FOURTH EDITION

Basic
Blectronlcs
BERNARD GROB
Instructor, Technical Career Institutes, Inc.
(formerly RCA Institutes, Inc.}

Gregg Division
McGraw-Hill Book CQmpany
New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Grob, Bernard.
Basic electronics.

Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Electronics. I. Title.
TK7816.G75 1977 537.5 76-45812
ISBN 0-07-024923-7

Other Books by the Author

Applications of Electronics (with Milton S. Kiver)
Basic Television

In memory of
my father and mother

BASIC ELECTRONICS
Copyright © 1977, 1971, 1965, 1959 by McGraw-
Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United
States of America. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans-
mitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.
0 VHVH 832

The editors for this book were Gordon Rock-

maker and Alice V. Manning, the designer was
Marsha Cohen, the art supervisor was George
T Resch, and the production supervisor was Iris
A. Levy. It was set in Souvenir by York Graphic
Services, Inc.
Printed and bound by Von Hoffman Press, Inc.
 contents
PREFACE xiii
SURVEY OF ELECTRONICS 1
CHAPTER 1 ELECTRICITY 11
1-1 Negative and Positive Polarities 11
1-2 Electrons and Protons in the Atom 12
1-3 Structure of the Atom 14
1-4 The Coulomb Unit of Charge 17
1-5 The Volt Unit of Potential Difference 20
1-6 Charge in Motion Is Current 22
1-7 Resistance Is Opposition to Current 27
1-8 The Closed Circuit 28
1-9 Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current 31
(AC)
1-10 Sources of Electricity 33

CHAPTER 2 OHM'S LAW 39

2-1 The Current I = VI R 39
2-2 The Voltage V = IR 41
2-3 The Resistance R = VI I 41
2-4 Practical Units 42
2-5 Multiple and Submultiple Units 43
2-6 The Linear Proportion between V and I 43
2-7 Power 45
2-8 Power Dissipation in Resistance 47
2-9 Electric Shock 49

CHAPTER 3 SERIES CIRCUITS 54

3-1 Why I Is the Same in All Parts of a Series 54
Circuit
3-2 Total R Equals the Sum of All Series 56
Resistances
3-3 Series IR Voltage Drops 58
3-4 The Sum of Series IR Drops Equals the 59
Applied Vr
3-5 Polarity of IR Voltage Drops 61
3-6 Polarities to Chassis Ground 62
3-7 Total Power in a Series Circuit 63
3-8 Series-Aiding and Series-Opposing Voltages 64
3-9 Analyzing Series Circuits 64
3-10 Effect of an Open Circuit in a Series Path 67
iv Contents

CHAPTER 4 PARALLEL CIRCUITS 74

4-1 The Applied Voltage ~ is the Same across 74
Parallel Branches
4-2 Each Branch I Equals ~IR 75
4-3 The Main-Line IT Equals the Sum of the 76
Branch Currents
4-4 Resistances in Parallel 78
4-5 Conductances in Parallel 82
4-6 Total Power in Parallel Circuits 83
4-7 Analyzing Parallel Circuits 84
4-8 Effect of an Open Branch in Parallel Circuits 84
4-9 Effect of a Short Circuit across Parallel 85
Branches

CHAPTER 5 SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS 91

5-1 Finding RT for Series-Parallel Resistances 91
5-2 Resistance Strings in Parallel 92
5-3 Resistance Banks in Series 94
5-4 Resistance Banks and Strings in Series-Parallel 95
5-5 Analyzing Series-Parallel Circuits 97
5-6 Wheatstone Bridge 100
5-7 Chassis-Ground Connections 101
5-8 Voltages Measured to Chassis Ground 102
5-9 Opens and Shorts in Series-Parallel Circuits 104

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 1 TO 5 113

CHAPTER 6 VOLTAGE DIVIDERS AND CURRENT 116
DIVIDERS
6-1 Series Voltage Dividers 116
6-2 Current Divider with Two Parallel Resistances 118
6-3 Current Division by Parallel Conductances 119
6-4 Series Voltage Divider with Parallel Load 120
Current
6-5 Design of a Loaded Voltage Divider 122

CHAPTER 7 DIRECT-CURRENT METERS 126

7-1 Moving-Coil Meter 126
7-2 Measurement of Current 129
7-3 Meter Shunts 131
7-4 The Ayrton or Universal Shunt 133
7-5 Voltmeters 135
7-6 Loading Effect of a Voltmeter 140
7-7 Ohmmeters 142
 Contents v

