MIN205

Fluid Mechanics
 Why study Fluid Mechanics ?
• Covers a very broad spectrum of engineering
problems
– Hydrodynamics
– Hydraulics
– Hydrostatics
– Bio-fluid mechanics
– Aerodynamics
– Gas Dynamics
– Geophysical fluid mechanics
• Hydrology
Bhakra Dam
INS VIRAT
Sail Boats
ONGC Oil Rig
ONGC Oil Rig
Open Channel Flow

Flow in Canals
Aqueduct
 Hydrology

• Irrigation
• Aquifers
• Ground water use and recharge
• Contamination
Movement of fish/birds
Bio-inspired MUAVS
Prosthetic Heart Valve
Trailing Vortices
Turbojet Engine
Wind Farm
 Fluid Mechanics in Sports

Golf Ball

Boomerang
Trans-Alaskan Gas Pipeline
Cyclones (Hurricanes)
Explosion/Fire/Combustion
Fluid Mechanics is Beautiful
 Fluid Mechanics
• Introduction

– Fluid + Mechanics

– What is fluid ?

• How fluids are different from solids

– Mechanics: Statics + Kinematics + Dynamics

 Continuum concepts
– Even smallest fluid element is large enough that
the behavior of individual molecules is
unimportant and bulk properties are reasonable
representation of fluid
– Any property is assumed to vary continuously
from one point to the next within the fluid
Fluid as a Continuum
 Molecular description
• The fluid is viewed as a collection of molecules
• Each molecule is governed by the laws of
dynamics
• Macroscopic phenomena (density, pressure, etc.)
are described through the use of statistical
analysis and probability theory
 Continuum concepts
• The continuum concept is the basis of classical
fluid mechanics.
• Fluid properties such as density, temperature,
velocity, pressure, viscosity etc. are considered
to be continuous function of time and space
• This is called the field representation of the
property
Low density flows/Rarefied flows
– At higher altitudes where the density of air is very
small
– free molecule flow: only a few molecules impact
the surface per unit time
– Space shuttle: free molecular regime begins about
150 km
– When the size of the object is very small
– Flows around the micro-devices
 Low density flows/Rarefied flows
• What is the minimum volume under which the
fluid can be treated as continuum
• Knudsen number, Kn = λ /L,
• Continuum assumption holds if Kn < 0.2.
• for standard atmospheric air λ = 5 × 10-8m
 Consequences
• at low densities the flow velocity at the
surface takes on a finite value. This is called
the velocity slip condition.
• Why aircrafts fly at higher altitudes ?
• What problems will an aircraft have at very
high altitudes ?
 Consequences

• Boeing 777: maximum certification altitude is

43,100 feet
• Cabin Pressure
• Low lift
• No oxygen for combustion
 “A fluid is a substance that deforms
continuously under the action of shear
stress no matter how small the shear
stress may be”
 Stress
• Resistance to deformation
• Solid or liquid when subjected to
surface forces, lead to internal
stresses
• The medium (solid or fluid) must
be continuum
• Stresses may be normal and force normal
component
tangential (Shear)
• Stresses may be positive or
negative
tangential force
component
 Fluids vs. Solids
• Solids: material gets stressed when pulled or
put into shear (tangential stress): finite
deformation
• fluid starts moving under least possible shear
stress.
 Fluids vs. Solids
• Most solids can support both tensile and
compressive normal stresses
• fluid usually supports only compression
(pressure) stresses.
• Most solids also deform continuously
if stress exceeds yield point
• A solid in such a state is
known as “plastic.”
• Shear stresses make fluids to move
• But, fluids can move without the presence of
shear stresses

Forced Vortex
(Solid body rotation)
 Mechanics
• Statics: forces on stationary fluid and contact
surfaces
– Ships, boats, offshore structures
– Dams
• Kinematics: study of motion of fluid
• Dynamics: study of motion of fluid along with
associated forces
 Properties of fluids
• Pressure
• Density
• Viscosity
• Temperature
• Surface Tension
• Continuum: properties are considered to be
continuous function of time and position,

– called field representation of the property

 Vapour Pressure and Cavitation
• Vapor pressure of a pure substance is defined as
the pressure exerted by its vapour in phase
equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature
– Same as saturation pressure Psat of liquid
• In liquid-flow systems pressure drops below vapor
pressure
– Tip of impellers or suction sides of pumps
– Vaporization: vapour bubbles (called cavitation
bubbles)
– form “cavities” in the liquid: collapse as they are swept
away from the low pressure regions,
– generating highly destructive, high-pressure waves.
– erosion of impeller blades
 Density
• Density is defined as mass per unit volume
– depends on temperature and pressure.
– Specific gravity- density defined relative to density of a
well-known substance (water at 4°C—1000 kg/m3)
• Gases
– proportional to p and inversely proportional to T
– Ideal gas law
• Liquids and solids
– essentially incompressible under normal conditions
• Under extreme pressure conditions
– Gases deviate from ideal gas, solid and liquid compress
– Formation of artificial diamonds by compression
 Pressure

