Module
6
Drinking
Water
Distribution
–
Pipes
Summary
When
developing
a
water
safety
plan,
the
important
aspects
of
distributing
drinking
water
must
be
considered.
This
module
explains
these
aspects
of
water
distribution
and
they
are:
the
most
commonly
used
types
of
pipes,
advantages
and
disadvantages
of
different
materials
used
for
water
supply
networks
and
households,
and
the
importance
of
adequately
chosen
materials
and
the
complexity
of
the
materials.
Objectives
The
pupils
can
describe
some
types
of
pipes
used
for
drinking
water
supply
networks.
They
know
the
advantages
and
disadvantages
of
the
most
common
used
materials
and
learn
how
to
identify
lead,
copper
and
iron
pipes.
Key
words
and
terms
Module 4
Metal
pipes,
cast
iron,
galvanised
iron,
copper,
lead,
plastic
pipes,
PVC
and
PE,
asbestos
cement,
corrosion,
freezing
Preparation/materials
Materials Preparation
Questionnaires
for
water
supplier
and
citizens Copies
of
questionnaires
(see
module
19.)
A
WECF
publication
2012
Drinking
water
distribution
–
pipes
Introduction
Pipes
used
to
distribute
drinking
water
are
made
of
plastic,
concrete
or
metal
(e.g.
galvanised
iron
or
copper).
All
of
them
have
some
advantages
and
disadvantages,
yet
the
properties
of
each
pipe
material
should
fulfil
some
specified
requirements.
Many
water
quality
factors,
including
the
chemistry
and
characteristics
of
the
water
(e.g.
pH,
salts
that
are
dissolved
in
the
water),
lead
to
the
corrosion
of
pipes
used
in
water
distribution.
The
corrosiveness
of
water
is
principally
controlled
by
monitoring
and
adjusting
the
pH
through
the
concentrations
of
calcium
or
phosphates
in
the
water.
The
water
supplier
should
address
these
factors
and
eventually
treat
the
water,
which
will
lead
to
reduced
corrosion
(see
also
module
5
and
7).
Also,
appropriate
materials
for
the
distribution
of
drinking
water
need
to
be
selected.
Pipes
for
drinking
water
distribution
should
be
suitable
for
the
transport
of
water.
In
many
countries
norms
have
been
established
on
the
minimal
required
quality
of
the
pipes.
When
in
contact
with
water
or
soil,
the
material
should
be
resistant
(corrosion-‐proof)
to
possible
chemical
reactions
and
the
material
should
not
allow
toxic
substances
to
be
released
into
the
water.
Furthermore,
the
pipes
have
to
be
resistant
against
a
specified
internal
and
external
pressure.
In
most
countries,
the
water
supplier
has
the
responsibility
for
the
network
and
water
quality
that
ends
at
the
water
meter
of
the
households.
Within
the
house,
the
owner
or
costumer
carries
the
responsibility
for
his/her
pipes
and
other
water
or
treatment
tools.
The
diagram
and
table
below
show
an
example
from
Scotland,
which
is
replicable
for
many
countries.
Graphic
1:
Water
supply
Source:
www.
Scottishwatersupply.co.uk
A
WECF
publication
2012
1. The
most
common
materials
used
for
transporting
drinking
water
1.1. Metal
pipes
Cast
iron
and
ductile
cast
iron
pipes
The
use
of
cast
iron
pipes
has
a
long
tradition.
In
the
19th
and
20th
century,
they
found
wide
spread
use
as
pressure
pipes
for
the
transport
of
water
and
gas
or
as
sewage
and
drainage
pipes.
Currently,
there
is
nearly
no
new
manufacturing
of
cast
iron
pipes.
Cast
iron
is
relatively
inexpensive
but,
nowadays,
higher
quality
materials
for
water
networks
are
available.
For
example
ductile
iron,
also
known
as
ductile
cast
iron,
spheroidal
graphite
iron
is
much
more
flexible
and
elastic,
due
to
its
nodular
graphite
inclusion.
For
the
production
of
cast
iron
or
ductile
iron
pipes,
minerals
and
other
metals
are
added
to
the
so-‐called
pig
iron.
Pig
iron
is
an
intermediate
product
of
smelting
iron
ore.
The
dosage
of
quantities
added
depends
on
the
wished
properties
of
the
final
product.
For
long-‐lasting
service,
corrosion
protection
of
the
iron
is
needed.
Often
Ductile
pipes
are
somewhat
resistant
to
internal
corrosion
and
very
often
the
surface
is
covered
with
Polyurethane
(PUR),
bitumen
or
cement
mortar.
