Fate, Hubris, and Hamartia in

Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy

This paper discusses the fate that doomed the character of Oedipus, the prophecies of Cassandra that were
ignored and resulted in the tragic ends of Paris’ loved ones, and if the destiny of Paris could have been altered
if Cassandra’s prophecies were heeded (by Jaime Cabrera, 31 Oct 2015).

ABSTRACT

Greek tragedy follows specific storytelling conventions to satisfy the audiences during
the time of Homer and Sophocles. These conventions include elements such as the willing
suspension of disbelief, the heroic proportions of the attributes of tragic protagonists, fate,
hubris, hamartia, and catharsis. This paper answers three assignment questions. (1) What fate
doomed the character of Oedipus? (2) What prophecies of Cassandra were ignored, resulting
in tragic ends of those close to Paris? (3) If Cassandra‟s prophecies were heeded, could Paris‟
destiny have been avoided? Why or why not? In Sophocles‟ Oedipus Rex, the character of
Oedipus was fated to commit patricide and maternal incest. In Homer‟s The Iliad,
Cassandra‟s prophecies that were ignored and which resulted in the tragic end of the royal
House of Troy are: (1) that Paris‟s trip to Sparta would result in disaster; (2) that Helen‟s stay
in Troy will bring tragedy to the Trojans; and (3) that bringing the Trojan horse into the city
walls will cause the ruin of the city of Troy. If Cassandra‟s prophecies were heeded, Paris‟s
destiny would not be avoided because catharsis is required in Greek tragedy; the protagonist
must not triumph over adversity. This paper is organized in three chapters. The Introduction
defines key elements of tragic literary structure: protagonist, catharsis, hubris, hamartia, and
fate. The second chapter, Oedipus Rex, discusses those key elements in Sophocles‟ Oedipus
Rex. The last chapter, Helen of Troy, discusses those key elements in Homer‟s The Iliad. This
paper ends with a References and an Appendices section.

Suggested citation (APA format):

Cabrera, Jaime A. 2015. Fate, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy.
Electronic document accessed from [Link] at (add link).
 Contents
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................. 2
1.1 Suspension of Disbelief ......................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Dramatic Structure ................................................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Fate ....................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Hubris .................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Hamartia................................................................................................................................................ 5
2 OEDIPUS REX................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Background ........................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Plot Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 7
2.3 The Prophecies of the Oracle ................................................................................................................ 8
2.4 The Character of Oedipus ..................................................................................................................... 8
2.5 The Actions of Oedipus ......................................................................................................................... 8
2.5.1 He decides to know the truth regarding his parentage. ................................................................... 9
2.5.2 He abandons the parents he knew by protecting them. .................................................................. 9
2.5.3 He kills a stranger when he felt insulted. ........................................................................................ 10
2.5.4 He decides to solve the riddle of the Sphinx. ................................................................................. 10
2.5.5 He decides to marry the widowed Queen of Thebes. .................................................................... 10
2.5.6 He decides to solve the pestilence that ravaged Thebes. .............................................................. 10
2.5.7 He issues a decree to automatically punish King Laius’ killer. ........................................................ 11
2.5.8 He decides to conduct the inquiry in a public forum. ..................................................................... 11
2.5.9 He gouges out his own eyes. .......................................................................................................... 12
2.5.10 He chooses exile over death.. ..................................................................................................... 12
2.6 Recapitulation ..................................................................................................................................... 12
3 HELEN OF TROY............................................................................................................................................. 14
3.1 Background ......................................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Backstory ............................................................................................................................................. 16
3.3 Plot Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 17
3.4 The Prophecies of Cassandra .............................................................................................................. 17
3.4.1 The Coming of the War ................................................................................................................... 17
3.4.2 The Destruction of Troy .................................................................................................................. 17
3.4.3 Abduction of a Seer ........................................................................................................................ 18
3.4.4 The Devastation of Troy .................................................................................................................. 18
3.4.5 Death of the King and his Men ....................................................................................................... 18
3.4.6 Slavery of the Queen ...................................................................................................................... 18
3.4.7 Cassandra’s Murder, and Beyond ................................................................................................... 19
3.5 Recapitulation ..................................................................................................................................... 19
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................................................... 20
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................................................... 22
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 1

List of Tables

Table 1: Hamartia and Hubris in Sophocles‟ Oedipus Rex........................................................ 9

Table 2: Some Prophecies by Princess Cassandra ................................................................... 14
Table 3: Hamartia and Hubris in Homer‟s The Iliad ............................................................... 15
Table 4: Outline of Sophocles‟ Oedipus Rex ........................................................................... 22
Table 5: Summary of Homer‟s Iliad ........................................................................................ 29

List of Figures

Figure 1: Oedipus in Exile ....................................................................................................... 23

Figure 2: The Messenger with the infant Oedipus ................................................................... 23
Figure 3: The Plague of Thebes ............................................................................................... 23
Figure 4: Oedipus and the Sphinx ............................................................................................ 23
Figure 5: The Nine Layers of Troy .......................................................................................... 24
Figure 6: The Wooden Horse enters Troy ............................................................................... 24
Figure 7: Excavation Map of Troy........................................................................................... 25
Figure 8: Aerial View of the City of Troy ............................................................................... 25
Figure 9: Possible Route of Greek Expedition to Troy............................................................ 26
Figure 10: Greek Amphitheater ............................................................................................... 26
Figure 11: Map location of Thebes and Corinth ...................................................................... 27
Figure 12: Thebes, now Luxor, Egypt ..................................................................................... 27
Figure 13: Oedipus & Antigone ............................................................................................... 28
Figure 14: Oedipus at Colonus ................................................................................................ 28
Figure 15: The Judgment of Paris ............................................................................................ 28
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 2

1. INTRODUCTION

In the study of literature, the term tragedy is defined as a story where the protagonist or
hero succumbs to circumstance. The opposite, comedy, is where the hero overcomes
circumstance.

In Ancient Greece, tragedies stories were written more for competitions and live
performance than for self-expression. The yardstick of success for was audience satisfaction.
Writers craft stories so that, by the end of a presentation, audiences achieve a satisfying sense
of emotional relief called catharsis. To achieve this, Greek tragedies are constructed
according to a specific structure.

These dramatic elements should be well-woven into a compact story so as to shorten

real-time performance. There is the endurance of audiences in hot weather in open-air
amphitheaters to consider (See Figure 10). Then, there is the endurance of performers and the
strength of their voices in a time when electronics and amplifiers did not exist.

