Kiln

A kiln (/kɪln/ or /kɪl/[1]) is a thermally insulated chamber, a type of

oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some
process, such as hardening, drying, or chemical changes. Kilns have
been used for millennia to turn objects made from clay into pottery,
tiles and bricks. Various industries use rotary kilns for pyroprocessing
—to calcinate ores, to calcinate limestone to lime for cement, and to
transform many other materials.

Contents Charcoal kilns, California

Etymology and pronunciation

Uses of kilns
Ceramic kilns
Modern kilns
Wood-drying kiln
Gallery
See also
Notes
References Indian brick kiln
External links

Etymology and pronunciation

The word kiln descends from the Old English cylene (/ˈkylene/),
which was borrowed from the Latin culīna 'kitchen, cooking-stove,
burning-place'. During the Middle English period, the /n/ came to be
silenced in most districts, as evidenced by frequent spellings without
the ⟨n⟩[2], but despite this widespread silencing, kiln became the
standard spelling. The current widespread pronunciation of the ⟨n⟩ is Hops kiln
perhaps a spelling pronunciation.

Uses of kilns
Pit fired pottery was produced for thousands of years before the earliest known kiln, which dates to around 6000 BC,
and was found at the Yarim Tepe site in modern Iraq.[3] Neolithic kilns were able to produce temperatures greater
than 900 °C (1652 °F).[4] Uses include:

Annealing, fusing and deforming glass, or fusing metallic oxide paints to the surface of glass
Heat treatment for metallic workpieces
Ceramics
Brickworks
Melting metal for casting
Calcination of ore in a rotary kiln prior to smelting
Pyrolysis of chemical materials
 Heating limestone with clay in the manufacture of Portland
cement, the Cement kiln
Heating limestone to make quicklime or calcium oxide, the Lime
kiln
Heating gypsum to make plaster of Paris
For cremation (at high temperature)
Drying of tobacco leaves
Drying malted barley for brewing and other fermentations
Drying hops for brewing (known as a hop kiln or oast house)
Drying corn (grain) before grinding or storage, sometimes called
a corn kiln, corn drying kiln.[5]
Drying green lumber so it can be used immediately Farnham Pottery, Wrecclesham, Surrey
Drying wood for use as firewood with the preserved bottle kiln on the right
Heating wood to the point of pyrolysis to produce charcoal of photo

Ceramic kilns
Kilns are an essential part of the manufacture of all ceramics.
Ceramics require high temperatures so chemical and physical
reactions will occur to permanently alter the unfired body. In the case
of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln.
The final characteristics are determined by the composition and
preparation of the clay body and the temperature at which it is fired.
After a first firing, glazes may be used and the ware is fired a second
time to fuse the glaze into the body. A third firing at a lower
temperature may be required to fix overglaze decoration. Modern Catenary arch kiln under construction
kilns often have sophisticated electronic control systems, although
pyrometric devices are often also used.

Clay consists of fine-grained particles that are relatively weak and

porous. Clay is combined with other minerals to create a workable
clay body. The firing process includes sintering. This heats the clay
until the particles partially melt and flow together, creating a strong,
single mass, composed of a glassy phase interspersed with pores and
crystalline material. Through firing, the pores are reduced in size,
causing the material to shrink slightly. This crystalline material
predominantly consists of silicon and aluminium oxides.

An empty, intermittent kiln. This specific

In the broadest terms, there are two types of kilns: intermittent and
example is a "car kiln"; the base is on
continuous, both being an insulated box with a controlled inner
wheels and has been rolled out of the kiln
temperature and atmosphere. —this facilitates loading and unloading
the kiln
A continuous kiln, sometimes called a tunnel kiln, is long with
only the central portion directly heated. From the cool entrance, ware
is slowly moved through the kiln, and its temperature is increased steadily as it approaches the central, hottest part of
the kiln. As it continues through the kiln, the temperature is reduced until the ware exits the kiln nearly at room
temperature. A continuous kiln is energy-efficient, because heat given off during cooling is recycled to pre-heat the
incoming ware. In some designs, the ware is left in one place, while the heating zone moves across it. Kilns in this type
include:

Hoffmann kiln
Bull’s Trench kiln
Habla (Zig-Zag) kiln
 Roller kiln: A special type of kiln, common in tableware and tile manufacture, is the roller-hearth kiln, in which
wares placed on bats are carried through the kiln on rollers.
In the intermittent kiln, the ware is placed inside the kiln, the kiln is closed, and the internal temperature is
increased according to a schedule. After the firing is completed, both the kiln and the ware are cooled. The ware is
removed, the kiln is cleaned and the next cycle begins. Kilns in this type include:[6]