Galvanised
iron
pipes
One
of
the
popular
materials
for
transporting
water
is
galvanised
iron.
Iron
has
been,
and
still
remains,
one
of
the
most
popular
metals
used
in
large
scale
construction.
Though
due
to
the
instability
of
the
material,
iron
pipes
have
to
be
coated
in
order
to
reduce
its
weak
corrosive
persistence.
By
galvanising
(zinc-‐coating)
the
pipes,
the
quality
increases.
Zinc-‐coating
contains
a
mixture
of
several
metals,
in
which
zinc
is
the
main
component.
In
many
countries,
special
requirements
for
the
composition
of
the
metals
are
established.
Galvanised
pipes
are
sensitive
to
corrosion,
such
as
cast-‐iron
pipes.
Therefore,
water
that
comes
in
contact
with
galvanised
pipes
should
have
non-‐corrosive
properties,
and
have
certain
hardness
and
pH.
If
drinking
water
is
disinfected
with
free
chlorine,
an
increase
in
corrosion
of
the
iron
materials
can
be
expected.
Elevating
the
pH
of
water
counteracts
the
corrosive
effect
of
chlorinated
water
on
iron.
Iron
pipes
that
are
in
contact
with
soil
are
mostly
lined
with
cement
(cement-‐lining).
A
minimal
amount
of
welding
seams
increases
the
stability
of
pipes.
Galvanised
iron
pipes
are
rather
cheap
and
easy
to
handle,
but
have
a
relatively
short
live
time.
The
purpose
of
the
distribution
within
the
house
will
influence
the
selection
of
the
materials
Copper
pipes
Experts
favour
copper
pipes
mainly
because
of
their
universality.
They
are
suitable
for
plumbing
systems
and
heating,
as
well
as
gas
pipeline
installations.
A
great
advantage
is
that
chlorinated
water
has
no
or
a
very
low
impact
on
copper
pipes.
Furthermore,
copper
has
proven
bactericidal
properties,
which
hinder
the
development
of
bacteria
inside
the
pipes.
International
experience
from
operating
with
such
tubes
shows
that
their
flawless
use
in
plumbing
and
heating
systems
lasts
from
50
to
100
years.
Of
course,
as
with
all
other
A
WECF
publication
2012
products,
copper
pipes
also
have
some
limitations
in
terms
of
application.
They
do
not
tolerate
very
acidic
or
very
alkaline
water,
and
very
soft
or
very
hard
water.
Hence,
the
water
supplier
has
to
be
aware
of
eventual
corrosive
properties
of
drinking
water
towards
copper
pipes.
Brand
new
installed
copper
pipes
lack
the
protection
layer
of
limestone
(calcium
sediments)
and
release
some
copper
into
the
drinking
water.
Depending
on
the
hardness
of
the
water,
a
layer
of
limestone
develops
in
the
pipes
after
some
months,
serving
as
protection.
Copper
pipes
are
characterised
by
durability
and
reliability,
but
are
relatively
expensive.
Lead
pipes
For
many
centuries
and
in
many
countries,
lead
pipes
were
the
favourite
material
for
water
pipes
within
the
distribution
network
and
for
installation
within
houses.
After
the
early
1900´s,
the
installation
of
lead
pipes
was
increasingly
substituted
by
other
materials
such
as
copper
or
galvanised
iron,
and
after
the
sixties
by
plastic
pipes.
The
frequency
of
the
appearance
of
lead
pipes
within
the
water
distribution
systems
varies
from
country
to
country.
Lead
pipes
can
be
affected
by
corrosion
and
release
lead
into
the
drinking
water.
Besides
the
drinking
water
pipes,
faucets
or
fittings
of
brass,
or
solder
used
to
seal
joins
in
plumbing,
may
also
contain
elements
of
lead.
Due
to
the
high
toxicity
of
lead,
lead
pipes
are
not
used
any
more
for
the
drinking
water
supply.
1.2. Plastic
pipes
The
raw
material
needed
to
make
most
plastics
comes
from
petroleum
and
natural
gas.
Due
to
their
relatively
low
costs,
ease
in
manufacture,
versatility,
and
imperviousness
to
water,
plastics
are
used
in
an
enormous
and
expanding
range
of
products:
from
paper
clips
to
pipes
intended
for
transporting
drinking
water.
Plastic
has
replaced
many
common
materials
such
as
cement
and
metals
within
drinking
water
networks.
Plastics
are
often
preferred
than
metals
due
to
a
number
of
inherent
advantages:
plastic
piping
is
lightweight
and
does
not
require
an
open
flame
for
joining
the
flexibility
of
plastic
can
simplify
the
installation.