In addition, theatre performances were presented during a specific part of day and time
of year when people could set aside their daily chores and businesses, their families and calls
of nature that must be attended. To shorten staging time, flashbacks were utilized in clear,
logical ways that can be easily followed even by unschooled shopkeepers, farmers, and
fishermen.

1.1 Suspension of Disbelief

Fiction works when audiences or readers are so immersed in the story that they take
vicarious pleasure despite – or perhaps because of – knowing that it‟s only a story (Brown,
2012). This phenomenon is called “willing suspension of disbelief” or, in plainer words “I
believe because I agree to overlook certain factors that would otherwise cause me to not
believe” (Martin, n. d.).

The willing suspension of disbelief is a term most often used to

describe the mechanisms of assimilation required to appreciate an
invented situation, particularly a work of drama or fiction in film,
theater, or literature. (Martin, ibid.)

Effective fiction is a fragile construct: “The balance of "believability" is extremely

fragile and the slightest inconsistency can compromise the credibility of an otherwise
acceptable account of fictional events” (Martin, ibid.).
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 3

There must be careful logic and weighing of elements so that tragedy does not descend to
pathos or – even worse – to bathos (Schaper, 1978). “An invented situation is considered to
be more believable when the requirements for willing suspense of disbelief are kept to a
minimum” (Martin, ibid). This care and craft are what classic tragedies are made of. In
literary analysis of classical literature, particularly tragedies from ancient western
civilizations, the analysis should include how these aforementioned elements work on the
topic of analysis.

1.2 Dramatic Structure

It is moot and academic to discuss ancient literary characters as though they are real
persons in our time. In addition, the discussion should happen within the author‟s contrived
plot structure.

Tragedies have essential criteria. First, heroes should have human qualities but more than
is usually found in humans. Second, they must fall. These two criteria satisfy audiences of
yore due to catharsis, which is essential to effective tragedies. Mighty heroes must be
overcome by circumstances.1

As in the fictional construct of Oedipus Rex, the three dramatic premises of The Iliad is
that (a) men and gods are all subject to fate (Smith, 2012; UNLV, n. d.; Anon. [1], n. d.); (b)
that there is individual freedom to act within the framework of what is foretold; and (c) that
hubris and hamartia help what is foretold to come true. Finally, the heroic protagonist should
have human attributes and errors but in more heroic proportions than ordinary people.

Within this premise, the baby Paris survives and returns as a young man of considerable
beauty, prowess and arrogance, thus ensuring his return to royalty and his assignment to
foreign diplomacy.

A similar development can be found in Oedipus Rex, where the baby Oedipus survives
into an inquisitive, impulsive young man with pride and confidence, thus ensuring his besting
an old man in combat, his besting the Phoenix, his marrying the widowed queen, and his
excellent kingship of Thebes (See Figure 12).

These backstories of high beginnings create the framework for a series of human-sized
hamartia to happen, sprinkled with some heroic hubris – too many might invite pathos and
non-suspension of disbelief – and make for satisfyingly cathartic audience experience when
the long and painful fall comes.

1
When characters triumph over circumstances, the technical term for the type of story is comedy.
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 4

1.3 Fate
For clarification, we present the notion of fate according to the cultural context of Greece
during the lifetime of Sophocles.

For Sophocles and his Greek audience, fate means “the foretelling of what will happen”
(Anon. [2], n. d.). It is an essential part of Greek culture and storytelling. As exemplified in
the tragic Greek plays and stories, the characters are free to exercise their will. However,
“their freedom is tied with destiny” (Anon. [3], n. d.; Anon. [4], 2013; and Hossain, 2015).

1.4 Hubris
Hubris, defined as “exaggerated pride or self-confidence often resulting in retribution”
(Lewis, 2011, p. 2), is the earmark character trait of King Oedipus of Thebes as well as of
Prince Paris of Troy. Hubris has been discussed by many writers as the reason for their
downfall. Without hubris, Prince Oedipus would probably use calm logical deduction and
choose to stay in Corinth (See Figure 11) in order to keep everybody safe; he is, after all, a
skilled and intelligent fighter. Then his foster parents and his biological parents would live.
Without hubris, Prince Paris would listen to the prophecies of his sister, Princess Cassandra,
who was also a priestess in the Temple of Apollo. In those days, seers and divination were
taken seriously, even by the royals. He would have returned Helen to her husband in order to
protect his family, his city, and the citizens of Troy (See Figure 07).

However, both had so much self-confidence. King Oedipus and Prince Paris were young
men who took for granted their own thinking and problem-solving abilities. Paris relied on in
the goddess Athena‟s promise that Helen is his prize, and on the invulnerability of walls of
Troy against the seafaring Greeks‟ weaponry and might. Why King Oedipus and Prince Paris
did what they had to do and how others probably interacted with them can be inferred from
the following definition of hubris:

Hubris is a consequence of an evaluation of success at one‟s standards, rules

and goals …. It is associated with such descriptions as “puffed up.” In extreme
cases, it is associated with grandiosity or with narcissism. In fact, hubristic is
defined as to be insolent or contemptuous. Prideful people have difficulty in their
interpersonal relations since their own hubris is likely to interfere with the wishes,
needs and desires of others, in which case there is likely to be interpersonal
conflict. The three problems associated with the prideful person are (1) it is a
transient but addictive emotion; (2) it is not related to a specific action and,
therefore, requires altering patterns of goal- setting or evaluation around what
constitutes success; and (3) it interferes with interpersonal relationships because of
its contemptuous and insolent nature. (Lewis, ibid.)
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 5

Authors familiar with ancient Greek agree that hubris should not be translated as pride
but as “the quality of not keeping awareness of your human limitations: the opposite of
sophrosyne (moderation, balance, self-control) which is “moral sanity and, from there, self-
control or moderation guided by true self-knowledge and even chastity” (Anon. [5]. n. d.).

The forces of hubris shaped the story of Oedipus and Paris, both proud men probably
because they were male in a paternalistic society, because they were young with the rashness
of youth, and because they were royalty. The term hubris has often been used synonymously
with pride but the latter is distinct from the former.

