is said that the public has an

Ryan v. Wachovia Bank & Trust Co., 235 N. C. 585, 70 S. E. (2d) 853, 856
(1952): "In our opinion, a bonafide inquiry whether a will was procured through
fraud or undue influence, should not be stifled by any prohibition contained in the
instrument itself. In fact, our courts should be as accessible for those who in good
faith and upon probable cause seek to have the genuineness of a purported will
determined, as they are to those who seek to find out the intent of a testator in a
will whose genuineness is not questioned."
- South Norwalk Trust Co. v. St. John, 92 Conn. 168, 1o1 Ad. 961 at 963 (1917).
2
"In Chief Justice Evans' dissenting opinion in Moran v. Moran, 144 Iowa 451,
123 N. W. 202, 208 (19o9), the suppression of facts from the court by the coercive
effect of the "no contest" clause was likened to a lion in the highway of justice.
See dissent in Barry v. American Security & Trust Co., 77 U. S. App. D. C. 351, 135 F.
(2d) 470, 473, 146 A. L. R. 1204, 1208 (1943): "However, I doubt the wisdom of
closing the door completely to contests calculated to reveal the use of fraud, coercion
and undue influence in procuring the execution of wills. It seems to me that public
policy may be well served by keeping the door a little open for some extreme
situations, as where one person or a group of heirs conspire to shut out another;
or, perhaps, to prevent the probate of an earlier will containing a bequest for
charitable purposes. The object of an in terrorem clause may be to protect the
family reputation, but it may be to silence a legatee who, otherwise, would be a
material witness."
*"Restatement, Property (1944) § 428 provides that "no contest" provisions
are valid and enforceable except where the contest is "based upon a claim of forgery
or upon a claim of subsequent revocation by a later will or codicil, provided there
was probable cause for the making of such contest." See Barry v. American Security
&Trust Co., 77 U. S. App. D. C. 351, 135 F. (2d) 47o, 472, 146 A. L. R. 12o4, 1207
346 WASHINGTON AND LEE LAW REVIEW [Vol. XIV

interest in discovering whether the particular will represents the de-

cedent's intention, and more specifically, his last intention, as to the
disposition of his property.32 However, the proper basis for this dis-
tinction seems not to be that these two grounds for contest are more
within the realm of public policy, but rather that the question of good
faith and probable cause of one contesting on these grounds can be
resolved with greater assurance, since forgery and revocation are mat-
ters more susceptible of definite and tangible proof than are such
grounds as lack of testamentary capacity, fraud, or undue influence,
which often turn on more uncertain evidence. Although this view does
not accept the probable cause qualification in its full effect, its advo-
cates nevertheless do recognize the injustice of the strict rule requiring
a forfeiture of any violation of the "no contest" clause.
It must be conceded that adoption of the good faith and probable
cause qualification creates difficult problems of determining whether
the contestants acted in good faith and with probable cause. However,
the difficulty of application of a rule is not a proper ground for reject-
ing one rule in favor of another which is, though easier to apply, more
likely to produce injustice. The Pennsylvania court has provided a
reasonable formula for the determination of close cases: "If it is not
clear, or it is doubtful whether there was probable cause, the will of
the testator should be regarded as supreme, and his direction to
forfeit carried out. A disappointed beneficiary under a will is to be
encouraged to make a contest to set it aside, and when he does so, in
the face of notice from the testator that he shall have nothing if he
attempts to strike down his provisions, he must understand the im-
33
minent risk he runs."
The principal case, while not passing on the problem of good
faith and probable cause as an exception to holding "no contest"
clauses valid, seems to favor the absolute validity rule. While the
probable cause view and the intermediate view were merely stated in
the opinion, the absolute validity rule was discussed at length and a
long list of supporting authority was cited.3 4 Also, the court quoted

(1943): "A contest on the ground of forgery or subsequent revocation neither of

which is here involved, would seem to stand on a different footing from the ordi-
nary contest based on defective execution, mental incapacity or undue influence."
See also In re Bergland's Estate, i8o Cal. 629, 182 Pac. 277, 279, 5 A. L. R. 1363,
1367 (gig); In re Kirkholder's Estate, 171 App. Div. 153, 157 N. Y. Supp. 37, 39
(1916); Rouse v. Branch, 91 S. C. 111, 74 S. E. 133, 135 (1912).
=Restatement, Property (1944) § 428, comment (a).
'SIn re Friend's Estate, 209 Pa. 442, 58 Ad. 853, 855 (1904).
4Womble v. Gunter, x98 Va. 522 at 527, 95 S. E. (2d) 213 at 217 (1956).
1957] CASE COMMENTS

with apparent approval a portion of a Massachusetts decision apply-

ing the absolute validity rule and especially emphasizing as a proper
reason for such a rule the family animosities sometimes engendered
by will contests. 3 5 No other Virginia Court of Appeals case has been
found relating to this specific issue, but a Virginia trial court in a 1955
case declared that the better reasoned decisions hold a "no contest"
clause in a will unenforceable where the contest has been made with
good faith and upon probable cause. 36
DONALD J. CURIuE

3'Womble v. Gunter, 198 Va. 522 at 527, 95 S. E. (2d) 213 at 217 (1956). It was
noted that in the situation giving rise to the principal case, family ties had been
strained to the breaking point.
naParsons v. Beach, Hustings Court of the City of Petersburg, Va., Pollard, J.,
April 1955, reported in 3 Va. Bar News No. 7, p. 5, Aug. 1955- The judge asserted:
"I am firmly of the opinion that this rule will be adopted by the Supreme Court
of Appeals of Virgina when and if the question is presented to the court."