Set 3 Introduction to Fault Analysis
Reality
Generator (14-16 relay types), Transformer (3-5), Transmission line (2-4), Bus bar
(1) Motor (4-6)
• But we spend “most” of our time doing short-circuit current calculations for only
two of them:
50 Instantaneous overcurrent, or rate-of-rise relay is a relay that functions
instantaneously on an excessive value of current, or on an excessive rate of current
rise, thus indicating
a fault in the apparatus of circuit being protected.
51 AC time overcurrent relay is a relay with either a definite or inverse time
characteristic that functions when the current in an ac circuit exceeds a predetermined
value.
[NOTE: There is one other relay for which we have to do significant calculations – the
loss of synchronism relay – done much later in the course
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Modelling for Fault Studies
• Line capacitances are in shunt and have a very large impedance. They
have no impact on fault levels. Ignore them.
• X/R ratios for all devices are high
Suppose Z = 1 + j10 = 10.05 (magnitude) then ISC = V/Z = 100/10.05 =
9.95 amps OR ISC = V/X = 100/10 =10.0 [no loss of accuracy]
• We do all our calculations in per unit. Transformer turns ratios
disappear in per unit.
* Therefore all circuit models for short circuit current calculations
involve only voltage sources and reactances.
2
Balanced Fault
Balanced fault (only one):
● Three phase short circuit (tower falls to earth shorting
all three phase together)
1. It acts on all phases in the same way.
1. If we calculate what is happening to the current in
phase A, then we automatically know what is
happening in phase B and phase C. The current
magnitudes are identical, they are shifted in phase by
120 degrees.
2. Therefore we can use a per-phase model.
3
Unbalanced Faults
Unbalanced faults (many):
● Line to ground, or phase to ground (L-G).
● Line to line, or phase to phase (L-L)
● Line to line to ground, or phase to phase to ground (L-L-G)
● Open phase, or open conductor
85% of all faults on the power system are L-G.
80% of them are temporary.
[NOTE:
We often use “single pole, reclosing circuit breakers” on both
ends of our 345 kV transmission lines.]
4
Unbalanced Faults
Unbalanced faults (many):
● Line to ground, or phase to ground (L-G).
● Line to line, or phase to phase (L-L)
● Line to line to ground, or phase to phase to
ground (L-L-G)
● Open phase, or open conductor
85% of all faults on the power system are L-G.
80% of them are temporary.
[AND:
We always use “reclosers” on the distribution
system.
They try to reclose ONCE, TWICE and then stay
OPEN if the fault still persists
5
Unbalanced Fault Analysis
● Faults are unbalanced.
● Cannot use a per-phase model.
● Have to model all three phases.
● Only two choices.
1. Model the self inductance of each phase, and the mutual
inductances between all phases, for every device on the power
system.
2. Use Symmetrical Components – the overwhelming choice.
[Even though this seems ridiculous – why would anyone want to
have to define a new set of impedances for all power system
components?. Later we will learn that we call them positive,
negative and zero sequence impedances]
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A generator is a special component – it is a set of coupled coils
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The effect of many coupled circuits
For a short time, the current decayed with a very, very
small time constant
Westinghouse
put a direct, Then the current decay was determined by a longer time
bolted, constant
permanent fault Then the steady state was reached
on a small 30
kW three phase
generator
running at no
load. They
measured the
stator phase
current.
8
Phasor representation of different decay rates
This led to the concept of dividing the time region up into
three so that a phasor approximation could be used for each
region.
There is a subtransient current in
the stator which is equal to the
generator internal voltage E
divided by a subtransient
reactance.
I” = E / X”
There is a transient current in the
stator which is equal to E divided
by a transient reactance.
I’ = E / X’
There is a steady state current in
the stator which is equal to E
divided by a steady state
reactance, which from your
undergraduate power system
analysis course is Xs
Iss = E / Xs
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Idea 9 – Introducing some synchronous machine reactances
So we are introduced to three
synchronous machine reactances.
X double prime or X” is the
subtransient reactance. It is small.
X prime or X’ is the transient
reactance. It is a little larger.
Xss or X synchronous or Xs is the
steady state reactance. It is larger
still.
10
Balanced Fault
Calculation
Three phase
fault at
point F
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Balanced Fault
Calculation
Three phase
fault at
point F
Comment on values of E” and EB
What is the internal voltage of a generator just before a fault?
Who knows – it might be overexcited or it might be underexcited.
Unless otherwise stated, we take it as 1.0 per unit.
I From G = 1.0/ j (0.25 + 0.15) = 1.0/j 0.4 = -j 2.5 per unit
I From IB = 1.0/ j (0.1 + 0.6//0.6) = 1.0/j (0.1 + 0.3) = -j 2.5 per unit
IFault = -j 2.5 - j 2.5 = -j 5.0 (or 500% of Rated Load Current
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Thevenin Equivalent
Three phase
fault at
point F
For any network, before putting the fault on the network we
could always reduce it to a VThevenin in series with an XThevenin.
This would appear like a single open circuit generator at point F
For this reason, all derivations are done using “open circuit
generators” as models.
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