Pride is the consequence of a successful evaluation of a specific

action. The … experience is “joy over an action, thought or feeling well
done.” … the focus of pleasure is specific and related to a particular
behaviour. In pride, the self and object are separated …. Unlike shame
and hubris, where subject and object are fused, pride focuses the
organism on its action. The organism is engrossed in the specific action
which gives it pride. Because this positive state is associated with a
particular action, individuals have available to themselves the means by
which they can reproduce the state. Notice that, unlike hubris, pride‟s
specific focus allows for action. (Lewis, ibid.)

1.5 Hamartia

The term hamartia has been misconstrued as synonymous with hubris (Haderlie,
2009; Anon. [6], n. d.), pride, jealousy and ambition (Anon. [7], n. d.) or tragic flaw.
However, there is a more accurate translation: an error in judgment or a mistake (Wayne, n.
d., p. 12).

Hamartia is when a hero aims his arrow at the bull's eye, but ends up hitting
something altogether unexpected; it is an error that does not immediately cause downfall, but
instead pushes events towards eventual downfall. You can still call it hamartia even if the
hero makes these mistakes in a state of ignorance (Wayne, ibid.). This is explained by Pawar,
et. al. (n. d.).

The word hamartia is rooted in the notion of missing the mark

(hamartanein) and covers a broad spectrum that includes ignorant,
mistaken, or accidental wrongdoing, as well as deliberate iniquity,
error, or sin. For example, the hero might attempt to achieve a certain
objective X; by making an error in judgment, however, the hero instead
achieves the opposite of X, with disastrous consequences (p. 28).

In tragic literature, a series of hamartia serve to build up audience emotions towards an

expected and inevitable ending. Protagonists unknowingly weave more threads in webs that
trap them to their fate. For instance, Prince Oedipus saves a city from a sphinx and instead
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 6

becomes king of the city. Another example is when he claims his reward by marrying Queen
Jocasta and instead commits incest. When Prince Paris abandons the nymph Oneone in favor
of Helen, he commits hamartia. This action has a consequence: she refuses to heal him when
he is mortally wounded in battle.

To summarize: hamartia is to do something for a purpose but instead misses the mark
and achieves something else while hubris is action based on overweening arrogance and
wrong assumptions, “often resulting in retribution” (Lewis, 2011, p. 2) which should be
certain and irrevocable retribution, with no chance at all of averting it.

Hamartia achieves something other than the character‟s intended goal while hubris
dooms the character to fulfill what is fated, thus achieving catharsis, which satisfies the
audience, which is the success criterion of tragic literature.
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 7

2 OEDIPUS REX

In the Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex, Oedipus’ destiny prevailed in the end no matter what
interventions other characters did. What fate doomed the character of Oedipus?

The character of Oedipus was fated to commit patricide and maternal incest. He is
doomed (Johnston, 2014) due to the interplay of three elements: (1) The prophecies regarding
his future; (2) The character of Oedipus; and (3) The actions of Oedipus as shaped by his
character, his hubris and hamartia, and the events around him (See Summary of the Story).

2.1 Background
Sophocles (496 BC-406 BC) was a famous and successful Athenian writer of tragedies.
Of his 120 plays, only seven survived.2 Oedipus the King, also called Oedipus Tyrannos or
Oedipus Rex, was written around 420 BC and regarded as a classic in Greek tragic drama
(Castelluber, n. d.).

2.2 Plot Summary

Oedipus3, son of King Laius & Jocasta of Thebes and raised as a Prince of Corinth
learned from a drunk guest during a party that he is not the son of king of Corinth. Oedipus
goes to the Oracle of Delphi to know the truth. He hears the prophecy that he would kill his
father and marry his mother.

Fearing that he would kill his parents (the King and the Queen of Corinth) he flees to
Thebes. Oedipus kills his biological father in on the way to Thebes. After arriving in Thebes,
he finds the city under attack from the Sphinx (See Figure 4). He married Laius‟ widow,
Jocasta, and has four children with her.4

After many years of peace and prosperity, Thebes is attacked by a plague. Oedipus sends
his brother-in-law Creon to the Oracle to ask for a solution. Teiresias says that one who is
guilty of Laius‟s death must pay for the plague to be lifted. It is revealed that Oedipus was the
killer.

Jocasta, upon hearing the news, hangs herself. Oedipus blinds himself and is exiled (See
Figure 14). See Table: Outline of Oedipus Rex.

2
Euripides, Aeschylus, Pindar, Stesichorus, Thebaid, Oidepodea, and Homer created characters and stories
based on Oedipus but with different characterizations and motivations. See page 13 of Outline of Sophocles’
Oedipus Rex at [Link]
3
Or Oidipodes, meaning “swollen foot”
4
Two sons, Eteocles and Polyneices, and two daughters, Antigone and Ismene
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 8

2.3 The Prophecies of the Oracle

It was prophesied that Oedipus would kill his own father and marry his own mother. This
prophecy was revealed to his mother, Queen Jocasta, before he was even conceived. The
Oracle in Greece repeated this to Oedipus when he was a young man. These truths were
confirmed by the appearance of the shepherd who carried the baby Oedipus to Corinth, and
by Queen Jocasta‟s former messenger who saved the baby‟s life in the wilderness of
Cithaeron (See Figure 2).

2.4 The Character of Oedipus

Oedipus was characterized by Sophocles as young, religious, responsible, charming, and
healthy, but for a physical deformity in his lower limbs. He was also characterized as a
creative thinker: impulsive, intelligent, decision-maker, and problem-solver. He sought not
only proof, but proof of truth.

He was also a highly focused and introspective young man. As the classical definition of
a tragic protagonist requires, Oedipus had “the same positive characteristics that all ordinary
human beings but to a greater degree” (Nikolarea, 1994; Barstow, 1912; and Reddy, 2014).

On the other hand, the character of Oedipus reacted to situations that showed a lack of
humility, acceptance, mindfulness, and self-control. These counter-productive qualities were
sometimes helpful in furthering his personal goals and beliefs but failed to balance his more
numerous positive qualities. Instead, these negative qualities pushed him to commit hamartia
and ensure his fated doom.

2.5 The Actions of Oedipus

Oedipus could have acted to prevent his own downfall. However, the same qualities that
made him a respected and effective leader ensured that the prophecies regarding him would
come true. Although there were many choices that he could have taken, hamartia, hubris and
character ruled.

The following table outlines 10 pivotal decisions of Oedipus in Sophocles‟ Oedipus

5
Rex. The table indicates that almost all of Oedipus‟ decisions resulted in something other
than his intended goal, which indicates hamartia. Only three sealed his fate; these three are
hubris.

