Keys to Studying Chemistry

Chapter 1

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Chemistry is the study of matter, its
properties, the changes that matter
undergoes, & the energy changes associated
with these changes.
1. Matter is anything that occupies space and
has mass.
2. A substance is a form of matter that has a
definite composition and distinct properties.

Water
Sugar
Gold
 Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
• Health and Medicine
• Sanitation systems
• Surgery with anesthesia
• Vaccines and antibiotics

•Energy and the Environment

• Fossil fuels
• Solar energy
• Nuclear energy
 Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
• Materials and Technology
• Polymers, ceramics, liquid crystals
• Room-temperature superconductors?
• Molecular computing?

• Food and Agriculture

• Genetically modified crops
• “Natural” pesticides
• Specialized fertilizers
 The Study of Chemistry
Macroscopic Microscopic
The Physical States of Matter
The Physical States of Matter

gas

liquid solid
 Physical or Chemical?

A physical change does not alter the composition

or identity of a substance.
sugar dissolving
ice melting
in water
A chemical change alters the composition or
identity of the substance(s) involved.

hydrogen burns in
air to form water
Physical or Chemical?
Physical or Chemical?
 Physical or Chemical?

Physical Properties
properties a substance shows by itself without
interacting with another substance

– color, melting point, boiling point, density

Chemical Properties
properties a substance shows as it interacts
with, or transforms into, other substances

– flammability, corrosiveness
Table 1.1 Some Characteristic Properties of Copper
 Sample Problem Distinguishing Between Physical
and Chemical Change

PROBLEM: Decide whether each of the following processes is

primarily a physical or a chemical change, and explain
briefly:

(a) Frost forms as the temperature drops on a humid winter night.

(b) A cornstalk grows from a seed that is watered and fertilized.
(c) A match ignites to form ash and a mixture of gases.
(d) Perspiration evaporates when you relax after jogging.
(e) A silver fork tarnishes slowly in air.

PLAN: “Does the substance change composition or just change

form?”
Sample Problem

SOLUTION:

(a) Frost forms as the temperature drops on a humid winter night.

physical change

(b) A cornstalk grows from a seed that is watered and fertilized.

chemical change

(c) A match ignites to form ash and a mixture of gases.

chemical change

(d) Perspiration evaporates when you relax after jogging.

physical change
(e) A silver fork tarnishes slowly in air.
chemical change
 Energy in Chemistry

Energy is the ability to do work.

Potential Energy
is energy due to the position of an object.

Kinetic Energy
is energy due to the movement of an object.

Total Energy = Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy

 Energy Changes

Lower energy states are more stable and are favored

over higher energy states.

Energy is neither created nor destroyed

– it is conserved
– and can be converted from one form to another.
Figure 1.3A Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.

A gravitational system. The potential energy gained when a

weight is lifted is converted to kinetic energy as the weight falls.

A lower energy state is more stable.

Figure 1.3B Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.

A system of two balls attached by a spring. The potential

energy gained by a stretched spring is converted to kinetic energy
when the moving balls are released.

Energy is conserved when it is transformed.

Figure 1.3C Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.

A system of oppositely charged particles. The potential energy gained

when the charges are separated is converted to kinetic energy as the
attraction pulls these charges together.
Figure 1.3D Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.

A system of fuel and exhaust. A fuel is higher in chemical

potential energy than the exhaust. As the fuel burns, some of its
potential energy is converted to the kinetic energy of the moving car.
 Figure 1.6 The scientific approach to understanding nature.

Natural phenomena and measured

Observations
events; can be stated as a natural law if
universally consistent

Hypothesis Tentative proposal that explains

Hypothesis is observations
revised if
experimental results
do not support it. Experiment Procedure to test hypothesis; measures
one variable at a time

Set of conceptual assumptions that

Model (Theory)
explains data from accumulated
Model is altered if
experiments; predicts related phenomena
predicted events do
not support it.
Further Tests predictions based on
Experiment model
 Extensive and Intensive Properties
An extensive property of a material depends upon
how much matter is being considered.
• mass
• length
• volume
An intensive property of a material does not
depend upon how much matter is being
considered.
• density
• temperature
• color
International System of Units (SI)
Table 1.3 Common Decimal Prefixes Used with SI Units
Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass.

