Vector-Valued Functions and

Space Curves.

Vector-Valued Functions and Space

Curves
Derivatives and Integrals
Arc Length, Curvature, Tangents,
Normal
Torsion
 What are vectors ?

 Mathematically a vector is an element of the

vector space.

 In physics a spatial vector is a geometrical object

that apart from obeying the usual rules of vector
space also transforms in a specific way when
coordinates are transformed.

 There is also a biological entity known as a

vector.
 What are vectors ?
When a body travels through space, then the equation
x = f(t), y = g(t) and z = h(t) gives the position of the
body as function of time.
We can also represents the same with the help of
vector in single equation r(t) = f(t)i + g(t)j + h(t) k.
 The points (x,y,z) = (f(t), g(t), h(t)) make up a curve
in space known as path of the particle , where t 
I.
  The simplest and one of the most useful vector
valued function is the position vector of a particle as
a function of time.


r (t )  f (t ) iˆ  g (t ) ˆj  h(t ) kˆ

All the coordinates are

specified as functions of
the same variable.
y
x
Equation of such curves are known as parametric equations.
 Helix: a well known space curve.


r (t )  cost iˆ  sin t ˆj  t kˆ

Where does one find this curve ?

Springs Polymers Biopolymers

Polarized light Threading on screws

Analysis of music Plants

 The parameter of a space curve.

The parameter need not be always time.

• Imagine a car moving on the highway of a mega city.

• The parameter could be:

• Distance traveled.

• Fuel used.

• Time.
 Graphs
• Given a set of parametric equations a graph of the
function can be drawn by taking various values of
the parameter and evaluating the coordinates at
those parameter values.

• Alternatively one may eliminate the parameter to get

an equation for the curve.
Examples
 t ˆ 2t ˆ
r e i  e j x y2


Easy to eliminate t.

 t ˆ
r  sin(t ) e i  t cos(t ) ˆj

Difficult to eliminate t. Parametric form

is easier for plotting.
 Find the expression for graphs by eliminating t.


r (t )  (t  1) iˆ (t 2  1) ˆj y  x  2 x.
2


r (t )  (t 2  1) iˆ (2 t  1) ˆj 4 x  y  2 y  5.
2

2

r (t )  cos 2t iˆ 3 sin 2t ˆj  y
x     1.
2

3
 Definition of limit

Lim r(t )  L
t  t0

If for every   0 there exists a   0 so that for all t

 
0  t  t0   r (t )  L 

Continuity

A vector function r (t ) is continuous at a point t  t 0
if
 
Lim r (t )  r (t 0 ).
t  t0
 
For a vector function, r (t )  f (t ) iˆ  g (t ) ˆj  h(t ) kˆ
If a limit exists as t→t0 then,


lim r (t )  lim f (t ) iˆ  lim g (t ) ˆj  lim h(t ) kˆ
t t0 t t0 t t0 t t0
 L1 iˆ  L2 ˆj  L3 kˆ.

A vector function, r(t) is continuous at a point t = t0 in its

domain if

 
Lim r (t )  r (t 0 ).
t  t0
 Continuity

• The function is continuous if it is continuous at every

points in it domain.

• The function is continuous if its components are

continuous at every points in it domain.
 The Derivative of function
 ˆ ˆ ˆ
The vector function, r (t )  f (t ) i  g (t ) j  h(t ) k
is differentiable at t = t0 if f, g and h are
differentiable at t0.


dr (t ) df ˆ dg ˆ dh ˆ
 i j  k.
dt dt dt dt

Note that the vector dr / dt points in the direction
of increasing t even if dt is negative.
A vector function r is differentiable if it is
differentiable at every points of the domain.

dr (t )
is a vector tangent to the curve.
dt
 Smooth Curves

 dr (t )
The curve traced by r is smooth if dt is
continuous and never zero., i.e., the first derivatives of
f, g and h are continuous and not simultaneously zero.

dr (t )
Why do we need ≠ 0?
dt

dr (t )
At all the points where dtis not a zero vector the
curve is defined to be smooth.
A piecewise smooth curve is made up of smooth pieces,
The curve is non-smooth at connecting points.
 Example

r (t )  t iˆ  t 2 ˆj . x y
2

Is the curve smooth at t = 0 ?

df dg dh
 1,  0,  0.
dt t 0 dt t 0 dt t 0

According to our definition the curve is smooth.