5
The story of Oedipus has been told by several writers, each one with slightly differing characterizations and
relationships.
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 9

Table 1: Hamartia and Hubris in Sophocles‟ Oedipus Rex

The 10 Actions of Sophocles‟ Oedipus Hamartia Hubris

1. He decided to seek the truth regarding his parentage. 

2. He decided to abandon the parents he knew so as to protect them. 

3. He decided to kill a stranger when he felt insulted. 

4. He decides to solve the riddle of the Sphinx. 

5. He decided to marry his Queen Jocasta; they have four children.  

6. He decided to solve the pestilence of Thebes. 

7. He decided that King Laius‟ killer can choose death or banishment. 

8. He decided to conduct the inquiry in a public forum. 

9. He decided to gouge out his own eyes. 

10. He decided to exile himself. 

2.5.1 He decides to know the truth regarding his parentage.

For instance, when he tries to confirm a rumor that he isn't the biological son of
Corinthian King Polybus and Corinthian Queen Merope, he doesn't get a straight answer
from his adoptive parents. He could have left it alone and continued his life as prince of
Thebes. The story could well have ended with him as king of Thebes. Instead, Oedipus goes
to the Delphic Oracle to find identify his biological parents. The Oracle doesn't answer his
question but says that Oedipus will kill his father and marry his mother.

His decision can be classified as hamartia: he aimed to know his biological parents but,
instead, learned of a terrible prophecy. This is not hubris because his actions did not cause the
prophecy to immediately come true. At this point, the prophecy could still be averted by, for
instance, to non-happening of his next decisions.

2.5.2 He abandons the parents he knew by protecting them.

To escape that fate or to save his then known parents, Oedipus flees Corinth. This is
hamartia: his aim was not realized. Instead, something else happened.

Again, his decision cannot be classified as is hubris because this action did not cause the
prophecy to immediately come true. At this point, there is still a possibility that the prophecy
would not happen. This can be classified as hamartia: his goal was to protect the people that
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 10

he identified as his parents. He missed the mark: he did not achieve his goal, mainly because
the people that he sought to protect were not his biological parents.

2.5.3 He kills a stranger when he felt insulted.

He arrives at a crossroads where one of three roads leads to Thebes. Along that road
comes a churlish, surly stranger whom he resembles and who is old enough to be his father.
The man presents an insulting, violent challenge to Oedipus' right of way.

Oedipus could have stayed mindful of the prophecy and avoided killing anyone. He
could have consciously strived to control his temper. He could have chosen to be polite to an
elder person. Instead, Oedipus responds in kind and kills the man who, later, turns out to be
Laius, King of Thebes and his biological father.

This is hubris: this action fulfilled half of the prophecy. If this did not happen, his tragic
end would not have come to pass. This is not hamartia because his goal was to kill the man,
and he achieved exactly that. He did not “miss the mark.”

2.5.4 He decides to solve the riddle of the Sphinx.

Oedipus arrives at the city gates of Thebes where he frees the city from the control of a
Sphinx by solving an unsolvable riddle (See Figure 4).6 He missed the mark: his goal was to
save a city but he instead got a kingdom. This is not hubris because it does not fulfill the
prophecy of doom

2.5.5 He decides to marry the widowed Queen of Thebes.

As a reward, the Thebans offer him the vacant throne and the grieving, newly-widowed
queen as his wife. He could have been mindful of the reason why he left Corinth, and
respectful of the force of divine prophecy.

He could have decided to be humble, respect the age gap between him and the queen,
and ask for another reward instead of the kingship of Thebes. Instead, he accepted his
rewards and married the royal widow who is old enough to be his mother.

This is hamartia: his goal was to claim a prize by marrying the queen. He did not aim to
commit incest, but that is what happened. This is hubris: he felt entitled to claim his prize.
His decision to do so fulfilled the second half of the prophecy.

If he chose not to take this action, his fate would have been different.

2.5.6 He decides to solve the pestilence that ravaged Thebes.

6
What life form moves on all fours in the morning, on twos in the afternoon, and on threes in the evening? [man]
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 11

Much later, a pestilence ravages Thebes of its harvests, its livestock, and its people (See
Figure 3). From Apollo's shrine it's learned that the killer[s] of Laius must be identified and
punished.

This is hamartia: he aimed to save a kingdom. He achieved something else: he found the
killer of King Laius. This has nothing to do with his fate of patricide and maternal incest.
This is not hubris because it is not the fated murder of his father or incest with his mother.

2.5.7 He issues a decree to automatically punish King Laius’ killer.

He could have used his intelligence (he solved an unsolvable riddle) and deduced the
truth from the clues available to him. He could have been tolerant and forgiving enough to
design other options for atonement. Instead, Oedipus decides upon an automatic punishment
of execution or exile, without consideration any for extenuating circumstances.

This is hamartia: his rashness and self-belief pushed his aim to punish a killer and
remove a pestilence. Instead, what he achieved was a situation that ensured the realization of
his fate. It is not hubris because it is not the action that he was fated to do. This is his
decision, not fate.

2.5.8 He decides to conduct the inquiry in a public forum.

He did not listen to advice. He rejected logical reasoning and followed his impulses and
passionate sense of justice. He was driven to unearth the murder and solve the plague. He was
self-confident and proud in in solving these two problems before the whole city of Thebes, in
the presence of his people.

He could have adopted an attitude of humility or at least more self-control. After all, he
was relatively at peace now, believing that he had escaped the terrible prophecies. In
addition, he was a king and respected by his people. Finally, he was a husband as well as a
father of twin boys and two daughters. In short, he had a good life and this should have given
him a measure of peace and serenity of mind.

However, when Creon suggests that they should discuss the news from the oracle in
private, Oedipus insists everything all his actions for helping the city must be done in public.
In addition, he once again lost his temper when Teiresias refused to tell him what he wanted
to know. As a result, Teiresias lost his own temper as well and told Oedipus, "You are the
murderer you seek." If Oedipus had better control of his temper, he might have avoided this
public revelation, or at least learned of the truth in private so that he could examine other
options.
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 12

Is this hamartia or hubris? If it is hamartia, he aimed to know the killer and instead
achieved something else – an accusation. If it is hubris, it should seal his doom. By itself, it is
hamartia; fate would not happen. However, by holding it in a public forum, fate happened.

