CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR THEORY

2.1 INTRODUC1·ION

Chapter 1 provided an overview of the area of research for this study, by

identifying, among others, the objectives of the study together with the

importance attributed to the study.

This chapter will focus on the area of consumer behaviour by first considering a

number of human behavioural models and the commonalities thereof with

consumer behaviour, impacting the marketing field of study. Once the human

behavioural models have been addressed, the chapter will focus on models of

consumer behaviour.

Section 2.2 of this chapter will provide an overview of consumer behaviour,

followed by models of human behaviour in Section 2.3. Section 2.4 will represent

the main discussion of Chapter 2 by focusing on the definition, purpose and

value of models of consumer behaviour. The chapter will be concluded with a

short summary in Section 2.5.

It is important to note that this chapter will provide an overview of consumer

behaviour theory and that an Internet perspective on consumer behaviour, and

more specifically consumer decision-making, will be provided in Chapter 4.

2.2 AN OVERVIEW OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

This section focuses on the consumer behaviour field of study and will explore

the origin of a consumer focus in marketing. Since the term "consumer" will be

used and quoted from all the sources consulted in this chapter, it is important to

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first define the term "consumer". Walters (1974: 4) provides such a definition by

stating that "A consumer is an individual who purchases, has the capacity to

purchase, goods and services offered for sale by marketing institutions in order

to satisfy personal or household needs, wants, or desires."

As will be noted from the definition above, referral is made to an individual.

Therefore, one should first focus on human behaviour, since consumer

behaviour, according to Walters (1974: 6), represents a subset of human

behaviour (discussed in Section 2.3). Human behaviour, therefore, " ... refers to

the total process whereby the individual interacts with his environment" (Walters

1974: 6).

Human behaviour encompasses every thought, feeling or action by people. This

implies that every thought, motive, sensation and decision that is made every

day, is classified as human behaviour. Belch & Belch (1990: 91) provide a link

between human behaviour and consumer behaviour, by stating that consumer

behaviour has been defined as the study of human behaviour in a consumer role.

Consumer behaviour, according to Walters (1974: 6), represents specific types of

human actions, namely those concerned with the purchase of products and

services from marketing organisations.

Having defined human behaviour and accepted that consumer behaviour is

founded in human behaviour, the focus in Section 2.2.1 will be on consumer

behaviour.

2.2.1 Defining consumer behaviour

Walters (1974: 7) defines consumer behaviour as: " ... the process whereby

individuals decide whether, what, when, where, how, and from whom to purchase

goods and services."

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Mowen (1993: 6) provides a different definition by explaining consumer

behaviour as: "... the study of the buying units and the exchange processes

involved in acquiring, consuming, and disposing of goods, services, experiences,

and ideas". This definition focuses on buying units in an attempt to include not

only the individual but also groups that purchase products or services.

Schiffman & Kanuk (1997: 648) define consumer behaviour as: "The behavior

that consumers display in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating, and

disposing of products, services, and ideas." Schiffman & Kanuk (1997: 6-7)

elaborate on the definition by explaining that consumer behaviour is, therefore,

the study of how individuals make decisions to spend their available resources

(time, money, effort) on consumption-related items. It includes the study of what,

why, when, where and how often they purchase and how they use the purchased

product. In addition, it encompasses all the behaviours that consumers display in

searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of products and

services that they expect will satiSfy their needs.

According to Schiffman & Kanuk (1997: 6-7), two different types of consumers

can be distinguished, namely personal and organisational consumers. Personal

consumers purchase products and services for personal or household use or as

a gift to someone else. Personal consumers, therefore, purchase for final

consumption. Organisational consumers on the other hand purchase products

and services to run an organisation, including profitable and non-profitable

organisations, government organisations and institutions.

This chapter and this study will focus on the individual, personal consumer, who

purchases products or services for personal and family use.

A final definition of consumer behaviour, by Engel, Blackwell & Miniard (1990: G

4), states that: "those actions directly involved in obtaining, consuming, and

disposing of products and services, including the decision processes that

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precede and follow these actions". More recent descriptions or definitions (which

in essence do not differ from the above) can be found in Arnould, Price &

Zinkhan (2002: 5) and Peter & Olson (2002: 6).

The definitions provided above should provide sufficient clarity on the concept of

consumer behaviour. Section 2.2.2 will provide greater clarity on the origin and

importance of consumer behaviour, especially from a marketing point of view.

2.2.2 The origin and importance of consumer behaviour

According to Engel et al. (1990: 22) and Schiffman & Kanuk (1997: 8), consumer

behaviour is regarded as a relatively new field of study with no historical body of

research of its own. The concepts of the development, therefore, were heavily
and sometimes indiscriminately borrowed from other scientific disciplines, such

as psychology (the study of the individual), sociology (the study of groups), social

psychology (the study of how individuals operate in groups), anthropology (the

influence of society on the individual) and economics.

From a marketing perspective, consumer behaviour most probably became an

important field of study with the development of the so-called marketing concept.

Assael (1995: 5) emphasises the influence of the marketing concept in marketing

by stating that, according to the marketing concept, marketers first need to define

bene"fits sought by consumers in the marketplace, followed by the drafting of

marketing plans supporting the needs of consumers.

The marketing concept was formulated during the 1950s and although it seems

logical, marketers never considered the concept thereof earlier. Assael (1995: 8)

provides two reasons why marketers did not use the concept earlier. The first is

that marketing institutions were not sufficiently developed to accept the marketing

concept prior to the 1950s. Advertising and distribution were geared for the

mass production and mass marketing strategies of that time. The

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Chapter 2

implementation of the marketing concept requires diverse facilities for the

promotion and distribution of products that will meet the needs of small, diverse

market segments. The production and marketing focus before the 1950s was

therefore concerned with economies of scale.

The second reason for not pursuing the marketing concept prior to the 1950s can

be attributed to the lack of a need to do so. The effects of the Depression

resulted in very little spending power of consumers, attributing to the lack of

interest in consumer behaviour. The Second World War, immediately after the

Depression, contributed to the lack of interest in consumer behaviour since

product scarcities were the order of the day. With the lack of competitive

pressure, manufacturers could sell whatever products they manufactured. The

marketing approach for this era, according to Schiffman & Kanuk (1997: 10), is

called a production orientation, where consumers purchased what was available,

rather than waiting for what they wanted.