Plastics
are
typically
lower
in
cost
and
resist
the
corrosion
and
scaling
that
plague
metals
in
some
applications.
However,
indication
of
the
mitigation
of
synthetic
chemical
contaminants
from
plastic
pipe
materials
to
water
may
exist.
These
contaminants
likely
occur
at
low
“safe”
levels,
but
are
sufficient
to
generate
odour
and
taste
concerns
in
some
cases.
Another
disadvantage
of
some
types
of
plastic
pipes
is
that
they
have
lowered
resistance
to
chlorinated
water.
The
most
common
types
of
plastics
used
in
the
drinking
water
distribution
are
presented
in
the
following.
PE
(Polyethylene)
pipes
Depending
on
the
product
quality,
there
are
high-‐density
polyethylene
(HDPE),
medium
density
(MDPE)
and
low-‐density
(LDPE)
pipes.
The
level
of
density
expresses
the
pressure
that
the
pipes
can
sustain.
For
locations
enduring
high
pressure
or
weights,
like
streets,
HDPE
pipes
are
used.
A
WECF
publication
2012
Plastic
pipes
and
fittings
are
more
and
more
widely
used
for
indoor
and
outdoor
water
distribution
systems
Performances
of
PE
pipes
of
different
manufacturers
show
different
possible
temperature
ranges
in
terms
of
application
and
usually
range
between
-‐20
and
+90
°C.
Tubes
of
the
PE
group
are
resistant
to
ultraviolet
rays.
PE
pipes
are
widely
used
for
water
and
sanitation
systems.
High-‐quality
PE
pipes
have
a
long
lifetime
(50
years)
and
are
easy
to
maintain.
They
have
a
high
impact
strength
and
show
resistance
to
cracking,
even
at
low
temperatures.
PE
pipes
are
also
stable
in
water
and
do
not
tend
to
corrode.
Nevertheless,
due
to
weak
or
improper
connections,
leakages
in
distribution
networks
with
plastic
pipes
are
not
uncommon.
PVC
(Polyvinyl
chloride)
pipes
PVC
is
the
third
most
widely
produced
plastic
after
PE
and
PP
(polypropylene).
PVC
is
widely
used
in
construction
because
it
is
cheap,
durable
and
easily
workable.
This
material
accounts
for
66%
of
the
water
distribution
market
in
the
USA.
In
sanitary
sewer
pipe
applications,
it
accounts
for
75%.
PVC
pipes
belong
to
the
cheapest
types
of
pipes,
but
the
material
tends
to
get
brittle
in
the
long-‐term.
The
usage
of
PVC
is
controversial,
particularly
because
of
the
harmful
chemicals
(e.g.
Dioxins)
which
may
be
released
in
the
environment
during
its
production
and
final
disposal
(burning).
Asbestos
cement
pipes
have
been
used
widely
for
drinking
water
distribution
and
there
are
many
kilometres
of
them
to
be
found
all
over
the
world.
Source
photo:
the
Environmental
consultancy;
http://www.asbestosguru-‐oberta.com/A-‐
CMyths&Facts.html
1.3.
Asbestos-‐cement
pipes
Asbestos
cement
is
a
mixture
of
cement
and
primarily
chrysolite,
or
i.e.
Portland
cement
and
white
asbestos.
Asbestos
cement
pipes
have
been
widely
used
for
drinking
water
distribution
and
there
are
many
kilometres
of
it
to
be
found
all
over
the
world.
According
to
the
results
of
long-‐lasting
monitoring,
no
concerns
have
appeared
for
the
health
of
consumers
receiving
the
drinking
water
from
asbestos
cement
pipes.
So
far,
no
programmes
have
been
established
to
replace
asbestos
cement
pipes.
However,
staff
working
within
the
A
WECF
publication
2012
asbestos
industry
and
working
with
asbestos
pipes
are
exposed
to
the
inhalation
of
asbestos
fibres.
There
is
consistent
evidence
that
the
inhalation
of
asbestos
fibres
is
hazardous
to
health
(carcinogenic).
Only
a
few
countries
still
install
asbestos
cement
pipes,
primarily
because
of
issues
regarding
handling
and
economics.
2. Common
causes
of
damage
to
water
pipes
Poor
quality
of
materials
and
improper
installation
Poor
quality
of
pipe
materials
and
improper
installation
will
shorten
the
pipes
lifetime
and
make
them
more
prone
to
leaches
and
bursts.
Poor
pipe
quality
may
facilitate
the
infiltration
of
chemicals
into
the
drinking
water
and
make
pipes
more
sensible
for
corrosion.
In
many
countries,
the
pipe
quality
conditions
for
distribution
of
drinking
water
include:
the
size
of
pipes,
the
composition,
the
properties
and
quality
of
the
materials.