2.5.9 He gouges out his own eyes.

When he found that his wife was his mother and that she had killed herself by hanging,
when he realized that his two sons and two daughters were children of incest, and that these
realities could have been avoided if he decided to see the indicators or listen to those who
tried to help him, he know that his pride had blinded him. Right then and there, he decides to
physically blind himself.

This is hamartia: his goal was to stop seeing terrible things. Something else happened: he
became helpless.

2.5.10 He chooses exile over death..

When it was discovered that he had caused the plague of Thebes and ruined his
daughters‟ futures, he is forced by his own character to punish himself. His life in Thebes
ends as a blind beggar in exile, accompanied only by his daughter, Antigone (See Figure 1
and Figure 13).

This is hamartia: his goal was to redeem himself in the eyes of his people. They did not
exhibit love or respect for him. Instead, someone else became their king.

2.6 Recapitulation
A combination of fate, character, and events doomed Oedipus to his fate. Three of his
decisions were hubris while eight actions were hamartia. Both combined to fulfill his fate.

Although fate predetermines the turning points in the lives of Jocasta, Laius and
Oedipus, they “are not altogether puppets in the hands of fate… they are free agents, freely
choosing various actions” (Hosain, ibid.).

Before Oedipus was born, the Delphic oracle declared he would kill his father and marry
his mother. The main characters try and circumvent fate with “pity, cruelty, foresight and
bravery” but later realize that fate cannot be circumvented.

Fate shaped the life of the character, Jocasta. She knew what the oracle had prophesied.
When she became pregnant with King Laius‟s child, she attempted to avert the foretelling by
having her messenger remove the child. She acts on her decision and began the series of
events that led to her suicide.
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 13

Fate sealed the destiny of the character Laius. He tried to prevent the foretelling of the
Delphic Oracle. He chained and handed over the baby Oedipus to a servant who passed it to a
Corinthian shepherd, who passed the baby to the Corinthian king. The child grew up as the
son of King Polybus and Queen Merope of Corinth. The young Oedipus was dissatisfied with
their evasions regarding his parentage and set out on a journey where one part of the
foretelling came about: he killed his biological father, King Laius of Thebes.

Fate, character, and action brought about the tragedies in the life of Oedipus. Decisions
classified as hubris made the foretelling real. Decisions classified as hamartia were errors that
achieved something other than the goal. Hamartia contributed to the realization of the
foretelling, but not the foretold event itself.

While the tragedies in the lives of Laius, Jocasta and Oedipus are fated, individual
characters and decisions sealed their fates. They are pre-informed of future events and they
chose to act accordingly to avert those events. However, the critical turning points of the
story are caused by Oedipus' character and decision fuelled by hubris, with hamartia as
contributing factors.

Oedipus' brilliance and determination serve him well in solving mysteries such as his
parentage, the riddle of the Sphinx, and the mysterious plague of Thebes. He was a respected
king, effective in times of crises. He was an introspective person as well as a ruthless seeker
of truth and justice, be he seemed to show a lack of inferential abilities. His reasoning was
distorted by his temper and impulsiveness.

However, Oedipus lacked discretion and self-control. He cannot accept the predictions;
he rejected the very idea of fate and the idea that he is not in total control of his life. This can
be seen as indicative of his high level of self-confidence and of his desire to know and,
thereby, to control. He acts on his viewpoints without bothering to investigate it, such as
when decides to have Creon put to death, his killing Laius, his investigation of the murder,
his bloody and violent gouging of his own eyes, and his insistence on being exiled showed
his great pride and intentions towards the best interests of his kingdom.7

I suggest that Oedipus' downfall was a logical outcome of the writer‟s plot structure. The
elements of that fiction include: (a) character, (b) foretelling, and (c) decisions, both hubris
and hamartia.

7
At the end of Oedipus the King, Oedipus is magnificent as a heroic character, accepting his infamy and
begging for punishment although his errors could have been justified. However, in the sequel Oedipus at
Colonus, the old, helpless, and blind Oedipus argues that his past was not his fault. True, he was entirely
unaware that he killed his father and wedded his mother or that he caused the plague; his rashness is
indicative of his integrity.
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 14

3 HELEN OF TROY

What prophecies of Cassandra were ignored, resulting in tragic ends of those close to
Paris?

Although Cassandra is “the Trojan seeress who uttered true prophecies, but lacking the
power of persuasion, was never believed” (Parada & Förlag, 1997), two of her prophecies
were heeded: when she advised the destruction of the baby Paris, and when she recognized
Paris as her lost brother.

Cassandra foretold many events, but four were critical turning points of the story, and
three were ignored. When her other warnings were ignored, the House of Troy and the city
suffered tragic endings including Cassandra herself (Kluth, n. d.). The following table
presents the key prophecies.

Table 2: Some Prophecies by Princess Cassandra

Paris will cause the destruction of Troy (Johnston, n. d.). 8 Heeded

Paris‟s trip to Sparta would bring disaster. Ignored
Helen‟s stay in Troy will bring calamities upon the Trojans9 Ignored
10
Bringing the Trojan horse into the city will destroy Troy. Ignored

If Cassandra’s prophecies were heeded, could Paris’ destiny have been avoided? Why or
why not?

When Paris was born, Cassandra foretold that he would cause the destruction of Troy. To
avert the foretelling, the parents heeded her warning and had the baby put to death. However,
Paris survived and fulfilled the prophecy. This can indicate that what is fated is fated, and that
even if everyone believed Cassandra‟s utterings, Troy and its royal house would still be
destroyed due to the actions of Paris.

8
“Following the advice of Cassandra's half-brother Aesacus who had learned the art of interpreting dreams
from his maternal grandfather Merops, they exposed the child, since he declared that Paris was to become the
ruin of the country” (Parada & Förlag, 1997).
9
“All buildings, except those belonging to traitors, were set on fire and destroyed… (the Achaeans)
slaughtered whomever they found on the streets, or in homes, or in temples. The members of the Trojan royal
family, seeing what was happening, fled to the temples to seek protection. it was then that Coroebus,
Cassandra's suitor, died; for he, seeing her outraged and abused, attacked the superior enemy in a passion of
rage and was slain” (Parada & Förlag, 1997).
10
“Near the end of the Trojan War, Cassandra declared that there was an armed force hidden inside the
wooden horse that the Achaeans had abandoned in the plain, feigning retreat. Again no one listened, though
the Trojan seer Laocoon confirmed her” (Parada & Förlag, 1997).
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 15

Table 3: Hamartia and Hubris in Homer‟s The Iliad

Plot Developments Hamartia Hubris

King Priam and Queen Hecuba accept and name Alexandros as their

youngest son, Prince Priam, whom they abandoned to death as a baby.
Although they have many other children, King Priam and Queen

Hecuba assign Prince Priam to go to Sparta in Greece.
Despite Cassandra‟s warnings, Prince Priam decides to go to Greece. 
Prince Priam has a love affair with Queen Helen and decides to take

her away to Troy.
Despite Cassandra‟s warnings, the Trojans do not return Helen to the

Greeks.
Despite Cassandra‟s warnings, the Trojans bring in the wooden horse,

and to not post guards around the horse that night.