The production orientation was followed by a selling orientation, where marketers

attempted to sell products that they unilaterally decided to produce. The

assumption of this orientation, according to Schiffman & Kanuk (1997: 10), was

that consumers were not willing to purchase products, unless they were actively

and aggressively persuaded to do so. The selling orientation did not consider

consumer satisfaction, leading consumers to communicate negatively regarding

the product by means of word-of-mouth if they were not satisfied with it.

In the early 1950s marketers realised that they could sell more products more

easily by offering products to those consumers they assumed would purchase

them. Through this approach, organisations considered consumer needs and

wants, leading to the formulation of the marketing concept.

As can be seen from a historical perspective, it is important for any organisation

to acknowledge consumer needs as a key to success for both survival and profit

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generation in a modern economy with multiple products per competitor and

multiple competing distribution points.

The importance of understanding consumer behaviour can most probably be

summarised in a simple, yet powerful, statement by Assael (1995: 3):

"Consumers determine the sales and profits of a firm by their purchasing

decisions. As such, their motives and actions determine the economic viability of

the firm".

To be a successful seller of products and services (as can be concluded from the

statement above), organisations need to understand consumer needs and

behaviour and draft their marketing strategies to incorporate such behavioural

needs of consumers.

Section 2.2 provided an insight into the consumer behaviour field of study.

Before addressing models of consumer behaviour in Section 2.4 (insight to the

factors influencing consumers in the purchase process), models of human

behaviour will be discussed in Section 2.3, providing greater clarity regarding the

way in which human beings behave.

2.3 MODELS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

According to Kotler (in Gould, 1979: 33), it is an extremely difficult task to

uncover the reasons why people buy, as they are subject to many influences.

One reason is that humans are greatly influenced by their psyche, which

eventually leads to overt purchase responses.

Runyon & Stewart (19B7: 694-695) explain the theory of human behaviour by
stating that it represents the beliefs held regarding the nature of human beings as

well as the causes of their behaviour. Human beings can therefore be viewed

from many perspectives. If, for instance, human beings are viewed from an

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economic perspective, marketers may attempt to influence them with economic

incentives. If, however, viewed from a social theory perspective, marketers may

attempt to influence people through appeals to group norms, references and

values.

According to Runyon & Stewart (1987: 695), in discussing models of human

behaviour, it is important to note that the models proposed are viewed as being

an incomplete description of human beings, where different models may be

appropriate for different marketing situations. Despite the above view, models of

human behaviour provide valuable input to consumer behaviour, since they

attempt to provide insights into why human beings, and therefore consumers,

rationalise purchase decisions.

To provide a clearer understanding of human behaviour, four models will be

discussed together with marketing applications based on the findings of Kotler (in

Gould, 1979: 34-46). The models of human behaviour discussed below are the

Marshallian economic model, the Pavlovian learning model, the Freudian

psychoanalytical model and the Veblenian social-psychological model. In

addition to these four models, the theory of Maslow's hierarchy of needs will be
discussed to provide a perspective on the importance of understanding the

influence of needs and motivation on consumer behaviour.

2.3.1 The Marshallian economic model

According to the Marshallian economic model, individual buyers will spend their

income on goods that will offer the greatest satisfaction, depending on their taste

and the relative prices of goods.

The antecedents for the Marshallian theory can be traced back to both Adam

Smith and Jeremy Bentham. In accordance with a doctrine of economic growth

developed by Smith, man is said to be motivated in all his actions by self-interest.

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Chapter 2

Bentham, who viewed man as carefully calculating and weighing expected pains

and pleasures of every contemplated action, refined this view. By the time Bentham's theory was
applied to consumer behaviour late in the 19th century, the

"marginal-utility" theory of value was formulated independently and almost

simultaneously by Walras in Switzerland, Menger in Australia and Jevons and

Marshall in England (Kotler, in Gould; 1979: 35).

The theoretical work of Alfred Marshall, who was the consolidator of the classical

and neo-classical tradition in economics aimed at realism, is founded in his

method to examine the effect of change in a single variable, for example price,

when all other variables were held constant, based on simplified assumptions. In

the quest for greater realism, Marshall "reasoned out" consequences of the

provisional assumptions and modified his assumptions in subsequent steps.

Marshall's methods and assumptions have been refined to the Modern Utility

Theory, where the economic man maximises his utility and does this by carefully

calculating the ''felicific'' consequences of any purchase. Runyon & Stewart

(1987: 695) add to the discussion by stating that Marshall used money as the

common denominator of psychological needs, where the value of satisfying a

specific need could be equated and compared with other needs in terms of cost.

Marketing applications of the Marshallian model

The value of the Marshallian model for the purposes of behavioural science can

be viewed from a number of different viewpoints (Kotler, in Gould; 1979: 35-36).

One point of view is that the model is tautological and therefore neither true nor

false. The model is also not very informative because it simply portrays the buyer

as acting in his best interest.

A second view is that the model provides logical norms for buyers who want to

be "rational", therefore it is a normative rather than a descriptive model of

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behaviour. The consumer is not likely to employ an economic analysis for all

purchases, but is rather selective in using an economic theory. A consumer may

therefore not use the economic principles for choosing between two low-cost

products but may apply an economic analysis when deciding to purchase a new

house or car.

A third view is that economic factors should be included in any comprehensive

description of buying behaviour, since economic factors operate, to a greater or

lesser extent, in all markets.

The Marshallian model provides a number of useful behavioural hypotheses.

The first hypothesis offered is that the lower the price of a product, the greater

the sales will be for that product. A second hypothesis is that the lower the price

of a substitute product is than that of a specific product, the greater the sales of

the substitute product will be.

Third, the sales of a product will be higher, provided it is not an inferior product, if

the real income is higher. The last hypothesis states that greater volumes of

sales will follow as promotional expenditure is increased.

It should be noted that these hypotheses are intended to describe the average

effect and do not attempt to class all individuals' actions as continuously

calculating the economic impact during purchase decisions.

As a final comment to the Marshallian model, it can be concluded that economic

factors alone cannot explain all variations in the sales and buying process and

also that the fundamentals of how brand and product preferences are formed are

ignored in this theory. The model offers a useful frame of reference for analysing

only a small portion of the consumer's psyche.

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2.3.2 The Veblen ian social-psychological model

The Veblen ian social-psychological model of human behaviour is based on the

findings of Thorstein Veblen, who received his training as an orthodox economist

and evolved as a social thinker through the influence of the science of social

anthropology.