The
age
of
the
water
pipes,
their
state
of
maintenance
and
the
quality
of
water
influence
their
strength,
durability
and
safety.
The
older
the
pipes
become,
the
more
brittle
and
more
prone
they
are
to
fractures.
Unsuitable
or
low-‐
quality
materials
for
plumbing
or
connecting
the
pipes
can
contaminate
the
drinking
water
with
pollutants
such
as
lead
or
make
the
water
taste
odd.
Installing
drinking
water
pipes
and/or
connecting
households
to
the
network
is
not
a
task
for
laymen,
but
for
professionals.
Improperly
installed
pipes
often
result
in
the
infiltration
of
contaminants
or
a
break/leakage
within
the
network.
Besides
the
quality
and
installation
of
the
pipes,
the
arrangement
of
the
network
is
also
a
key
factor
for
safety.
For
example,
the
installation
of
valves
within
the
distribution
network
is
essential.
Valves
can
isolate
incidents
of
pipe
breakages
and
contamination
events
and
limit
the
risk
of
the
surrounding
network.
Valves
can
also
prohibit
the
backflow
of
water
within
the
network.
Graphic
2.
A
poor
quality
of
the
installed
pipes
will
shorten
the
lifetime
of
the
pipes
and
are
more
prone
to
leaches
and
bursts.
Source
drawing:
http://alpharetta.olx.com
Corrosion
Depending
on
the
properties,
water
can
cause
chemical
reactions
with
metals
and
cement
pipes,
which
is
called
corrosion.
Pipes
that
are
corroding
release
metals
into
the
drinking
water.
There
is
also
a
risk
that
the
pipe
will
start
to
leak
or
crack,
increasing
the
risk
of
infiltration
from
microorganisms.
Corrosion
control
is
used
to
manage
acidity,
alkalinity
and
other
water
qualities
that
affect
pipes
and
equipment
used
to
transport
water.
Often,
the
so-‐called
Langelier
Saturation
Index
(LSI)
is
used
for
indicating
the
corrosive
properties
of
water.
The
LSI
(LSI
=
measured
pH
–
pHs)
indicates
if
the
water
will
precipitate,
dissolve,
or
be
in
equilibrium
with
calcium
carbonate.
If
the
LSI
is
more
than
0,
the
calcium
will
precipitate
and
produce
a
protecting
layer
on
the
interior
of
the
pipes;
if
the
LSI
is
less
than
0,
the
water
is
considered
corrosive.
This
corrosion
control
is
a
task
for
the
water
supplier.
Besides
the
interior
corrosion,
exterior
corrosion
of
the
pipes
can
also
happen,
caused
by
the
A
WECF
publication
2012
reaction
of
soil
and
water.
Therefore,
a
protection
layer,
of
e.g.
bitumen,
is
often
applied
on
the
exterior
side
of
the
network
pipes.
Freezing
If
the
temperature
falls
below
the
freezing
point,
there
is
a
risk
of
the
pipes
freezing.
Because
the
volume
of
frozen
water
increases,
frozen
pipes
will
crack
and
then
burst,
spilling
large
amounts
of
water.
In
unheated
spaces,
the
pipes
should
be
emptied
because
the
pipes
cannot
be
protected
against
freezing
temperatures.
In
outside
areas
with
cold
winters,
water
pipes
have
to
be
protected
against
freezing
temperatures
by
burying
the
pipes
deep
enough
into
the
ground.
The
depth
of
the
pipes
in
the
ground
depends
on
the
climate
and
can
vary
from
up
to
2
meters
down
in
the
ground.
Too
much
pressure
If
the
pipes
or
joints
are
not
in
good
shape,
or
if
the
water
pump
does
not
function
properly,
high
pressure
could
result
within
the
water
pipes,
which
could
cause
rupture
and
breakage
of
the
pipes.
3. Practical
issues
3.1. How
to
recognise
plastic,
lead,
copper
or
iron
pipes?
Plastic
piping
is
found
in
newer
homes
and
is
distinctive
in
appearance.
It
can
be
blue,
black,
white,
grey
or
colourless,
and
can
often
have
glued
or
threaded
joints.
Scratching
plastic
piping
will
not
create
a
significant
mark.
Tapping
plastic
piping
will
produce
a
hollow
sound.
Copper
piping
is
very
common
and
can
be
identified
due
to
its
bronze/copper
colour
that
resembles
the
appearance
of
a
one-‐cent
piece
or
penny.
Joints
are
usually
made
with
copper
fittings
and
solder,
or
with
brass
or
bronze
fittings.