When King Priam and Queen Hecuba pronounced Paris as their long-lost son, no
retribution came down, so this is not hubris. They may have acted to assuage parental guilt
over the unexecuted infanticide or to express parental love. Instead, they embraced the
foretold destroyer of their city. Thus, this conforms to the definition of hamartia.

When Prince Priam was tasked to travel to Greece on a peace mission, those who
ignored Cassandra‟s warnings against this journey committed hamartia: they got a self-
indulgent, philandering envoy instead. Instead of eliciting peace, they got war.

At this point, war might still have been averted with the proper propitiations or the return
of Helen, so there is still freedom of choice; the fated doom was still not sealed. Thus, this is
not hubris.

Prince Paris committed hamartia when he decided to ignore Cassandra‟s warning against
his going to Greece as well as against keeping Helen in Troy. All the while, he was going for
the most beautiful woman in the world at that time, secure that Athena has promised Helen to
him. He aimed for his prize and got the anger of the Greeks instead. Again, this is not hubris
because retribution could still be averted with judicious action at this point.

The royal family and the citizenry could have pressured Paris to return Helen to Troy.
Instead, they did not.

This non-decision or tacit decision was hubris because it caused their deaths and the
destruction of their city. It is not hamartia because they did not miss the mark. They knew
that by not returning Helen, they were inviting war from the Greeks, and they got it.
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 16

3.1 Background
The plot elements and characters of the movie Helen of Troy is taken from The Iliad by
Homer.

Written in 1186 BC (Jewsbury, 1992), Homer‟s Greek tragedy, The Iliad, is set in the
“palatial city” of Troy (See Figure 5)11 “on the Dardanelles, a crossroads between East and
West and a flashpoint for conflict in both ancient and modern times” (Devitt, 2012).

Troy's massive walls were considered impenetrable (Udallas, n. d.). At that time, Troy's
six-acre citadel had walls more than 30 feet high and 12 feet thick (See Figure 8). “A walled
lower town covered an expanse of 50 acres” (Devitt, ibid.).12

The Greeks across the waters had long wanted to attack Troy for commercial and
political reasons ((See Figure 9)), but they had no strong reason to break their common
cultural honor code, not until Helen relocated toTroy (Guisepi, 2001; Keko, 2010; Anon. [8 ],
2014; Gamer, 2008).

3.2 Backstory
Prince Alexander13 Paris14 of Troy was born in Troy, now Turkey. He was the youngest
son (Scott, 2008) of King Priam15 of Troy and Queen Hecuba.16 His 99 siblings included
eldest brother Hector, Helenus17, Polydorus, Deïphobus, Polyxena, Hippodamas, Troana,
Creusa and Cassandra (Classical Mythology, n. d.). His half-brothers included Aesacus;
Lycaon and Gorgythion (Geni, 2015). He was abandoned to die, but survived and returned to
his royal household as a favored youngest son.

Before that, when he was a young shepherd, he bested other men, had a love a affair with
a nymph, and was known for his fighting skills as well as fairness. Thus, he was chosen to
judge and award a golden apple to the most beautiful among three goddesses: Hera, Athena,
and Aphrodite (See Figure 15).

11
“Now northwest Anatolia in modern Turkey” ([Link]).
12
“The site was occupied almost continuously for about 4,500 years, from the beginning of the Bronze Age to
the 13th century A.D., when it was abandoned and consigned to myth. It was rediscovered in the 1870s by the
wealthy German businessman and pioneering archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann whose work at Troy laid the
foundations for modern archaeology” (Devitt, 2012).
13
The name Alexandros means "defender" because, when Paris was a child, he routed a gang of cattle-thieves
and returned the stolen animals.
14
Paris means "backpack" (πήρα) because the herdsman Agelaus brought carried him in a backpack from
Mount Ida and raised him as his own son.
15
Also: Priamos
16
Also: Hekuba or Hekabe
17
Also: Helenos
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 17

3.3 Plot Summary

Prince Paris of Troy visits the king of Sparta and leaves18 with the king‟s wife
Helen.19 This began the ten-year war between the Greeks and the Trojans, resulting in the
downfall of the House of Troy and the devastation of the citadel of Troy in Hissarlik.20

Paris is the Prince of Troy21, son of king Priam and his queen
Hecuba who heard an oracle‟s foretelling that Paris would cause Troy's
ruin. They left the child to die on Mount Ida. Shepherds adopted Paris,
who enjoyed the love of the nymph Oenones. After he won in King
Priam‟s athletic competitions, he was reunited with his family. He went
to Sparta, was welcomed by King Menelaus, and took away Menelaus‟
wife Queen Helen. The rulers of the Greek kingdoms raised a powerful
army and a fleet of over a thousand ships to win back Helen. The
Greeks attacked Troy and began a war that lasted 10 years. Paris was
killed with an arrow from Philoctetes. Just before his death, Paris
begged his beloved nymph Oenone to heal him, but she refused. After
(Anon., [9], n. d.).

3.4 The Prophecies of Cassandra

Cassandra was the most beautiful and talented daughter of King Priam and Queen
Hecuba. The god Apollo became infatuated with Cassandra‟s beauty, and granted her the gift
of prophecy in return for sex. Cassandra got the gift but refused to have sex so Apollo made
sure that no one would ever believe her prophecies.

Cassandra knew that war was coming to Troy. She knew that her friends and family will
face horrible deaths and suffering, that her home and city and people will be destroyed, that
she will be raped, taken as a sex slave, and that she would be murdered by a king‟s jealous
wife.

3.4.1 The Coming of the War

She foretold that Paris, her brother, would bring about a war that would destroy their
city, if he went to Sparta. Her brother did not believe her, and upon his return from Sparta
with Menelaus' wife, Helen, Cassandra attacked her for the pain that was about to be caused.