According to this model, man is perceived to be a so-called "social animal",

where man conforms to norms of its larger culture and to more specific standards

of subcultures and face-to-face groups in which humans operate (Kotler, in

Gould; 1979: 41). In essence this implies that human behaviour and needs are

moulded by present group memberships.

Based on the theory of the model, Veblen hypothesised that, for the so-called

leisure class, a great portion of economic consumption is influenced and

motivated by prestige seeking and not on needs or satisfaction. Veblen placed

specific emphasis on emulative factors that would influence people when

purchasing conspicuous products, for example cars and houses or even less

expensive items, such as clothes.

The model is criticised as it is perceived by more modern perspectives to be

overstated. For example, not all people consider the leisure class to be a frame

of reference and many people aspire to the social class immediately above their

current social class. In addition to the above, more affluent people of the society

would rather underspend than overspend on conspicuous items since they would

rather "fit in" than "stand out".

A final comment on the model is that although Veblen was not the first

investigator to comment on the influence of social class on human behaviour, the

incisive quality of his observations inspired further investigations.

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Marketing applications of the Veblenian model

The importance of the Veblen ian model, according to Kotler (in Gould, 1979:

42), to the marketer is that, in order to determine the demand for products, the

most important social influences impacting on such product demands should be

determined. Important for the marketer to consider is the impact of different

social influences, which include social class, subculture, reference groups and

face-to-face groups.

2.3.3 The Pavlovian learning model

The well-known Pavlovian theory of learning has its origin in the experiments of

the Russian psychologist, Pavlov, who conducted his experiments by ringing a

bell each time before feeding a dog. Pavlov soon discovered that he could

induce the dog to salivate by ringing the bell regardless of whether or not food

was offered to the dog. From this experiment, Pavlov could conclude that

learning occurred due to a process of association and that a large component of

human behaviour was conditioned in this way.

Experimental psychologists, focusing on rats and other animals and eventually

human beings, continued Pavlov's mode of research. The objective of laboratory

experiments was to explore phenomena such as learning, forgetting and the

ability to discriminate. The result of the research led to a stimulus-response

model of human behaviour, based on four central concepts, namely drive, cue,

response and reinforcement. Before briefly discussing these concepts, it should

be mentioned that O'Shaughnessy (1992: 116) explains that according to

Pavlovian theory, also called classical conditioning, there has to be a connection

between some stimulus and a true reflex reaction.

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The four central concepts of the Pavlovian theory are briefly discussed below.

a) Drive: In the Pavlovian learning model, drive, also referred to as "needs"

or "motives", implies strong stimuli internal to the individual, which activate

action. Two types of drives are distinguished by psychologists, namely

primary physiological and learned drives. Primary physiological drives

refer to basic individual factors, such as hunger, thirst, pain, cold and sex.

Learned drives, which are derived socially, include factors such as COM

operation, fear and acquisitiveness.

b) Cue: According to the model, a drive is very general and a particular

response is impelled only in relation to a particular configuration of cues.

Cues are furthermore perceived as weaker stimuli in the individual and the

environment and will determine where, when, and how a subject

responds. As an example, an advertisement for coffee may act as a cue,

which stimulates the thirst drive. The response will be influenced by this

cue as well as other cues, for example time of day and availability of other

thirst-quenchers.

c) Response: Response implies the reaction to the configuration of the

cues. It should, however, be noted that the exact configuration of cues will
not necessarily generate the same response. The same response

depends on the degree to which the experience was rewarding.

d) Reinforcement: A rewarding experience will result in the reinforcement

of a particular response. It is therefore implied that the tendency is formed

where the same response will be repeated when the same configuration of

cues appears. If, however, a learned response or habit is not reinforced,

the habit may eventually be extinguished, since the strength of the habit

decreases.

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Important to note is that, in contrast to extinction, forgetting occurs when learned

associations weaken due to non-use and not because of the lack of

reinforcement.

Marketing applications of the Pavlovian model

The Pavlovian model makes no claim to provide a complete theory of consumer

behaviour due to the omission of interpersonal influences, perception and the

subconscious influences considered to be important phenomena. The model

does, however, contribute to marketing by providing insights to the marketer

concerning consumer behaviour and advertising strategy.

An example of the usefulness of the model for the marketer would be the

introduction of a new brand into a highly competitive market. The organisation

may attempt to form new habits for its new brand by extinguishing existing brand
habits. A challenge to the organisation will be to persuade consumers to try the

new brand by deciding between using strong and weak cues. Although strong

cues, for example samples of the product, may be the more expensive

alternative, it often is the desired approach to target markets characterised by

high brand loyalties. Also of importance, considering the reinforcing component

of the model, is that sufficient quality should be built into the brand to create a

positive experience. In addition to the above, it may be useful to determine the

most effective cues in leading brands.

The second area in which the Pavlovian model offers insight, according to Kotler

(in Gould, 1979: 38), is in the form of guidance for advertising strategy. The

model emphasises the repetition in advertising since a single exposure is very

likely to be a weak cue, hardly able to sufficiently arouse the individual's

consciousness to inspire the drive as discussed in the model. Repetition in

advertising also has two desirable effects (Kotler, in Gould; 1979: 38). Repetition

(or frequency of association, according to Belch & Belch, 2001: 125) firstly

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combats forgetting and secondly provides reinforcement since the consumer

becomes selectively exposed to advertisements of the product after purchase.

As closure to the value of the model offered to marketing, guidance is provided to

advertising copy, since in order to be effective, an advertisement should arouse

strong drives in a person. Marketers should therefore identify the strongest

product-related drives, for example hunger may be identified for candy bars and
status for motor vehicles.

2.3.4 The Freudian psychoanalytical model

The well-known Freudian model of human behaviour, according to Kotler (in Gould, 1979: 39), is
regarded to have a profound impact on 20th century thought,

although it is labelled as being the latest in a series of philosophical "blows" to

which man has been exposed in the past 500 years. Freud attacked the idea

that man reigned over his own psyche, whereas preceding philosophical views

by Copernicus and Darwin respectively destroyed the view that man was at the

centre of the universe and opposed the idea that man was considered a special

creation.

Kotler (2000: 172) summarises the theory by stating that Freud assumed that

the psychological forces shaping people's behaviour are largely unconscious,

resulting in people not being able to fully understand their own motivations.