mass – measure of the quantity of matter

SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)
1 kg = 1000 g = 1 x 103 g

weight – force that gravity exerts on an object

weight = c x mass A 1 kg bar will weigh

on earth, c = 1.0 1 kg on earth
on moon, c ~ 0.1 0.1 kg on moon
Volume – SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter (m3)
1 cm3 = (1 x 10-2 m)3 = 1 x 10-6 m3
1 dm3 = (1 x 10-1 m)3 = 1 x 10-3 m3
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
1 mL = 1 cm3
 Density – SI derived unit for density is kg/m3
1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m3

mass m
density = d= V
volume

A piece of platinum metal with a density of 21.5

g/cm3 has a volume of 4.49 cm3. What is its mass?
m
d= V

m = d x V = 21.5 g/cm3 x 4.49 cm3 = 96.5 g

Freezing and boiling points of water in the Celsius, Kelvin (absolute)
and Fahrenheit scales.
 Temperature Conversions

T (in K) = T (in oC) + 273.15

T (in oC) = T (in K) – 273.15

T (in °F) = 9 T (in °C) + 32

5

5
T (in °C) = [T (in °F) – 32] 9
 Scientific Notation
The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon:
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
6.022 x 1023
The mass of a single carbon atom in grams:
0.0000000000000000000000199
1.99 x 10-23
N x 10n
N is a number n is a positive or
between 1 and 10 negative integer
 Significant Figures
Exact and Inexact Numbers
An exact number results from counting objects or is
part of a definition.
•10 fingers
•10 toes
•1 meter = 100 centimeters

An inexact number results from a measurement or

observation and contains some uncertainty.
•15.3 cm
•1000.8 g
•0.0034 mL
Significant figures are all the digits in a measured
number including one estimated digit.
 Significant Figures
• Any digit that is not zero is significant
1.234 kg 4 significant figures
• Zeros between nonzero digits are significant
606 m 3 significant figures
• Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant
0.08 L 1 significant figure
• If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of the
decimal point are significant
2.0 mg 2 significant figures
• If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the
end and in the middle of the number are significant
0.00420 g 3 significant figures
 How many significant figures are in
each of the following measurements?
24 mL 2 significant figures

3001 g 4 significant figures

0.0320 m3 3 significant figures

6.4 x 104 molecules 2 significant figures

560 kg 2 significant figures

 Significant Figures
Addition or Subtraction
The answer cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal
point than any of the original numbers.
89.332
+1.1 one significant figure after decimal point
90.432 round off to 90.4

3.70 two significant figures after decimal point

-2.9133
0.7867 round off to 0.79
 Significant Figures
Multiplication or Division
The number of significant figures in the result is set by the original
number that has the smallest number of significant figures

4.51 x 3.6666 = 16.536366 = 16.5

3 sig figs round to

3 sig figs

6.8 ÷ 112.04 = 0.0606926 = 0.061

2 sig figs round to

2 sig figs
 Significant Figures
Exact Numbers
Numbers from definitions or numbers of objects are considered
to have an infinite number of significant figures

The average of three measured lengths; 6.64, 6.68 and 6.70?

6.64 + 6.68 + 6.70

= 6.67333 = 6.67 = 7
3

Because 3 is an exact number

 Dimensional Analysis Method of Solving Problems

1. Determine which unit conversion factor(s) are needed

2. Carry units through calculation
3. If all units cancel except for the desired unit(s), then the
problem was solved correctly.

given quantity x conversion factor = desired quantity

desired unit
given unit x = desired unit
given unit
Dimensional Analysis Method of Solving Problems

How many mL are in 1.63 L?

Conversion Unit 1 L = 1000 mL

1000 mL
1.63 L x = 1630 mL
1L
1L L2
1.63 L x = 0.001630
1000 mL mL
 The speed of sound in air is about 343 m/s. What is
this speed in miles per hour?

conversion units

meters to miles

seconds to hours

1 mi = 1609 m 1 min = 60 s 1 hour = 60 min

m 1 mi 60 s 60 min mi
343 x x x = 767
s 1609 m 1 min 1 hour hour
Accuracy – how close a measurement is to the true value
Precision – how close a set of measurements are to each other

accurate precise not accurate

& but &
precise not accurate not precise
 Error

Systematic error produces values that are either all

higher or all lower than the actual value.
This error is part of the experimental system.

Random error produces values that are both higher

and lower than the actual value.
 random error

systematic error