Clamp kiln
Skove kiln
Scotch kiln
Down-Draft kiln
Shuttle Kilns: this is a car-bottom kiln with a door on one or both ends. Burners are positioned top and bottom on
each side, creating a turbulent circular air flow. This type of kiln is generally a multi-car design and is used for
processing whitewares, technical ceramics and refractories in batches. Depending upon the size of ware, shuttle
kilns may be equipped with car-moving devices to transfer fired and unfired ware in and out of the kiln. Shuttle
kilns can be either updraft or downdraft. A Shuttle Kiln derives its name from the fact that kiln cars can enter a
shuttle kiln from either end of the kiln, whereas a tunnel kiln has flow in only one direction.
Kiln technology is very old. Kilns developed from a simple earthen trench filled with pots and fuel pit firing, to modern
methods. One improvement was to build a firing chamber around pots with baffles and a stoking hole. This conserved
heat. A chimney stack improved the air flow or draw of the kiln, thus burning the fuel more completely.

Chinese kiln technology has always been a key factor in the development of Chinese pottery, and until recent centuries
was the most advanced in the world. The Chinese developed kilns capable of firing at around 1,000 °C before 2000 BC.
These were updraft kilns, often built below ground. Two main types of kiln were developed by about 200 AD and
remained in use until modern times. These are the dragon kiln of hilly southern China, usually fuelled by wood, long
and thin and running up a slope, and the horseshoe-shaped mantou kiln of the north Chinese plains, smaller and more
compact. Both could reliably produce the temperatures of up to 1300 °C or more needed for porcelain. In the late
Ming, the egg-shaped kiln or zhenyao was developed at Jingdezhen and mainly used there. This was something of a
compromise between the other types, and offered locations in the firing chamber with a range of firing conditions.[7]

Both Ancient Roman pottery and medieval Chinese pottery could be fired in industrial quantities, with tens of
thousands of pieces in a single firing.[8] Early examples of simpler kilns found in Britain include those that made roof-
tiles during the Roman occupation. These kilns were built up the side of a slope, such that a fire could be lit at the
bottom and the heat would rise up into the kiln.

Traditional kilns include:

Dragon kiln of south China: thin and long, climbing up a hillside. This type spread to the rest of East Asia giving
the Japanese Anagama kiln, arriving via Korea in the 5th century. This kiln usually consists of one long firing
chamber, pierced with smaller ware stacking ports on one side, with a firebox at one end and a flue at the other.
Firing time can vary from one day to several weeks. Traditional anagama kilns are also built on a slope to allow
for a better draft. The Japanese Noborigama kiln is an evolution from Anagama design as a multi-chamber kiln
where wood is stacked from the front firebox at first, then only through the side-stoking holes with the benefit of
having air heated up to 600 °C (1,112 °F) from the front firebox, enabling more efficient firings.

Khmer Kiln: quite similar to the Anagama kiln; however, traditional Khmer Kilns had a flat roof. Chinese, Korean
or Japanese kilns have an arch roof. These types of kiln vary in size and can measure in the tens of meters. The
firing time also varies and can last several days.
Bottle kiln: a type of intermittent kiln, usually coal-fired, formerly used in the firing of pottery; such a kiln was
surrounded by a tall brick hovel or cone, of typical bottle shape. The tableware was enclosed in sealed fireclay
saggars, as the heat and smoke from the fires passed through the oven it would be fired at temperatures up to
1,400 °C (2,552 °F).
Biscuit kiln: The first firing would take place in the biscuit kiln
Glost kiln: The biscuit-ware was glazed and given a second glost firing in the larger glost kilns
Mantou kiln of north China, smaller and more compact than the dragon kiln.
Muffle Kiln: This was used to fire over-glaze decoration, at a temperature under 800 °C (1,472 °F). in these cool
kilns the smoke from the fires passed through flues outside the oven.
Catenary arch kiln: Typically used for the firing of pottery using salt, these by their form (a catenary arch) tend to
retain their shape over repeated heating and cooling cycles, whereas other types require extensive metalwork
 supports.
Sèvres kiln: invented in Sèvres, France, it efficiently generated high-
temperatures 1,240 °C (2,264 °F) to produce waterproof ceramic
bodies and easy-to-obtain glazes. It features a down-draft design that
produces high temperature in shorter time, even with wood-firing.
Bourry box kiln, similar to previous one.