Kotler (in Gould, 1979: 39) provides more detail on Freudian theory by explaining

that, according to the theory, the child enters the world driven by instinctual

needs that cannot be satisfied by itself. The child quickly and painfully realises

its detachment from the world and at the same time its dependence on it.

Through blatant means, including supplication and intimidation, the child

attempts to use others to satisfy its needs.

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Freudian theory further propagates that, as human beings grow, their psyche

(called the id) remains the source for strong urges and drives. Solomon (1996:
134) adds by stating that the id is oriented toward immediate gratification,

forming the "partly animal" portion of the brain. A second part, called the ego,

develops into a conscious planning core where outlets for drives are uncovered,

responsible (according to Solomon, 1996: 134) for mediating between the id and

the superego. The superego, the final concept of the model, is responsible for

the channelling of instinctive drives into socially acceptable outlets in order to

avoid the pain associated with guilt and shame, referred to by Solomon (1996:

134) as the individual's conscience.

The urges that human beings feel, especially sexual urges, cause shame and

guilt and are therefore repressed from the conscious. A person therefore

develops defence mechanisms, for example rationalisation and sublimation,

resulting in either the denial of such urges or the transformation thereof into

acceptable social expressions. According to Freud, these urges are never

eliminated or under perfect control and sometimes emerge, vigilantly, as slips-of

the-tongue, in dreams, in neurotic and obsessive behaviour or eventually in

mental breakdowns where the ego is not capable to maintain the balance

between the oppressive power of the superego and the impulsive power of the id.

A possible impact of the model, in practical terms, is that since the individual is

not able to understand its own behaviour, it is even more difficult for the casual

observer to understand such behaviour. For example, if a person is asked why a

certain expensive vehicle is bought, the reply may be that the deciding factors

were speed, comfort and appearance. At a deeper level, the reasons may

include to impress others or to be young again. At an even deeper level, the

motive for the purchase may be attributed to an attempt to achieve substitute

gratification for unfulfilled sexual urges.

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The Freudian model has been refined a number of times. Changes include the

three parts of the psyche, where it is regarded as theoretical concepts rather than

actual entities as well as the extension of the behavioural perspective to

incorporate cultural and biological mechanisms.

Kotler (in Gould, 1979: 40) continues by stating that instead of focusing on sexual

urges in psychic development, like Freud who focused on oral, anal and genital

stages together with possible fixations and traumas, other philosophers refined

the theories of Freud. For example, Adler focused on the desire for power and

the manifestation thereof in superiority and inferiority complexes; Horney

emphasised cultural mechanisms and Fromm and Erickson stressed existential

crises in personal development.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the philosophical divergencies, as

mentioned above, greatly enriched and extended the interpretative value of the

Freudian model to a wide range of behavioural phenomena.

Marketing applications of the Freudian model

Kotler (in Gould, 1979: 40) suggests that the most important marketing

implication of the Freudian model that marketers should note, is that consumers

are motivated by both symbolic and economic-functional product concerns. For

example, the change of a bar of soap from a square to a round shape has

probably more a sexual than functional connotation. A more practical example

may show that an advertisement for a cake mix, depicting little effort and labour

involved, may alienate housewives since the easy life may cause a sense of

guilt.

The importance of the model can also be viewed from a research perspective.

While direct observation and interviewing can be used to obtain more superficial

characteristics, for example age, gender and family income, these methods of

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research cannot be used for establishing the mental state, which is believed to

be deeply "buried" within an individual.

A final benefit to marketing researchers is that motivational research can offer

beneficial insights and inspiration in terms of advertising and packaging. Belch &

Belch (2001: 112) support this view by stating that insights gained from

motivational research can often be used as a basis for advertising messages

aimed at deeply rooted feelings, hopes, aspirations and fears of consumers.

Such emotional appeals are often more effective than rationally based appeals.

2.3.5 Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow's well-known hierarchy of needs, although not classified as a model of

human behaviour, provides valued input to the theory of consumer behaviour,

since it provides theory on the motivation of human beings based on a hierarchy

of human needs. The importance of motivation and needs within the study of

consumer behaviour will be noticed when the models of consumer behaviour are
discussed later in this chapter. Important to note, as will be seen in Chapter 3, is

that the theory of the consumer decision-making process commences with the

identification or recognition of a need, therefore underlying the importance of

considering the hierarchy of needs theory by Maslow.

According to Schiffman & Kanuk (1997: 95-96), Maslow's theory postulates five

basic levels of human needs, ranging from lower-level (biogenic) needs to more

important, higher-level (psychogenic) needs. Consumers, therefore, seek to first

satisfy lower-level needs before attending to higher-level needs.

Only once a lower-level need is satisfied, will a new (higher-level) need emerge,

motivating the consumer to fulfil such a need. The process continues, leading

the consumer to aspire to the fulfilment of higher-level needs, each time higher

than the need before. Loudon & Della Bitta (1993: 334) support this view by

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Each level, as portrayed in Figure 2.1, will be briefly discussed to differentiate

between the levels. Physiological needs represent the most basic needs that

are required to sustain life and include food, clothing and shelter. Safety and

security needs concern more than physical safety and include order, certainty
and control over the environment and own life. The third level, social needs

(referred to as affiliation needs by Churchill & Peter, 1998: 143), refers to needs

such as friendship, love, affection, belonging and acceptance.

Egoistic needs (called esteem needs by Belch & Belch, 2001: 110 and Churchill

& Peter, 1998: 143) comprise inwardly-directed needs (for example concerned

with the individual's need for success, independence, self-acceptance and

personal satisfaction with something well done) and outwardly-directed needs

(including, for example, the need for reputation, status and prestige). The final

and highest level of needs is that of self-actualisation, implying the desire to

fulfil one's potential, becoming everything an individual is capable of becoming.

Worth mentioning is that Maslow believed that most people do not satisfy their

egoistic needs sufficiently, thereby keeping them from ever moving to the final,

self-fulfilment needs.

Comments on Maslow's hierarchy of needs

According to Schiffman & Kanuk (1997: 100) the major problem of Maslow's

theory is that it cannot be tested empirically, implying that there is no means of

measuring precisely how satisfied one need must be before a next, higher need

becomes operative.