7-8 Multimeters 147

7 -9 Digital Meters 150
7-10 Meter Applications 151
7-11 Checking Continuity with the Ohmmeter 153

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 6 AND 7 159

CHAPTER 8 KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS 161
8-1 Kirchhoff's Current Law 161
8-2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law 163
8-3 Method of Branch Currents 164
8-4 Node-Voltage Analysis 167
8-5 Method of Mesh Currents 169

CHAPTER 9 NETWORK THEOREMS 175

9-1 Superposition 175
9-2 Thevenin's Theorem 177
9-3 Thevenizing a Circuit with Two Voltage Sources 180
9-4 Thevenizing a Bridge Circuit 182
9-5 Norton's Theorem 184
9-6 Thevenin-Norton Conversions 187
9-7 Conversion of Voltage and Current Sources 189
9-8 Millman's Theorem 191
9-9 T and,,, Networks 193

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 8 AND 9 201

CHAPTER 10 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS 203
10-1 Function of the Conductor 203
10-2 Standard Wire Gage Sizes 204
10-3 Types of Wire Conductors 206
10-4 Printed Wiring 207
10-5 Switches 208
10-6 Fuses 210
10-7 Pilot Lamps 212
10-8 Wire Resistance 212
10-9 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance 214
10-10 Ion Current in Liquids and Gases 216
10-11 Electrons and Hole Charges in 218
Semiconductors
10-12 Insulators 219

CHAPTER 11 RESISTORS 225

11-1 Resistor Types 225
11-2 Variable Resistors 227
vi Contents

11-3 Potentiometers and Rheostats 228

11-4 Resistor Color Coding 230
11-5 Power Rating of Resistors 232
11-6 Choosing the Resistor for a Circuit 232
11-7 Series and Parallel Combinations of 233
Resistors
11-8 Resistor Troubles 234

CHAPTER 12 BATTERIES 240

12-1 Functions of Batteries 240
12-2 The Voltaic Cell 241
12-3 Carbon-Zinc Dry Cell 243
12-4 Series and Parallel Cells 245
12-5 Lead-Acid Wet Cell 247
12-6 Types of Electromotive Cells 250
12-7 Internal Resistance of a Generator 252
12-8 Matching a Load Resistance to the 257
Generator

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 10 TO 12 263

CHAPTER 13 MAGNETISM 265
13-1 The Magnetic Field 265
13-2 Magnetic Flux <f> 267
13-3 Flux Density B 268
13-4 Induction by the Magnetic Field 270
13-5 Air Gap of a Magnet 271
13-6 Types of Magnets 272
13-7 Ferrites 275
13-8 Magnetic Shielding 275
13-9 The Hall Effect 276

CHAPTER 14 MAGNETIC UNITS 280

14-1 Ampere-turns (NJ) 280
14-2 Field Intensity (H) 281
14-3 Permeability (µ) 282
14-4 B- H Magnetization Curve 284
14-5 Magnetic Hysteresis 285
14-6 Ohm's Law for Magnetic Circuits 287
14-7 Relations between Magnetic Units 288
14-8 Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Fields 289

CHAPTER 15 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 294

15-1 Magnetic Field around an Electrical Current 294
15-2 M,agnetic Polarity of a Coil 296
 I rf f1 1>

Contents vii

15-3 Motor Action between Two Magnetic Fields 298

15-4 Induced Current 300
15-5 Lenz' Law 301
15-6 Generating an Induced Voltage 302
15-7 Faraday's Law of Induced Voltage 303

CHAPTER 16 ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND 310

CURRENT
16-1 Alternating-Voltage Generator 311
16-2 The Sine Wave 314
16-3 Alternating Current 316
16-4 Voltage and Current Values for a Sine Wave 317
16-5 Frequency 319
16-6 Period 321
16-7 Wavelength 322
16-8 Phase Angle 323
16-9 The Time Factor in Frequency and Phase 327
16-10 AC Circuits with Resistance 327
16-11 Nonsinusoidal AC Waveforms 329
16-12 Harmonic Frequencies 331