Modern kilns
With the industrial age, kilns were designed to use electricity and more
refined fuels, including natural gas and propane. Many large industrial
pottery kilns use natural gas, as it is generally clean, efficient and easy to
control. Modern kilns can be fitted with computerized controls allowing for
fine adjustments during the firing. A user may choose to control the rate of
temperature climb or ramp, hold or soak the temperature at any given
point, or control the rate of cooling. Both electric and gas kilns are
common for smaller scale production in industry and craft, handmade and During the reconstitution of a
sculptural work. traditional Cambodian kiln at Khmer
Ceramics & fine arts centre in Siem
The temperature of some kilns is controlled by pyrometric cones—devices Reap Cambodia
that begin to melt at specific temperatures.

Modern kilns include:

Retort kiln: a type of kiln which can reach temperatures around 1,500 °C (2,732 °F) for extended periods of time.
Typically, these kilns are used in industrial purposes, and feature movable charging cars which make up the
bottom and door of the kiln.
Electric kilns: kilns operated by electricity were developed in the 20th century, primarily for smaller scale use
such as in schools, universities, and hobby centers. The atmosphere in most designs of electric kiln is rich in
oxygen, as there is no open flame to consume oxygen molecules. However, reducing conditions can be created
with appropriate gas input, or by using saggars in a particular way.
Feller kiln: brought contemporary design to wood firing by re-using unburnt gas from the chimney to heat intake
air before it enters the firebox. This leads to an even shorter firing cycle and less wood consumption. This design
requires external ventilation to prevent the in-chimney radiator from melting, being typically in metal. The result is
a very efficient wood kiln firing one cubic metre of ceramics with one cubic meter of wood.
Microwave assisted firing: this technique combine microwave energy with more conventional energy sources,
such as radiant gas or electric heating, to process ceramic materials to the required high temperatures.
Microwave-assisted firing offers significant economic benefits.
Top-hat kiln: an intermittent kiln of a type sometimes used to fire pottery. The ware is set on a refractory hearth,
or plinth, over which a box-shaped cover is lowered.

Wood-drying kiln
Green wood coming straight from the felled tree has far too high a moisture content to be commercially useful and will
rot, warp and split. Both hardwoods and softwood must be left to dry out until the moisture content is between 18%
and 8%. This can be a long process, or it is speeded up by use of a kiln. A variety of kiln technologies exist today:
conventional, dehumidification, solar, vacuum and radio frequency.

Conventional wood dry kilns[9] are either package-type (side-loader) or track-type (tram)
construction. Most hardwood lumber kilns are side-loader kilns in which fork trucks are used
to load lumber packages into the kiln. Most softwood kilns are track types in which the timber
(US: "lumber") is loaded on kiln/track cars for loading the kiln. Modern high-temperature,
high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry 1-inch-thick (25 mm) green wood in 10
hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green Red Oak requires
about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%.
 Heat is typically introduced via steam running through fin/tube heat exchangers controlled by
on/off pneumatic valves. Humidity is removed by a system of vents, the specific layout of
which are usually particular to a given manufacturer. In general, cool dry air is introduced at
one end of the kiln while warm moist air is expelled at the other. Hardwood conventional
kilns also require the introduction of humidity via either steam spray or cold water misting
systems to keep the relative humidity inside the kiln from dropping too low during the drying
cycle. Fan directions are typically reversed periodically to ensure even drying of larger kiln
charges.

Most softwood kilns operate below 115 °C (239 °F) temperature. Hardwood kiln drying
schedules typically keep the dry bulb temperature below 80 °C (176 °F). Difficult-to-dry
species might not exceed. 60 °C (140 °F)

Dehumidification kilns are similar to other kilns in basic construction and drying times are
usually comparable. Heat comes primarily from an integral dehumidification unit that also
removes humidity. Auxiliary heat is often provided early in the schedule to supplement the
dehumidifier.

Solar kilns are conventional kilns, typically built by hobbyists to keep initial investment costs
low. Heat is provided via solar radiation, while internal air circulation is typically passive.

Vacuum and radio frequency kilns reduce the air pressure to attempt to speed up the
drying process. A variety of these vacuum technologies exist, varying primarily in the method
heat is introduced into the wood charge. Hot water platten vacuum kilns use aluminum
heating plates with the water circulating within as the heat source, and typically operate at
significantly reduced absolute pressure. Discontinuous and SSV (super-heated steam) use
atmosphere pressure to introduce heat into the kiln charge. The entire kiln charge comes up
to full atmospheric pressure, the air in the chamber is then heated and finally a vacuum is
pulled as the charge cools. SSV run at partial-atmospheres, typically around 1/3 of full
atmospheric pressure, in a hybrid of vacuum and conventional kiln technology (SSV kilns are
significantly more popular in Europe where the locally harvested wood is easier to dry than
the North American woods. RF/V (radio frequency + vacuum) kilns use microwave radiation
to heat the kiln charge, and typically have the highest operating cost due to the heat of
vaporization being provided by electricity rather than local fossil fuel or waste wood sources.