Solomon (1994: 94) continues by stating that the influence thereof on marketing

is somewhat Simplistic since, according to the theory, consumers first need to

satisfy basic needs before progressing to higher-level needs, where one product

can satisfy a number of different needs. In addition to the above, Solomon

(1994: 94) and Schiffman & Kanuk (1997: 100) argue that the theory may be

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culture-bound, perhaps restricting it to Western culture, or even only certain

Western cultures, with other cultures possibly questioning the order of levels

specified by the model. For example, Eastern cultures may regard the welfare of

a group to be more valued than needs of an individual.

Despite the criticism on the Maslow theory, Schiffman & Kanuk (1997: 100)

believe that it is useful in marketing strategy, since it provides an understanding

of consumer motivations, primarily because consumer goods often serve to

satisfy each of the need levels. In addition to the above, the hierarchy offers a

comprehensive framework for marketers when developing advertising appeals

for their products. The theory is adaptable in two ways, firstly enabling marketers

to focus advertising [Link] on a need level that is likely to be shared by a large

segment of the intended audience and secondly, providing input to product

positioning and repositioning.

Solomon (1994: 94) indicates the relevance of the hierarchy of needs by stating

that, rather than viewing consumer needs as a progression to higher-level needs,

marketers should acknowledge that consumers have need priorities at different

times. This view is supported by Walters (1974: 108) who states that the

importance of needs to marketers is founded in the fact tha.t motives for

purchasing are established by needs.

Section 2.3 provided an overview of models of human behaviour. The following

section focuses on models of consumer behaviour and will show how the

shortcomings of the models of human behaviour led to the formulation of models

of consumer behaviour. Chapter 3 will narrow the theoretical focus of the study

by being devoted to the consumer decision-making process. Chapter 4 will

provide an even greater focus (as far as the theoretical overview is concerned)

by providing insights on how the Internet can possibly influence the consumer

decision-making process.

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2.4 MODELS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

The discussion on models of human behaviour in Section 2.3 showed attempts to

explain human behaviour as well as its influence on consumer behaviour. These

models had a very narrow approach in terms of their explanations of human

behaviour and the impact thereof on consumer behaviour. It only focused on one

subset of possible influences on behaviour, for example the Marshallian model,

focusing only on the influence of financial resources on behaviour.

The shortcomings of models of human behaviour led to more complex models of

consumer behaviour appearing in the early 1960s. According to Runyon &

Stewart (1987: 698), models of consumer behaviour, in contrast to models of

human behaviour, attempted to describe and systemise the entire purchasing

process, thereby providing a guide for further study and research on the subject

of consumer behaviour.

Section 2.4 will focus on the definition of models of consumer behaviour, the

purpose and advantages thereof and finally, discuss a number of models of

consumer behaviour together with the importance thereof in understanding

consumer behaviour.

2.4.1 Defining models of consumer behaviour

Before providing a definition of models of consumer behaviour, it may be useful

to first define the term "model". Schiffman & Kanuk (1997: 652) provide such a

definition, namely: "A simplified representation of reality designed to show the

relationships between the various elements of a system or process under

investigation."

Engel & Blackwell (1982: 677) add to the above by explaining that a model is a

replica of the phenomena it is intended to designate, meaning that it specifies the

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elements portrayed within the model and represents the nature of relationships

among these elements.

A model can therefore be viewed as a testable "map of reality" and its utility lies

in the extent to which successful predictions and description of behaviour,

together with underlying influences, are made possible.

A 'final definition, specifying models of consumer behaviour, is offered by Assael

(1995: G-8): "Sequence of factors that lead to purchase behavior and

hypothesizes the relationship of these factors to behavior and to each other."

The definitions above should prove sufficient in an attempt to clarify the meaning

of models, and more specifically, models of consumer behaviour. Section 2.4.2

will provide greater clarity on the purpose and advantages of models of

consumer behaviour.

2.4.2 Purpose and advantages of models of consumer behaviour

According to Engel & Blackwell (1982: 678), the purpose of a model, namely to

guide researchers, cannot be overemphasised. A model provides the researcher

with a range of appropriate variables, thereby preventing a problem often

experienced, namely a narrow perspective when looking at problems.

Lilien & Kotler (1983: 205) point out that comprehensive models of consumer

behaviour pose both advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of these

models is that they describe complex decision-making processes, while the

disadvantage can be attributed to its estimation, measurement and policy

analysis.

Runyon & Stewart (1987: 698) criticise comprehensive models by stating that

models are primitive and ineffective in predicting behaviour. In addition, models

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often consist of little more than elaborated flowcharts, designed to reflect the

various factors influencing consumer behaviour. These so-called flowcharts do

not adequately evaluate the relative importance of the variables involved in the

models and borrow heavily, and sometimes indiscriminately, from behavioural

sciences for their theoretical base.

As a final criticism, Runyon & Stewart (1987: 698) state that contemporary

models of consumer behaviour are inadequate for marketing needs. Although

this expressed opinion may cause confusion regarding the relevance of

consumer behaviour models, it is important to view a different perspective on the

relevance of models. Engel & Blackwell (1982: 678) provide clarity regarding the

relevance of models by stating that decision process models encompassing

many variables cannot explain the details of consumer behaviour in every

specific situation. Engel & Blackwell (1982: 678) therefore suggest that a

workable model should delineate the variables associated with the consumer

decision process, the general relations that exist among variables, and the

general principles that express the model's ingreSSion in particular purchase

situations.

The purpose and advantages offered by models of consumer behaviour are

listed below:

a) Explanations are provided for behaviour: Engel et al. (1990: 475) list

probably the most obvious advantage - that it is possible to visually grasp

what happens as variables and circumstances change;

b) Explanatory variables are specified: According to Engel & Blackwell

(1982: 677) every person has a model of consumer behaviour in mind,

whether implicit or explicit. This implies that each person has a concept of

factors that shape motivation and behaviour. Without a held concept,

explanation and prediction will be impossible. The distinction is made with

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Chapter 2
respect to the comprehensiveness of competing models and the accuracy

with which predictions can be made;

c) Systematic thinking is encouraged: Runyon & Stewart (1987: 698)

suggest that forcing theorists to define the relevant elements in

behavioural theory, will result in systematic thinking. Lilien & Kotler

(1983:204) support this view by adding that all major variables that models

comprise, are identified and measured;

d} Fundamental relationships between variables and the exact

sequence of cause and effect of variables are specified: This view by

Lilien & Kotler (1983: 204) is supported by Runyon & Stewart (1987: 698),

adding that by showing explicit relationships between variables, a tentative

view of behavioural phenomena is offered;

e} Research findings can be integrated into a meaningful whole: Engel

& Blackwell (1982: 677) pOint out that most analysts of consumer

behaviour are familiar with behavioural sciences. A well-formulated model

assists analysts to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant literature

that is often a highly frustrating experience to examine;

f} Evaluations are provided for performance of the system: Part of the

requirements for a good model, according to Engel & Blackwell (1982:

678) is that they describe the functional relationships between variables,

resulting in the ability of the model to make behavioural predictions with

some degree of accuracy;

g) Avenues for fruitful research are revealed: Engel & Blackwell (1982:

678) point out that carefully designed models are often the source of

researchable hypotheses, since gaps in existing knowledge are easily

exposed. The nature of the researchable hypotheses identified is usually

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Chapter 2

determined by the variables themselves and linkages between them.