 Example

r (t )  t 2 iˆ  t 3 ˆj . x y
3 2

Is the curve smooth at t = 0 ?

df dg dh
 0,  0,  0.
dt t 0 dt t 0 dt t 0

The curve is not smooth at t = 0.

 Example
Consider the curve,

r (t )  t 3 iˆ  t 6 ˆj . x y
2

Is the curve smooth at t = 0 ?

df dg dh
 0,  0,  0.
dt t 0 dt t 0 dt t 0

The curve is not smooth at t = 0 !!

Our definition gives us two opposite results for the
same Cartesian curve.

A better definition would be,


 dr (t )
The curve traced by r is smooth if dt is
continuous and never zero., i.e., the first derivatives of
f, g and h are continuous and not simultaneously zero,
for at least one parameterization of the curve.
The requirement of nonzero derivative ensures that
there is a continuously turning tangent at each point.

It also ensures that there are no sharp corners.

 The Velocity Vector.


Note that if r represents the position vector of a particle

then dr / dt represents the velocity vector.


The velocity vector v is tangent to the space curve.

v
Speed = v vˆ  .
v
The derivative of velocity, when it exists, is the particle’s
acceleration vector.
 2
 dv (t ) d r (t )
a  2
.
dt dt
 Example
A particle moves along a parabola y² = 2 x from left
to right at a constant velocity of 5 units per
second. Find the velocity of the particle at the point
(2,2).
y2  2x
The direction of the tangent vector is
dy
 2y 2 given by the unit vector,
dx
dy 1
 
dx ( 2, 2 ) 2
 Example
For the given position vector of a particle, find
the velocity and acceleration at t = 1, also find
the speed and the direction of the velocity.
2
 t
r (t )  2 ln(t  1) iˆ  t 2 ˆj  kˆ
2
 2 ˆ ˆ 
v (t )  ˆ
i  2t j  t k v (1)  iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ
t 1
 2 ˆ ˆj  kˆ  1ˆ
a (t )   i  2 a (1)   i  2 ˆj  kˆ
(t  1) 2 2

v(1)  6 vˆ(1)  (iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ) / 6


v (1)  v(1) vˆ(1)  (iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ)
 Differentiation Rules
 
dC For a constant vector C .
0
dt
 
d (cu ) du
c For a constant c.
dt dt

   
d   du dv d   du dv
(u  v )   (u  v )  
dt dt dt dt dt dt

   
d   du  dv  d   du   dv
(u  v )  v  u (u  v )  v  u
dt dt dt dt dt dt
 
dr dr dt

ds dt ds
 Rotation of a Vector.

When the length of a vector does not change in time

then the only way the vector can change is by change
in direction.
 
u u  c
d  
 (u  u )  0
dt

 du
 2u  0
 dt
For a rotating vector,
du 
dt is normal to u.
If u is a differentiable function of constant length, then
 Integrals of Vector Functions.


The indefinite integral of r with respect to t is the set

of all antiderivatives of
 r , denoted by  r (t ) dt if R is
any antiderivative of r then,
  
 r (t ) dt  R(t )  C

The definite integral of r from a to b is,

b b b b ˆ
a r (t ) dt  a f (t ) dt ˆ
i  a g (t ) dt ˆ
j  a h (t ) dt k
 Find a particle’s position from its velocity and
initial position.

dr (t ) 
 cos t iˆ  sin t ˆj  kˆ r (0)  2 iˆ  kˆ
dt
Integrate the velocity equation,
 
r (t )  sin t iˆ  cost ˆj  t kˆ  C
Use the initial conditions.

C  2 iˆ  ˆj  kˆ

r (t )  (sin t  2) iˆ  (cost  1) ˆj  (t  1) kˆ
 Find a particle’s position from its acceleration and
initial conditions.
 
 dr (t )
 8 iˆ  8 ˆj
2
d r (t )
  32 kˆ r (0)  100 kˆ dt t 0
dt

Integrate the equation.

 
dr (t )
  32 t kˆ  C1
dt
 2 ˆ
 
r (t )  16 t k  C1t  C2
 Use the initial conditions.
 