The economics of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk,
environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degradation costs. These costs which can be a significant
part of plant costs, involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. Every piece
of equipment from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is part the "drying system". The true costs
of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying.

Kiln dried firewood was pioneered during the 1980s, and was later adopted extensively in Europe due to the economic
and practical benefits of selling wood with a lower moisture content.[10] [11][12]

The total (harmful) air emissions produced by wood kilns, including their heat source, can be significant. Typically, the
higher the temperature at which the kiln operates, the larger the quantity of emissions that are produced (per pound of
water removed). This is especially true in the drying of thin veneers and high-temperature drying of softwoods.

Gallery
Brickmaking kilns, Mekong delta. A wood fired pottery kiln in Hoi An A Catenary Arch kiln used for firing
The cargo boat in the foreground is Vietnam. high temperature electron tube
carrying the rice chaff used as fuel grade aluminium oxide ceramics
for the firing.

A two-story porcelain kiln with CAD representation of a Beehive CAD representation of a Tunnel kiln
furnaces á alandier in Sèvres, Kiln
France circa 1880

A kiln yard with multiple kilns.

See also
Forge
Furnace
List of ovens
Top-lit updraft gasifier

Notes
 1. "Kiln" (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kiln). Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 2016-08-29.
2. "kiln" (http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=kiln). Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership (http://www.oed.com/public/login/logging
in#withyourlibrary) required.)
3. Piotr Bienkowski; Alan Millard (15 April 2010). Dictionary of the Ancient Near East. University of Pennsylvania
Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-8122-2115-2.
4. James E. McClellan III; Harold Dorn. Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=aJgp94zNwNQC). JHU Press; 14 April 2006. ISBN 978-0-8018-8360-6. p. 21.
5. Conran, Sheelagh; et al. (2011). Past Times, Changing Fortunes. Proceedings of a public seminar on
archaeological discoveries on national road schemes. ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE NATIONAL ROADS
AUTHORITY, Monograph Series No.8. Dublin: Transport Infrastructure Ireland. pp. 73–84. ISBN 9780956418050.
6. "Small Scale Brickmaking" (http://collections.infocollections.org/ukedu/uk/d/Jh2385e/9.3.html).
7. Rawson, 364, 369-370; Vainker, 222-223; JP Hayes article from the Grove Dictionary of Art (http://www.novaesiu
m.de/artikel/keramik.htm)
8. Vainker, 222-223; JP Hayes article from the Grove Dictionary of Art (http://www.novaesium.de/artikel/keramik.htm)
9. Rasmussen 1988.
10. Maviglio, S. 1986. From stump to stove in three days. Yankee. 50(12): 95-96 (December).
11. http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplrn/fplrn254.pdf
12. "Important information and facts about our firewood" (https://www.certainlywood.co.uk/facts-and-answers/wood-fa
cts-about-logs). www.certainlywood.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-10-27.

References
Hamer, Frank and Janet. The Potter's Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. A & C Black Publishers, Limited,
London, England, Third Edition 1991. ISBN 0-8122-3112-0.
Smith, Ed. Dry Kiln Design Manual. J.E. Smith Engineering and Consulting, Blooming Grove, Texas. Available for
purchase from author J.E. Smith (http://www.jesmitheng.com/books.html)
M. Kornmann and CTTB, "Clay bricks and roof tiles, manufacturing and properties", Soc. industrie minérale,
Paris,(2007) ISBN 2-9517765-6-X
Rasmussen, E.F. (1988). Forest Products Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture. (ed.). Dry Kiln Operators
Manual. Hardwood Research Council.

External links
Kilns and Firing Structures (http://escholarship.org/uc/item/47x6w6m0) entry in the UCLA Encyclopedia of
Egyptology (http://escholarship.org/uc/nelc_uee)
Information about the history of bottle ovens (kilns) (http://www.stoke.gov.uk/ccm/museums/museum/2006/gladsto
ne-pottery-museum/information-sheets/bottle-ovens.en) from Gladstone Pottery Museum (https://web.archive.org/
web/20060505171147/http://www.stoke.gov.uk/ccm/navigation/leisure/museums/gladstone-pottery-museum/) in
Stoke-on-Trent, UK.
How the Bottle Kiln Works (from thepotteries.org) (http://www.thepotteries.org/bottle_kiln/bottle_kiln_two.htm)

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