Engel et al. (1990: 475) add to the above by stating that the gaps

identified could possibly even establish research priorities;

h) A foundation is provided for management information systems:

Essential insights for marketing strategy, according to Engel et al. (1990:

475), are provided through the proper use of a model that discloses

information required to understand consumer decision processes; and

i) The final advantage, offered by Runyon & Stewart (1987: 698) and

supported by Lilien & Kotler (1983: 204), is that models sometimes

permit sensitivity analyses and simulations of behaviour so that the

impact of changes in variables can be explored and the implications of the

model observed under different sets of assumptions.

2.4.3 Some models of consumer behaviour

The objectives of discussing various models of consumer behaviour are to

attempt to indicate the evolution in thought patterns of different authors on the

subject of consumer behaviour over the past years as well as to show the

relevance and importance of models of consumer behaviour in the study of

consumer behaviour.

In an effort to achieve the objectives stated above, a number of models of

consumer behaviour will be discussed. Important to note is that the models

discussed will include historic versions by the same authors, often attached in

appendices, thereby attempting to show the change in thought patterns of

authors as more research on the subject is conducted. The second, even more

important, objective will be to indicate the relevance and importance of these

models on the subject of consumer behaviour. This will be achieved by briefly

discussing historic models on the subject of models of consumer behaviour, as

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well as a detailed discussion on a more recent model, namely that of Engel,

Blackwell and Miniard. The detailed discussion of the Engel, Blackwell & Miniard

(EBM) model will show the difficulty of understanding consumer behaviour due to

the many variables influencing the consumer decision process. Only by

understanding the influences on consumer decision-making, will the marketer be

able to draft effective strategies aimed at meeting consumer needs. Although the

researcher considered a number of more recent models of consumer behaviour,

it was decided to focus on the EBM model (1995 version), since the discussion in

Chapter 3 will be based on this mode\.

The discussion below will focus on four historic models of consumer behaviour,

namely Bettman's information processing model, the Nicosia model, the Howard

Sheth model and the Howard mode\. As stated above, the Engel, Blackwell, and

Miniard will be discussed in greater detail in an attempt to indicate the factors

influencing consumer behaviour.

[Link] The BeUman information processing model

The Bettman information processing model, according to Runyon & Stewart

(1987: 708), attempts to model a speci'fic field of consumer behaviour, namely

information processing. Lilien & Kotler (1983: 206) add that the model provides

an analytical 'framework for understanding consumer behaviour in an

environment where choice is made by selecting between a set of alternatives.

The model focuses on the information processing perspective by viewing the

type of information used by consumers, how the information is evaluated and

finally, how decisions are made. The Bettman information processing model is

shown in Figure 2.2.

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function of prior experience and information obtained by the consumer.

Attention, the second component, comprises voluntary attention (implying the

consumer's allocation of the information-processing effort) and involuntary

attention.

The third component, information acquisition and evaluation, stipulates that

attention is influenced by the goals pursued and therefore activates the search
for information. The evaluation component of the model determines when

sufficient information is obtained for the purpose of decision-making. The next

component of the model, the decision process, is continuously active in the

model by focusing on the comparison of possible alternatives.

The final element of the basic hierarchy, namely consumption and learning,

focuses on the purchase and consumption of the product and offer a new source

of information to the consumer. The final stage in the basic hierarchy will,

therefore, affect the structure of future choices.

b) The intermediate process

The intermediate processes, also referred to as modulating processes, focus on

four elements, namely perceptual encoding, processing capacity, memory and

external search and finally, scanner and interrupt mechanisms.

The first component of the intermediate process, "perceptual encoding",

comprises the interpretation process of an individual once being exposed to a

stimulus. Bettman argues that this process is influenced by memory, implying

the way things were, and by the stimulus itself, implying the way things are.

The implications of proceSSing capacity, the second component, are that capacity

has to be allocated to a decision task since the complete information-processing

process is limited by capacity. Capacity is furthermore positively related to effort

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and motivation. Runyon & Stewart (1987: 708) continue by pOinting out a
relation between processing capacity and education, intelligence and previous

experience.

According to the memory and external search components, information may be

obtained, in a choice situation, through internal search of the memory and

external search, where attention and perceptual decoding is focused on stimuli

outside the consumer's memory. Runyon & Stewart (1987: 710) continue by

listing advertisements, other people and other sources external to the consumer

as external sources. The cost of information search versus the benefits of the

information, together with the availability of information, time pressure and the

difficulty of the choice task, will determine the level of information search.

The final component, scanner and interrupt mechanisms, indicates that

consumers are interruptible and not single-minded when pursuing a goal. The

scanner monitors the environment in an effort to note conditions that may warrant

changes in current actions or beliefs. By reaching a theoretical scanner

threshold, an interrupt mechanism is triggered, resulting in the generation of new

responses. It is therefore suggested in the model that scanner and interrupt

mechanisms affect virtually the entire decision-making process.

Considering the Bettman information processing model, Lilien & Kotler (1983:

208) suggest that the model represents an attempt to develop a complete theory

on the consumer choice process. Knowledge obtained from the model,

beneficial for the development, presentation and timing of marketing

communications, includes insight into the information consumers desire, how

information is obtained and the probable processing of such information.

In addition to the above, the model offers a broad view of purchase decisions,

including choices among product classes as well as competing alternatives within

a specific product class. The theory of the model is therefore perceived to

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position decision rules or choice heuristics within the broader concept of decision

making.

The main limiting factors to the model, according to Lilien & Kotler (1983: 208),

are that the model is not directly operational and does not provide quantitative

support for marketing decisions. Runyon & Stewart (1987: 710) add to the above

by stating that, while the schematic model suggests complex relationships

involving interactions and feedback, these are not specified in the model and

have not been empirically tested.