3.4.2 The Destruction of Troy

Many times Cassandra warned her father, King Priam, to return Helen to Greece so as to
avoid the destruction of Troy. Priam believed and wanted to follow her advice. However, her
mother Queen Hecuba convinced Priam to desist and strongly forbade Cassandra to stop her

18
Some legends say that Paris forcibly abducted Helen; others that she fell in love with him and went willingly
19
Or Helen
20
A detailed backstory, The Story Before the Story of the Iliad (2013) is available at [Link]
21
Some sources name him as Alexander or Alexandros.
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 18

prophecies, or else be imprisoned. As a result, deaths touched even those who were not in the
war. For instance, after Paris‟ death, his first love, the nymph Oenone committed suicide.

3.4.3 Abduction of a Seer

When Cassandra predicted the abduction of her brother Helenus by the Greek hero
Odysseus, no one listened, but Odysseus captured Helenus, who also could predict the future.

Unlike the Trojans, the Greeks and their leader, Odysseus, listened to prophecies
Helenus. As a result, Odysseus came up with the idea of a huge wooden horse to capture
Troy at long last.

3.4.4 The Devastation of Troy

She foretold the sacking of Troy. When the Greeks withdrew to a nearby island leaving
outside the walls the wooden with a few men hiding inside, she warned her compatriots to
leave the horse outside of the city halls (See Figure 6). Instead, they tore destroyed parts of
their wall to bring the horse inside the city.

That night the soldiers crept from the horse, killed the sentries, and opened the gates to
let the Greek army in. The Greeks looted, set fires throughout the city, and massacred the
inhabitants.

3.4.5 Death of the King and his Men

The great King Priam, who huddled in fear near Zeus' altar, was killed by Achilles‟ son
Pyrrhus22 to avenge his father‟s death. They slaughtered the Trojans – including– and set the
city on fire Paris was killed by the Achaian warrior, Prince Achilles or by Philoctetes.23
Achilles killed Paris‟ brother Hector after Paris killed Patroclus, Achilles‟ squire and best
friend. Paris‟ half-brother Lycaon was killed by Achilles. Hector's young son Astyanax was
thrown from the walls of the city. By morning almost all Trojan males were dead; only
Aeneas, his father, and his son, managed to escape the slaughter.

3.4.6 Slavery of the Queen

The women became slaves. Paris‟ sister, Princess Polyxena and beloved by Achilles, was
brutally sacrificed on the tomb of Achilles. Queen Hecuba became the slave of Odysseus.
Pain stalked both sides warring parties and those who came to their aid. King Telephus of
Mysia, Aenas, Ares, Patroclus, and Diomedes were injured. Deaths included Protesilaus,

22
Also called Neoptolemus
23
One story says that Paris was slain by a poisoned arrow from the bow of Philoctetes.
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 19

Palamedes, Pandarus, King Rhesus, Queen Penthesilea, Antilochus, Memnon, many Greeks
and many Trojans

3.4.7 Cassandra’s Murder, and Beyond

Cassandra was raped by Ajax and then enslaved by King Agamemnon. Much later,
Queen Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus killed the king and Cassandra (Anon. [10] n. d.;
Anon. [11]. n. d.). Some sources mention that Cassandra and Agamemnon had twin boys,
Teledamus and Pelops, both of whom were killed by Aegisthus. Cassandra foretold that
Clymnestra and Aegisthus will be killed by her children, Electra and Orestes. Cassandra also
foresaw that Odysseus will wander for a decade.

3.5 Recapitulation
The best of classical dramaturgy, particularly Greek tragedies, use specific writing
conventions such as the willing suspension of disbelief, compression techniques such as
flashbacks and foretelling, hubris to seal fates, hamartia to hasten the sealing of fates, and
characterizations with heroic proportions.

Within this framework of fiction writing, Homer wove The Iliad, an epic tale spanning
years, cultures, and including gods and mortals. The writing conventions require that Prince
Paris Alexandros of Troy, a central character, should be overcome by circumstance, in the
case the fates foretold by his sister, the Apollonian priestess Cassandra.

Considering these elements and frameworks of fiction in tragic dramaturgy, the reactions
of the characters to Cassandra‟s prophecies will not matter; Troy will fall, and so will Paris
and his loved ones.

Queen Helena of Greece goes down in history as Helen of Troy, because this is how the
tragedy happens to Paris. Cassandra goes down in history as an adjective that describes a
person spouting dire portents ignored by those who choose to be blind to future consequences
and preferring instead to stay within their present comfort zones.
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 20

REFERENCES

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Haderlie, D. (2009). The Tragic Hero as a Faith Device. p. 14. Electronic document available
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 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 22

APPENDICES

Table 4: Outline of Sophocles‟ Oedipus Rex

A. Laius and Jocasta

1. Laius flees from Thebes to the court of Pelops
2. Laius rapes Chrysippus, son of Pelops; Pelops curses Laius
3. Laius returns to Thebes, marries Jocasta
4. Laius learns from oracle that his own son would kill him
5. Shepherd pities child, gives it to friend from Corinth
6. Friend gives it to Polybus and Merope, rulers of Corinth
7. Child called Oedipus („swollen foot‟)
B. The Oracle and the Murder of Laius
1. Oedipus, grown, is accused by friend of being a bastard
2. Goes to Delphi to ask Oracle who his parents are
3. Oracle: "You will kill your father and marry your mother"
4. Decides to avoid Corinth and heads toward Thebes
5. Is abused by man and entourage at crossroads
6. Oedipus kills them all except one
C. Thebes and the Sphinx
1. The Sphinx (half lion, half woman, wings)
2. No one can solve her riddle
3. Creon, brother of Jocasta, ruler in Laius' absence
4. Creon: whoever solves riddle, rules Thebes/marries Jocasta
5. Oedipus solves riddle
D. Sophocles’ Oedipus the King
1. A plague in Thebes; Oedipus consults Delphic Oracle
2. Oracle: Find and punish Laius' murderer
3. Asks prophet Teiresias, who tells him that he is the murderer
4. Oedipus suspects conspiracy
5. Slowly discovers truth, via his own investigation
6. Jocasta hangs herself
7. Oedipus puts out his eyes with hairpins
8. Oedipus wants to leave Thebes, Creon now rules
From Anon. [12] n. d., pp. 10-11
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 23