CHAPTER 17 THE 60-Hz AC POWER LINE 337

17-1 Advantages of 120-V 60-Hz AC Power 337
17-2 Motors and Generators 338
17-3 Fluorescent Lighting 340
17-4 Residential Wiring 341
17-5 Three-Phase Power 344

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 13 TO 17 348

CHAPTER 18 INDUCTANCE 352
18-1 Induction by Alternating Current 352
18-2 Self-inductance 354
18-3 Self-induced Voltage uL 356
18-4 How uL Opposes a Change in Current 356
18-5 Mutual Inductance 358
18-6 Transformers 360
18-7 Core Losses 366
18-8 Types of Cores 367
18-9 Variable Inductance 368
18-10 Inductances in Series or Parallel 369
18-11 Stray Inductance 371
18-12 Energy in Magnetic Field of Inductance 372
18-13 Troubles in Coils 372
viii Contents

CHAPTER 19 INDUCTIVE REACTANCE 379

19-1 How XL Reduces the Amount of I 379
19-2 XL= 27TfL 381
19-3 Series or Parallel Inductive Reactances 384
19-4 Ohm's Law Applied to XL 385
19-5 Applications of XL for Different Frequencies 385
19-6 Waveshape of vL Induced by Sine-Wave 386
Current

CHAPTER 20 INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS 394

20-1 Sine-Wave iL Lags vL by 90° 394
20-2 XL and R in Series 395
20-3 Impedance (Z) 398
20-4 XL and R in Parallel 400
20-5 Q of a Coil 403
20-6 AF and RF Chokes 405
20-7 The General Case of Inductive Voltage 407
20-8 Calculating the LI R Time Constant 408

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 18 TO- 20 415

CHAPTER 21 CAPACITANCE 418
21-1 How Charge Is Stored in the Dielectric 418
21-2 Charging and Discharging a Capacitor 420
21-3 The Farad Unit of Capacitance 422
21-4 Typical Capacitors 424
21-5 Capacitor Color Coding 429
21-6 Parallel Capacitances 430
21-7 Series Capacitances 430
21-8 Stray Capacitive and Inductive Effects 431
21-9 Energy in Electrostatic Field of Capacitance 434
21-10 Troubles in Capacitors 434

CHAPTER 22 CAPACITIVE REACTANCE 442

22-1 Alternating Current in a Capacitive Circuit 442
22-2 Xe = 1 !(27TfC) 444
22-3 Series or Parallel Capacitive Reactances 446
22-4 Ohm's Law Applied to Xe 447
22-5 Applications of Capacitive Reactance 448
22-6 Sine-Wave Charge and Discharge Current 448

CHAPTER 23 CAPACITIVE CIRCUITS 457

23-1 Sine-Wave Ve Lags ie by 90° 457
23-2 X0 and R in Series 458
23-3 Xe and R in Parallel 461
 Contents ix

23-4 RF and AF Coupling Capacitors 463

23-5 Capacitive Voltage Dividers 464
23-6 The General Case of Capacitive Current i0 465
23-7 Calculating the RC Time Constant 466

CHAPTER 24 RC AND LI R TIME CONSTANTS 472

24-1 Response of Resistance Alone 472
24-2 LI R Time Constant 473
24-3 High Voltage Produced by Opening RL 474
Circuit
24-4 RC Time Constant 476
24-5 RC Charge and Discharge Curves 479
24-6 High Current Produced by Short-circuiting 479
RC Circuit
24-7 RC Waveshapes 481
24-8 Long and Short Time Constants 483
24-9 Charge and Discharge with Short RC Time 483
Constant
24-10 Long Time Constant for RC Coupling 484
Circuit
24-11 Universal Time Constant Graph 486
24-12 Comparison of Reactance and Time 488
Constant

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 21 TO 24 494

CHAPTER 25 ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS 498
25-1 AC Circuits with Resistance but No 498
Reactance
25-2 Circuits with XL Alone 499
25-3 Circuits with X 0 Alone 501
25-4 Opposite Reactances Cancel 501
25-5 Series Reactance and Resistance 503
25-6 Parallel Reactance and Resistance 505
25-7 Series-Parallel Reactance and Resistance 507
25-8 Real Power 507
25-9 AC Meters 510
25-10 Wattmeters 510
25-11 Summary of Types of Ohms in AC Circuits 511
25-12 Summary of Types of Phasers in AC 512
Circuits