Despite the limitations, the model provides insight in terms of the structure of the

process and guidance on the kind of issues that can be expected to affect and

influence consumer choices. Runyon & Stewart (1987: 710) add that the model

has proven useful to managers concerned with effective communication with

consumers and also as a guide for further research on consumer information

processing.

[Link] The Nicosia model

According to Runyon & Stewart (1987: 699), the Nicosia model provides a

sophisticated attempt to show the interrelationship between attributes of the

consumer, the consumer decision-making process, the marketing communication

of an organisation and feedback of the response of the consumer to the

organisation.

Schiffman & Kanuk (1987: 653) provide a simplistic explanation of the model by

stating that it is interactive in design, where the organisation attempts to influence

consumers through marketing actions and the consumers in return influence the

organisation through their purchase actions (or lack of action if products are not

purchased).

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'ha,.,tor2

Runyon & Stewart (1987: 701) continues by stating that if the reaction or attitude

resulting from field one is favourable, the consumer will search for the product

and evaluate it in terms of other alternatives. Schiffman & Kanuk (1987: 654)

add that the output of the second field is motivation to purchase the

organisation's brand. The evaluation could, however, also lead to rejection of the

brand although the model illustrates a positive response. The positive evaluation

leads to purchase of the product, the third field of the model.

According to Schiffman & Kanuk (1987: 654), the final field of the Nicosia model,

field four, consists of two types of feedback from the purchase experience. The

first type of feedback relates to the organisation where sales data will be
obtained and the second to the consumer in the form of experience, leaving the

consumer either satisfied or dissatisfied. The experience obtained by the

consumer relating to the product will affect the predisposition and attitudes with

regard to future messages from the organisation.

Limitations of the Nicosia model according to Runyon & Stewart (1987: 701), are

the questionable assumptions that the consumer has no prior knowledge or

experience of the product, as well as inadequate understanding of subfield two,

the influences and interrelationships among the consumer attributes. A final

limiting factor is that, for repetitive decisions (considered a significant part of

consumer purchases), the operation of the model is ambiguous.

Engel, Blackwell & Kollat (1978: 548) criticise the Nicosia model by claiming that

the model never received the necessary elaboration and empirical support nor

has it been revised to reflect changes.

In conclusion to the Nicosia model, Runyon & Stewart (1987: 701) express the

opinion that despite the limitations of the model, it attempts to explicitly

incorporate the marketing actions of the organisation within a model of consumer

behaviour.

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[Link] The Howard-Sheth model

The Howard-Sheth model of buying behaviour, according to Foxall (1990: 10),

presents a sophisticated integration of the psychological and various social and

marketing influences on consumer choice, into a coherent sequence of

information processing. Runyon & Stewart (1987: 704) and Foxall (1990: 10)

add respectively that the model attempts to explain rational brand choice

behaviour within the constraints of incomplete information and limited individual

capacities, and also that it provides an empirically testable description of

behaviour in terms of cognitive functioning together with its outcomes.

Schiffman & Kanuk (1987: 654) explain the Howard-Sheth model (depicted in

Figure 2.4) a model that explicitly distinguishes between three different stages or

levels of decision-making, also referred to as levels of learning. namely

extensive, limited and routinised problem-solving.

Extensive problem-solving implies that the consumer has very little or no

knowledge and beliefs about brands. The consumer actively seeks information

on a number of alternatives at this point due to the lack of a brand preference.

Foxall (1990: 12) adds that in order to reduce brand ambiguity, the consumer is

involved in a decision process and undertakes prolonged deliberation

contemplating which brand to purchase or whether to buy at all.

Limited problem-solving occurs when the consumer cannot fully assess the

brand differences to arrive at a preference, since knowledge and beliefs about

the brands are only partially established. According to Foxall (1990: 12). other

factors to be considered in limited problem-solving are that consumers have

formed choice criteria, know a few brands well and favour them equally because

they have already tried several brands at this stage.

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2

price, service, distinctiveness and availability, while symbolic stimuli are

portrayed by the mass media and sales people and influence the consumer

indirectly. The third type of stimuli is provided by the social environment of the

consumer and includes social class, family and reference groups. The three

types of stimuli provide input to the consumer regarding the product class or

specific brands.

The second variable, perceptual and learning constructs, forms the central

component of the Howard-Sheth model. At this stage of the model,

psychological variables are assumed to operate when the consumer is

contemplating a decision. Although forming the so-called heart of the model,

these constructs are treated as abstractions that are not defined operationally or

directly measured.

The perceptual constructs are concerned with how the consumer receives and

processes information obtained from input stimuli and'other parts of the model,

i.e. the function of information processing. For example, if the consumer is

unclear regarding information and its meaning received from the environment,
stimulus ambiguity occurs, while distortion of information received by the

consumer, to match established needs or experiences, results in perceptual bias.

Learning constructs, the second component of this variable, includes the

consumer's goals, preferences, criteria for evaluating alternatives, information

regarding products in the evoked set and buying intentions. The proposed

interaction between the perceptual and learning variables together with variables

in other segments of the Howard-Sheth model ensures its distinct character.

Runyon & Stewart (1987: 704) provide additional information on the second

variable, combining perceptual and learning constructs into a single term, called

hypothetical constructs. These constructs are responsible for processing and

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interpreting input stimuli and are characterised by the fact that changes in them

can only be inferred from output variables, since they are not observable.

The third variable in the model, outputs, represents the possible response to

stimuli by the consumer and includes five variables, namely attention, brand

comprehension, attitude, intention and purchase.

The final variable, exogenous variables, is not depicted in the model, since it is

not perceived to be directly part of the decision-making process. The reason for

mentioning this variable is that it should impact on the segmentation efforts of the

marketer, since the consumer is influenced by external variables. Exogenous

variables considered relevant in terms of impacting on consumer behaviour

include time pressure, consumer personality traits, financial status and

importance of the purchase.

The value of the Howard-Sheth model, according to Runyon & Stewart (1987:

706), is that the model attempts to identify and organise major variables that may

influence consumer behaviour. The model is also perceived to be dynamic in

nature, since it reflects the complexity of consumer behaviour in an attempt to

understand it. The consumer is portrayed to form generalisations as a guide to

decision-making through an active information search from the environment by

employing past experiences.