Figure 1: Oedipus in Exile

Figure 2: The Messenger with the infant Oedipus
Painting by Fulchran-Jean Harriet
Sculpture by Antoine-Denis Chaudet
[Link]
[Link]

Figure 3: The Plague of Thebes Figure 4: Oedipus and the Sphinx

Charles François Jalabeat (1819-1901) [Link]
Musée des Beaux Arts, Marseilles
[Link]
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 24

Figure 5: The Nine Layers of Troy

The History Behind Greek Mythology
[Link]

Figure 6: The Wooden Horse enters Troy

Laser mapping spots lost city in Honduras
[Link]
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 25

Figure 7: Excavation Map of Troy

Exploring the Ruins of Ancient Troy: A Visitor's Guide
Jess Lee, [Link]

Figure 8: Aerial View of the City of Troy

[Link]
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 26

Figure 9: Possible Route of Greek Expedition to Troy

[Link]

Figure 10: Greek Amphitheater

[Link]
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 27

Figure 11: Map location of Thebes and Corinth

[Link]

Figure 12: Thebes, now Luxor, Egypt

Artist’s rendition at [Link]
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 28

Figure 13: Oedipus & Antigone Figure 14: Oedipus at Colonus

Antoni Brodowski, 1828 Jean-Antoine-Théodore Giroust, 1788, Dallas Museum of Art
[Link] [Link]

Figure 15: The Judgment of Paris

Enrique Simonet Lombardo, 1904
[Link]
 Fates, Hubris, and Hamartia in Oedipus Rex and in Helen of Troy: by Jaime Cabrera 29

Table 5: Summary of Homer‟s Iliad

BOOK I. Apollo is angry because Agamemnon has failed to let one of the god's priests ransom a daughter
Agamemnon had allotted himself as a war-prize. Agamemnon reluctantly gives the girl up but insists on taking
in her place Briseis, a captive originally assigned to Achilles--hence the "wrath of Achilles," which is the epic's
announced topic. Achilles complains to his divine mother, Thetis, who persuades Zeus to let the Trojans prevail
in battle until Achilles's honor is satisfied.
BOOK II. Lured by a false dream sent by Zeus, the Greeks mass for battle, as do the Trojans. Homer gives long
lists of both and their allies.
BOOK III. Paris agrees to single combat with Menelaus to settle the issue of the war and everyone on both sides
hopes that the war will soon be over, but when Paris starts to lose Aphrodite wafts him away. Even Helen is mad
at both Paris and the goddess.
BOOK IV. The Olympians quarrel among themselves and help stir up battle on the fields of Troy.
BOOK V. Athena helps Diomedes, the son of King Tydeus of Argos, wound Aphrodite as that goddess is
bearing her Trojan son Aeneas off the battlefield. Ares comes to the aid of the Trojans, and Diomedes wounds
him, too.
BOOK VI. The Trojan hero Hector drops home during battle to make some sacrifices. His wife Andromache
begs him not to leave her a widow, but he goes back to battle anyway. Diomedes and the Trojan hero Glaucus
discover that their fathers were friends and exchange armor--Diomedes gets the better of the bargain, giving his
bronze armor in return for golden armor.
BOOK VII. Hector wreaks havoc, and Apollo keeps Athena from helping the Greeks. Ajax is chosen to face
Hector in single combat; they fight till night without result. Priam's brother-in-law Antenor advises the Trojans
to give up Helen, but Paris refuses. The Greeks build a wall and dig a moat to protect their ships.
BOOK VIII. Guided by Zeus, Hector leads a Trojan rout of the Greeks, but nightfall keeps them from climbing
the walls and burning the ships.
BOOK IX. Advised by Nestor, Agamemnon finally agrees to return Briseis to Achilles and give him other great
gifts, but Achilles won't come back. He knows that his glory will mean his death.
BOOK X. Sent to spy on the Trojans, Odysseus and Diomedes capture a Trojan spy and learn about a Trojan
ally on his way. They kill him and the spy.
BOOK XI. The next day brings another bloody battle. Nestor carries off one of the wounded. Achilles sends his
closest friend Patroclus (or Patrokles) to find out who it is, and Nestor urges Patroclus to wear Achilles's armor
and lead their men into battle.
BOOK XII. Led by Hector, the Trojans break through the Greek walls.
BOOK XIII. Poseidon disobeys Zeus and helps rally the Greeks.
BOOK XIV. Poseidon keeps Agamemnon from calling a retreat to the ships, while Hera (borrowing a magic
girdle from Aphrodite) seduces Zeus and lulls him to sleep. Hector is wounded by a stone, and the Trojans are
driven back.
BOOK XV. Zeus wakes up mad at his wife and sends Apollo to heal Hector, who comes back and burns the
Greek ships.
BOOK XVI. Achilles agrees to let Patroclus wear his armor and lead his men. The Trojans fall back, but Hector
kills Patroclus after Apollo stuns him.
BOOK XVII. There is a big fight for the battle of Patroclus. Menelaus goes to tell Achilles his friend is dead.
BOOK XVIII. Achilles weeps and carries on. His mother Thetis promises to buy him some new armor
overnight. Just seeing him come out to the field of battle makes the Trojans retreat some.
BOOK XIX. Achilles reconciles with Agamemnon and leads the Greeks to battle.
BOOK XX. Zeus allows the gods to join in the battle. The Greeks are supported by Hera, Athena, Poseidon,
Hermes, and Hephaestus; the Trojans, by Apollo, Artemis, Ares, and Aphrodite.
BOOK XXI. The gods quarrel among themselves, while Achilles is winning the day. The Trojans retreat within
their walls.
BOOK XXII. Hector reproaches himself for not having retreated at the first appearance of Achilles. He goes out
to meet Achilles in single combat and is slain. Achilles ties his body behind a chariot and drags it off to the
Greek ships.
BOOK XXIII. Funeral games are part of the magnificent burial Achilles gives Patroclus.
BOOK XXIV. As part of his mourning, Achilles keeps dragging the body of Hector around the tomb. Zeus
insists that he give the body back, and the gods help Hector's father Priam sneak into the Greek camp to beg for
it. Achilles holds the war off while funeral rites are held for Hector. Homer's epic ends with Hector mourned by
his wife Andromache, his mother Hecuba, and even Helen, to whom he had been kinder than most Trojans,
many of whom understandably resented her role in bringing on the war.
Canary, B. (2002). Summary of Homer’s Iliad. Electronic document available at [Link]