• Pressure is a stress. It is a scalar given by

the magnitude of the force per unit area
• Pressure is transmitted through the fluid.
Uniformly at every point
 Pressure
• Pressure is a stress. It is a scalar given by the
magnitude of the force per unit area
• Pressure is transmitted through the fluid.
Uniformly at every point
• The transmission does not occur instantaneously
• Rate depends on speed of sound in the medium
and shape of the container
• Imagine a pressure measuring gauge connected
to a vessel through a long pipe: and you pump
more air into vessel.
 Pressure
• pA= pg+pa
• Absolute (pA), gauge (pg), atmospheric
pressure (pa)
 Pressure
• pA= pg+pa
• Absolute (pA), gauge (pg), atmospheric
pressure (pa)
•The term vacuum indicates that the absolute
pressure is less than the atmospheric pressure
and that the gauge pressure is negative
 Pressure Chart
N/m2 (Pascal) Bar Special
Units
Atmosphere 1.01325x105 1.01325 1 std atm
(sea level)
Blood Pressure pressure exerted 15598.6 0.159 120/90
by circulating /11999.0 /0.1199 mmHg
blood upon the gauge
walls of blood
vessels
Mt. Everest 38210 0.3821
At an elevation of 1.87 x104 0.187
40,000 ft
Submarines maximum depth 107 100

LPG cylinder 6-7

 Issues with abnormal pressure
• Above 3,000 m above sea level, crew and
passengers are at risk of a number of
physiological problem
• Pressure inside a Boeing 767's is typically
maintained at 6,900 feet (2,100 m)
• Why not at sea level conditions ?
 Measuring pressures
• Barometers
• Manometers
• Piezometers
• Bourdan Gauge
Pressure Measuring Devices
 Atmospheric Pressure
• Measured by Barometers
• weight of air above the
measurement point. Low-pressure
areas have less atmospheric mass
above their location
• The atmospheric pressure does not
vary uniformly with altitude.
It changes very rapidly.
 Atmospheric Pressure
• Mercury is employed:
– high density: short column
– small vapor pressure: near-vacuum
(Torricellian vacuum)
• Tube diameter should not be very
small > 15 mm
• If water is used
– column height = 10.4 m with a
perfect vacuum
– vapor pressure of water, 180 mm
lesser at 15 0C
 Differential Pressure
Manometers
• measure the difference in
pressure between two
points.
• contains a liquid: immiscible
and of greater density.
• Within a continuous expanse
of the same fluid pressure is
same at any two points in
horizontal plane
 Modifications
Manometers
• one limb of the ‘U’ very much
greater in cross-section than the
other. movement of liquid in
wider limb is negligible; height
of meniscus in only narrow
limb need be measured
• inclined manometer: If θ is
small, magnification of
movement of meniscus
• large pressure differences:
number of U-tube manometers
connected in series.
• small pressures differences:
inverted U-tube manometer
 Piezometer
• Piezometer is simplest form of manometer
• Gas pressures cannot be measured with
piezometers, because gas forms no free
surface
 Viscosity
• The viscosity of a fluid is that property of the
liquid, which resists the action of a shear
force.
• Leads to the formation of boundary layer
• Viscosity is measured with various types of
viscometers and rheometers
• Inviscid fluid (ideal fluid): shear viscosity is zero.
• inviscid flow (shear stress is zero )
• many exact solutions known for inviscid flow
• It depends upon the combined effect of
molecular activity and cohesion
• What is the effect of temperature on viscosity?
 Viscosity
• Gases: effect of cohesion is small,
– increase as temperature rises
 Viscosity
• Gases: effect of cohesion is small,
– increase as temperature rises
• Liquids: greater cohesion than molecular
activity
– the viscosity decreases as temperature rises.
– As pressure increases the relative movement of
molecules requires more energy hence viscosity
increases.
 Consequences
• Shear viscosity leads to loss of energy. This frictional
energy loss is referred to as viscous dissipation.
• Dissipated energy is converted into heat and
increases the internal energy of the fluid
 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

• In a solid shear strain is constant for a fixed

shear stress
• In a fluid shear strain increases for as long as
stress is applied
• The rate of shear strain is directly proportional
to the shear stress
• Shear strain:
 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

• constant of proportionality is known as the

dynamic viscosity

• kinematic viscosity
 Newton’s Law of Viscosity
• All fluid following this law are called
Newtonian fluids
• True for most gases and many liquids
• the stress is zero when there is no relative
motion between adjoining layers
 Types of fluids
• Not same as types of flow