Criticism towards the model, highlighted by Runyon & Stewart (1987: 706), is that

the hypothetical constructs portrayed in the model are not operationally defined

in unambiguous terms and the specific interrelationships are therefore somewhat

speculative.

[Link] The Howard model

The Howard model has been revised a number of times from the early 1970s to

the current version published in 1994. It should be noted that the original model

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Chapter 2

by Howard (1974 version), according to Engel et al. (1978: 553), was based on

revisions from the Howard-Sheth model. The model indicates the revisions that

reflect insights gained from testing the Howard-Sheth model, as well as

contributions of other authors who often approached consumer behaviour from

different theoretical perspectives.

The 1974 version of the Howard model specifies 12 primary functional

relationships (attached as Appendix 1) in such a way that it can be tested

empirically. The testable equations of the Howard model ensure that the model

can be evaluated in two different, yet related, ways. The model can first be

evaluated metatheoretically, implying evaluation in terms of the internal structure

of the theory itself. Secondly, it can be measured empirically in terms of its utility

in describing real life behaviour.

According to Engel et al. (1978: 553), the 1974 version of the Howard model was

revised by other authors, based on what was learned from the model. The

revision was initiated due to some of the variables sited being difficult to define

operationally, while other variables were difficult to measure, as well as the fact

that the model presented a substantial measurement of error, resulting in a high

level of noise. The result of the revision of the 1974 model by Howard was the

1977 model, showing a scant relationship to the 1969 Howard-Sheth model. The

1977 version is characterised by an increase in the predictability of the variables

portrayed in the model, although noise of the data was still noted.

The 1974 and revised 1977 versions of the Howard model are shown in

Appendix 2, together with the functional relationships applicable to both versions

in Appendix 1. As will be noted in the testable equations shown in Appendix 1,

the 1974 model lists 12 functional relationships, whereas the 1977 version lists

only 11 relationships. The difference in the thought pattern of the two versions of

the model is clearly visible in Appendix 2, where the models are depicted in

figures.

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Chapter 2

to as limited problem-solving, and finally at the maturity stage, the decision state

is referred to as routine problem-solving.

According to the model, extended decision-making implies that the consumer has

not formed a concept of either the product class or the product category. Limited

decision-making implies that the consumer has a concept of the product category

but has not formed a concept of new brands falling into a familiar product

category.

Once the consumer has formed a concept of both the product category and all

the product brands within the category, routine problem-solving applies.

As discussed above, it is clear that basic to all three decision categories is the

concept of product category, defined as a group of brands viewed by consumers

as close substitutes for each other. In view of the product category, Howard

dismisses the utility of the product life cycle for brands. The movement from

extensive problem-solving to routine problem-solving, therefore, is a movement

towards a state of total understanding of a brand, although not implying that the

consumer becomes an expert on brands. The consumer does, however, know

the physical characteristics of the brand, leading to brand recognition, and feels
corl'fident to judge the quality of a brand. In addition to the above, the consumer

knows the strengths of a brand based on the benefits thereof, as manifested in

an attitude towards a brand. This so-called understanding of brands by

consumers, referred to by Howard as the ABC of marketing (comprising brand

recognition, attitude and confidence), constitutes brand image.

As could be seen from Figure 2.5, the Howard model portrays the consumer

decision process, comprising six interrelated concepts, namely Information (F),

Brand recognition (B), Attitude (A), Confidence (C), Intention (I) and Purchase

(P). The six interrelated concepts will be briefly discussed to provide greater

clarity on the Howard model.

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Information (F) refers to the precept that is caused by stimuli, for example

advertisements, where the precept is what the consumer perceives when

exposed to stimuli. The precept is measured by recall, implying that information

comprises of all that is recalled by the stimulus.

Brand recognition (B) involves categorisation, resulting in the consumer needing

information on both the functioning of the product and the form. Brand

recognition is viewed as being causally linked to both Attitude (A) and

Confidence (C).

Attitude (A) towards a brand refers to the measure of the extent to which

consumers expect the brand to meet certain expectations. The measure of

attitude is argued to be multidimensional, where each benefit is measured in

terms of its importance to the consumer and the multiplication of each weighting

by the corresponding envisaged performance of the brand, resulting in the overall

sum being the measure of attitude. Attitude is viewed as being causally linked to

Intention (I).

Confidence (C) refers to the degree of certainty experienced by consumers

regarding the correctness of their judgements about a brand and its benefits.

Confidence is suggested to be causally linked to Intention (I), especially when

Attitude (A) is high.

Intention (I) to purchase represents the mental stage reflecting the consumer's

intention to purchase a specified quantity of a particular brand within a specified

period. Intention (I) is viewed as a predictor of Purchase (P).

Purchase (P), the final interrelated concept of the Howard model, occurs once

the consumer either has bought the brand or when the consumer has financially

committed to purchasing the brand.

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Chapter 2

As indicated in Figure 2.5, Intention (I) is influenced by Pr and PL, defined by

Howard (1994: 139) as Price (Pr) and Availability (PL). Price and availability,

directly influencing Intention (I), represent the regular price of the brand and the

Place (PL) where the brand can be purchased. Although price and availability

are considered important influencing factors of the purchase process, these

variables change often and Information (F) can therefore bypass the thinking

process by directly influencing Intention (I). As depicted in Figure 2.5, Intention

(I) is not only influenced by Price (Pr) and Place or availability (PL). but also by

motives. Howard (1994: 159) indicates that motives represent the motives

operating in each specific situation.

Drawing a conclusion from the Howard model. it should be noted that the

variables impacting on consumer behaviour changes for each of the three

different stages of decision-making. The discussion above provided a general

overview of all the variables that could impact on the model, implying that some

variables would be omitted, not changed, in the different stages of consumer

decision-making.

[Link] The Engel, Blackwell, Miniard model

The Engel, Blackwell. Miniard model has its origin in decades of work on the

subject of consumer behaviour by Engel, Kollat, Blackwell, and Miniard. These

authors were responsible for the evolution of the model from 1968 to its present

form, namely the eighth edition of their book on the subject of consumer

behaviour.

Important to note, as stated by Engel, Blackwell & Miniard (1986: 27), is that the

name of the model is compiled from the names of the authors, and it can

therefore be concluded that the Engel, Blackwell, Miniard model is based on the

same model as that of Engel & Blackwell, and Engel, Kollat & Blackwell