C1  8 iˆ  8 ˆj C2  100 kˆ

The position vector is,


r (t )  8 t iˆ  8 t ˆj  (100  16 t 2 ) kˆ
 The Arc Length.

One of the special features of smooth curve is that they

have a measurable length.
This enables us to locate points along these curves by
giving their directed distance s along the curve from some
base point.
 we locate points on coordinate axes by giving their
directed distance from the origin.
 Time is the natural parameter for describing a moving
body’s velocity and acceleration, but s is the natural
parameter for studying a curve’s shape.
 The Arc Length.

For a smooth curve given by,


r (t )  f (t ) iˆ  g (t ) ˆj  h(t ) kˆ

The length of the curve between points t = a and t = b is,

b 2 2 2
 df   dg   dh 
L         dt
 dt   dt   dt 
a
 In short form,
b

L v dt
a

Note that the directed distance,

t

s (t )   v ( ) d
t0

is positive if t > t0 and negative if t < t0.

 t

s (t )   v ( ) d
t0

s(t) is called an arc parameter of the curve. The parameter

value increases in the direction of increasing t.

The point P( t0 ) is called the base point.

Find the tangent vector of the curve

r (t )  6 sin(2t ) iˆ  6 cos 2t  ˆj  5t kˆ

and find the length between 0t 

The tangent vector is,


v (t )  12 cos(2t ) iˆ 12 sin 2t  ˆj  5 kˆ

The length is 13

Find the tangent vector of the curve

r (t )  cos3 t ˆj  sin3 t kˆ

and find the length between 0t  /2

The tangent vector is,


v (t )  3 cos2 t sin t ˆj  3 sin2 t cost kˆ

The length is 3/ 2
What geometrical shape is defined by position vectors,

u  u1iˆ  u2 ˆj  u3 kˆ where u = 1 ?

Generally such unit vectors are used to indicate

directions.

 
What does the curve r (t )  t u represent ?

  
The curve r (t )  P (t0 )  t u . represents a line through

P0 with tangent in u direction.
 The Unit Tangent Vector.

ds
Since 0 s is one to one and its inverse exists.
dt
1
Given a function y  f (x) and its inverse x  f ( y)

Since x  f 1 ( f ( x)) application of the chain rule gives

df 1 ( y ) df ( x) dy dx dy 1
 1 
dy dx dx dy dx dx / dy
 Thus we have the derivative of the inverse.

dt 1 1
  
ds ds / dt v

Now one can use the chain rule to write

  
dr dr dt v
  
ds dt ds v

 dr is a unit vector in the direction of velocity.
T  We shall call it the unit tangent vector.
ds
 The unit tangent vector plays an important role in
calculation of curvature and torsion calculations of
a space curve.

Find the unit tangent vector of the curve


r (t )  6 sin(2t ) iˆ  6 cos 2t  ˆj  5t kˆ

The unit tangent vector is,


T (t )  cos(2t ) i  sin 2t  j  k
12 ˆ 12 ˆ 5 ˆ
13 13 13
Find the unit tangent vector of the curve

r (t )  cos3 t ˆj  sin3 t kˆ

The unit tangent vector is,


T (t )   cos t ˆj  sin t kˆ
 Involute of a circle.

 If a string wound around a fixed circle is unwound while held

taut in the plane of the circle, its end P traces an involute.

The involute of a circle is the path traced by the endpoint

of a string unwinding from a circle.
The string remains tangent to the circle while being
unwound.

Find the equation of the involute curve when the radius

of the circle is 1 and the string is unwinding anticlockwise.
Involute of a circle.
The position vector of the contact point is,

P (t )  cos t iˆ  sin t ˆj
c

The displacement vector from the contact point to

the endpoint of the string is in the direction.

d (t )   ( sin t iˆ  cos t ˆj )

The string length is t.

The equation of the involute is,

 
P (t )  t d (t )  (cost  t sin t ) iˆ  (sin t  t cos t ) ˆj
c
Find the unit tangent vector of the involute in the
previous example.


r (t )  (cost  t sin t ) iˆ  (sin t  t cost ) ˆj
 
 dr v t
v (t )   t cos t iˆ  t sin t ˆj
dt

 v 
T    cos t iˆ  sin t ˆj
v
Curvature, Torsion and the TNB
Frame. Planer curves.
 The Curvature of a Plane Curve

The rate at which the unit tangent vector turns per

unit length along the curve is called the curvature
of the curve at the given point.