When
you
scratch
a
copper
pipe,
a
shiny
copper
coloured
line
will
become
visible.
A
green
stain
will
be
apparent
where
moisture
or
water
has
been
in
contact
with
the
copper
pipe.
Lead
is
usually
dull
grey
or
silver
in
colour
Lead
piping
is
used
in
older
homes,
usually
built
before
1950
or
1970
(depending
on
the
country).
Lead
is
usually
dull
grey
or
silvery
in
colour,
is
relatively
bendable
and
it
can
be
scratched
and
scraped
easily.
A
good
way
to
identify
lead
piping
is
to
scratch
the
surface
with
a
coin
or
similar
object;
if
it
is
lead,
a
grey
or
silver
colour
will
appear.
Iron
piping
can
be
identified
by
its
hardness,
black
paint,
or
rusty
finish.
Iron
pipes
are
usually
much
more
difficult
to
scratch
then
pipes
made
out
of
other
material.
A
WECF
publication
2012
Ductile
iron
pipes
Source
photo:
http://images.mitrasites.com/ductile-‐iron-‐pipe.html
3.2. Actions
to
reduce
metal
intake
via
drinking
water
• Anytime
the
water
in
a
particular
faucet
has
not
been
used
for
six
hours
or
longer,
"flush"
cold
water
pipes
by
letting
the
water
run
until
it
becomes
as
cold
as
it
will
get.
The
more
time
water
remains
in
the
pipes,
the
more
lead
or
copper
it
may
contain.
• The
only
way
to
be
sure
of
the
amount
of
lead
or
other
metal
in
the
household
water
is
to
have
it
tested
by
a
competent
laboratory.
The
water
supplier
may
be
able
to
offer
information
or
assistance
with
testing.
Testing
is
especially
important
for
apartment
dwellers,
because
flushing
may
not
be
effective
in
high-‐rise
buildings
with
lead-‐soldered
central
piping.
• If
cases
of
corrosion
within
the
network
or
household
installation
occur
frequently,
the
water
supplier
should
be
contacted.
Drinking
water
should
be
treated
at
the
plant
to
make
it
less
corrosive.
• If
lead
pipes
release
lead
into
the
drinking
water,
the
best
way
to
reduce
the
lead
intake,
via
the
drinking
water,
is
an
exchange
of
the
pipes.
4. Exercises
and
Questions
• Name
the
3
most
common
categories
of
pipe
materials.
• Name
examples
for
metal
and
plastic
pipes,
and
discuss
their
advantages
and
disadvantages
in
using
them.
• Give
some
examples
for
possible
reasons
of
a
damaged
water
pipe.
• Which
property/ies
of
water
support
the
material
to
turn
corrosive?
• Distinguish
between
lead,
copper,
plastic
and
iron
pipes
by
scratching
their
surfaces.
• How
should
you
behave
if
there
is
suspicion
of
lead
in
the
drinking
water?
A
WECF
publication
2012
WSP
related
activities
• Investigate
the
type
of
pipes
used
within
the
public
network
with
the
support
of
the
water
supplier.
• How
is
the
distribution
network
organised?
(Are
there
several
zones,
branches,
etc?)
• Is
it
possible
to
isolate
sections
of
the
network
in
case
of
repairs
or
failures?
• Does
the
provided
water
provoke
corrosion?
• Is
the
quality
of
the
provided
water
treated
in
order
to
avoid
corrosion?
• Investigate
the
type
of
pipes
used
within
the
local
households
(observation,
questionnaires,
etc.).
• Carry
out
a
survey
on
corrosion
products
within
the
households
(questionnaires
or
interviews).
• Carry
out
a
survey
on
leakages
within
the
network
supported
by
the
water
supplier,
by
your
own
observation
and
interviews
among
citizens.
• Discuss
what
should
be
done
in
case
of
doubts
about
the
drinking
water
quality,
and
if
and
how
water
analyses
on
contamination
by
heavy
metals
could
be
organised.
5. Text
sources
and
further
reading
InspectAPedia,
(2012).
Galvanized
Iron
Water
Supply
Piping,
&
Galvanized
Drain
Piping.
Available
from
http://www.inspectapedia.com/plumbing/Galvanized_Iron_Pipes.htm
United
States
Environment
Protection
Agency
(EPA),
(2012).
Basic
Information
about
Copper
in
Drinking
Water.
Available
from
http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/copper.cfm
United
States
Environment
Protection
Agency
(EPA),
(2012).
Lead
in
Drinking
Water.
Available
from
http://water.epa.gov/drink/info/lead/index.cfm
Hard
Water
(2012).
Available
from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_water
A
WECF
publication
2012