The symbol for curvature is the Greek letter .


dT
 ( s) 
ds
   
dr dr dt v
T    
ds dt ds v
is a unit vector in the direction of velocity. We shall call
it the unit tangent vector.
The curvature of a straight line is zero.

The equation for a straight line is,

  
r (t )  P(t0 )  t u

where u is a constant unit vector.
 
The unit tangent vector is T  u
 
dT dT dt 0
 0 
ds dt ds
 The curvature of a circle of radius a is 1/a.

r (t )  a cost iˆ  a sin t ˆj
Writing the equation in terms of arc length s
measured with respect to the base point (a,0) ,


r (s)  a coss / a iˆ  a sins / a  ˆj

T   sin(s / a) iˆ  cos(s / a) ˆj

 
dT 1 1
  cos(s / a) iˆ  sin(s / a) ˆj  
ds a a
 The Principal Unit Normal Vector

dT
The vector points in the direction in which T turns as the smooth
ds
curve bends.

 dT 
T 1  is orthogonal to T .
ds
The principal normal vector is defined as

 1 dT
N Provided  is nonzero.
 ds
 
N has unit magnitude and it is normal to T .

N can also be written as,

 1 dT
N
 ds s is an increasing function
 
dT dT of t and t is an increasing
 function of s.
ds ds
 
 dT dt   dT dt 
   
 dt ds 
 dt ds  
 
d T dT

dt dt
The direction of the unit normal vector

N
 
T T


N


N always points towards the concave
side of the curve.
 
Show that given a curve r (t )  f (t ) iˆ  g (t ) ˆj
 
both n (t )   g (t ) iˆ  f (t ) ˆj and  n (t )

are normal to it.

   
Show that v (t )  n(t )  v (t )  n(t )  0
Use the previous result to find the unit normal vector.

r (t )  t iˆ  e2t ˆj

y
Notice that the curve is ye 2x



v (t )  iˆ  2 e2t ˆj N

The normal vectors are x

  
n1 (t )   2e2t iˆ  ˆj and n2 (t )  n1 (t )
 
From the graph, the direction of n(t ) is towards
the concave side.

The unit normal vector has negative component in the

x direction.

The normal vector is,


 n1 (t ) (2e 2t iˆ  ˆj )
N (t )    .
n1 (t ) 1  4e 4t
Find the unit normal vector for,

r (t )  4  t i  t ˆj
2 ˆ
2t  2

The Cartesian equation is, x2  y2  4

 t
v (t )  iˆ  ˆj
4t 2

The normal vectors are

 t ˆj  iˆ  t ˆj  iˆ
n1 (t )  n2 (t ) 
4t 2
4t 2
Find the unit normal and unit tangent vectors for,

r (t )  a cos t  iˆ  a sin t  ˆj

 
  sin t  iˆ  cos t  ˆj
v (t )
T (t )  
v (t )

 
 dT dT
N
dt dt
  cos t  iˆ  sin t  ˆj
 Circle of Curvature

The circle of curvature at the

the point P is such a circle
that,

P 1. passes through P and has
the same tangent as the curve
at P.
2 .if the curve has a curvature  then the
circle is of the same curvature as  .
3. the circle lies towards the concave side of the curve.

This circle is also called the osculating circle.

 Radius of Curvature

The radius of curvature of the curve at a point P

is the radius of the circle of curvature.

Radius of curvature =

Centre of Curvature of the curve at P is the center

of the circle of curvature.
 The Binormal Vector

The binormal
 vector
 is a unit vector normal to both the
vectors T and N .
  
B T N

N and define a moving right handed frame.

This frame is very useful in real projectile dynamics,

animations and in the dynamics of long polymers.

This frame is also known as the Frenet frame.

 Torsion

Torsion quantifies how much a curve rotates out of its

local plane of motion.
  
B T N
  
dB dT   dN
   N T 
ds ds ds
 
dB  dN
 T 
ds ds
 Torsion

Since dB/ds is orthogonal to B, it follows that dB/ds is

orthogonal to the plane of B and T. In other words dB/ds is
parallel to N. So dB/ds is a scalar multiple of N.

dB/ds = -  N

Where  is called the torson along the curve.

Negative sign in the above equation is traditional.

dB/ds.N = -  N.N = - 
Let B = T N, then torson function of smooth curve is
 = -dB/ds.N
The curvature  is positive by definition.

Torsion can be positive, negative or zero.


dB
 0  0
ds
Torsion is zero for planer curves.


B is constant.
 
B
Rectifying Normal plane.
plane.


N

 Osculating plane.
T

Curvature gives the rate at which the normal plane turns

as the point moves along the curve.

Torsion is the rate at which the osculating plane turns

about T . Torsion measures how the curve twists.
Find curvature and torsion for the helix,

r (t )  a cost iˆ  a sin t ˆj  bt kˆ


v (t )   a sin t iˆ  a cost ˆj  b kˆ


T (t )  (a sin t iˆ  a cost ˆj  b kˆ) / a 2  b2
   
dT dT dt dT 
   /v
ds dt ds dt
a ˆ  sin t ˆj
 2  cos t i
a  b2
a
 2
a  b2
The curvature approaches zero in both a and b
going to Infinity limits.
 
 dT dT
N /
ds ds
  cos t iˆ  sin t ˆj
   
B T N

B(t )  (b sin t iˆ  b cost ˆj  a kˆ) / a 2  b2
 
dB  dB 1 
  N    N
ds dt v
b
 2
a  b2

The torsion approaches zero in both a and b going to

Infinity limits.
 Components of acceleration.

The tangential and normal components of accelerations

are useful quantities. 
  d 2 s ds dT ds
a T 2  ( )
  ds dt dt ds dt
v T
dt  d 2 s ds  ds
 T 2  ( N )
dt dt dt
 d 2s   ds  2
 T 2  N 
dt  dt 
2
 ds 
2
d s
The tangential and normal aT  2 , a N    
Components are, dt  dt 
The components can also be written as,

2
2
d s d   ds  2
aT  2  v aN       v
dt dt  dt 

Often, it is easier to calculate the normal component

using,

2
aN  a  aT
2
Find the normal and tangent components of acceleration.

r (t )  (2t  3) iˆ  (t 2  1) ˆj

 
 dr v  2 t 2 1
v (t )   2 iˆ  2t ˆj
dt

d  2t 
aT  v  a(t )  2 ˆj
dt t 2 1

2 2 2
a 4 aN  a  aT 
2

1 t 2
Find the tangent and normal components aN, aT for the
anticlockwise involute of a unit circle.


r (t )  (cost  t sin t ) iˆ  (sin t  t cost ) ˆj

 

v (t ) 
dr
 t cos t iˆ  t sin t ˆj v t
dt

d  
aT  v  1 a(t )  (cost  t sin t ) iˆ  (sin t  t cost ) ˆj
dt
2 2 2
a  t 1 aN  a  aT  t
2
 A vector formula for curvature

To use the usual formula for curvature one needs

to make a change of parameter from t to s.

It is easier to use another formula for the curvature

where such a change is not required.
     2
ds  d s   ds  
2

v  a  (T )  T 2   N  
dt  dt  dt  
 
 ds  
3

   B
 dt 

3
   ds  3
v a     v
 dt 

 
v a
  3 For nonzero speed.
v
A similar formula for torsion is

x y z
x y z
x y z
   2
v a

 
When v a is nonzero.
Find curvature and torsion for the helix,

r (t )  a0 cos t iˆ  a0 sin t ˆj  bt kˆ


v (t )   a0 sin t iˆ  a0 cos t ˆj  b kˆ


a   a0 cos t iˆ  a0 sin t ˆj
  ˆ ˆ 2ˆ
v  a  a0b sin t i  a0b cos t j  a0 k
 
v a a0
  3  2 2 Calculate torsion.
v a0  b
Note that a change of parameter doesn't change the
value of the curvature.

Change of coordinate system through translation

and rotation also doesn’t change the curvature.

Same is true for torsion too.

Curvature and torsion are intrinsic properties of the

curve, they don’t depend on where the curve is located
and how it is oriented.