CHAPTER 26 COMPLEX NUMBERS FOR AC 519

CIRCUITS
26-1 Positive and Negative Numbers 519
26-2 The j Operator 520
x Contents

26-3 Definition of a Complex Number 521

26-4 How Complex Numbers Are Applied to AC 522
Circuits
26-5 Impedance in Complex Form 523
26-6 Operations with Complex Numbers 524
26-7 Magnitude and Angle of a Complex Number 526
26-8 Polar Form of Complex Numbers 527
26-9 Converting Polar to Rectangular Form 528
26-10 Complex Numbers in Series AC Circuits 530
26-11 Complex Numbers in Parallel AC Circuits 532
26-12 Combining Two Complex Branch 533
Impedances
26-13 Combining Complex Branch Currents 534
26-14 Parallel Circuit with Three Complex 535
Branches

CHAPTER 27 RESONANCE 541

27-1 The Resonance Effect 541
27-2 Series Resonance 542
27-3 Parallel Resonance 546
27-4 The Resonant Frequency f,, = l/(2'1TVLC) 550
27-5 Q Magnification Factor of Resonant Circuit 552
27-6 Bandwidth of Resonant Circuit 555
27-7 Tuning 558
27-8 Mistuning 560
27-9 Analysis of Parallel Resonant Circuits 561
27-10 Damping of Parallel Resonant Circuits 563
27-11 Choosing L and C for a Resonant Circuit 564

CHAPTER 28 FILTERS 570

28-1 Examples of Filtering 570
28-2 Direct Current Combined with Alternating 571
Current
28-3 Transformer Coupling 574
28-4 Capacitive Coupling 575
28-5 Bypass Capacitors 577
28-6 Filter Circuits 580
28-7 Low-pass Filters 581
28-8 High-pass Filters 582
28-9 Resonant Filters 584
28-10 Interference Filters 586

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 25 TO 28 593

CHAPTER 29 VACUUM TUBES 597
29-1 Rectifiers, Amplifiers, and Oscillators 598
29-2 Construction of Tubes 599
 Contents xi

29-3 Diodes 600

29-4 Plate Current 602
29-5 Diode Rectifier Circuit 602
29-6 Triodes 604
29-7 How a Triode Amplifies the Control-Grid 606
Voltage
29-8 Triode Characteristics 608
29-9 Tube Parameters 609
29-10 Tetrodes 610
29-11 Pentodes 612
29-12 Tube Types 614
29-13 The Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) 616
29-14 Troubles in Vacuum Tubes 617

CHAPTER 30 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES AND 624

TRANSISTORS
30-1 Types of Semiconductor Devices 625
30-2 Characteristics of Semiconductors 626
30-3 N-type and P-type Doping 627
30-4 Current in Semiconductors 629
30-5 The PN Junction 630
30-6 Diode Rectifier Circuits 633
30-7 Transistors 636
30-8 Transistor Amplifier Circuits 639
30-9 The CE Amplifier Circuit 642
30-10 Collector Characteristic Curves 645
30-11 Load-Line Analysis 647
30-12 Bias Stabilization 651
30-13 Field-Effect Transistor (FET) 652
30-14 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) 655
30-15 Types of Transistors 657
30-16 Special-Purpose Diodes 659
30-17 Transistor Troubles 660

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 29 AND 30 669

CHAPTER 31 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 673
31-1 Types of Integrated Circuits 673
31-2 Production of Integrated Circuits 675
31-3 Integrated Components 676
31-4 The Differential Amplifier 679
31-5 Linear IC Applications 681

CHAPTER 32 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 685

32-1 Binary Numbers 685
32-2 Binary Arithmetic 688
xii Contents

32-3 Symbolic Logic for Switching Circuits 689

32-4 Truth Tables 691
32-5 Basic Logic Circuits 693
32-6 Diode Gate Circuits 694
32-7 Diode-Transistor Logic (DTL) 695
32-8 Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) 698
32-9 Multivibrator (MV) Circuits 700
32-10 Flip-flop Circuits 701
32-11 Counters 704

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 31 AND 32 711

BIBLIOGRAPHY 713
APPENDIX A ELECTRONIC FREQUENCY SPECTRUM 717
APPENDIX B FCC FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS 719
FROM 30 kHz TO 300,000 MHz
APPENDIX C ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF THE 721
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
APPENDIX D PHYSICS UNITS 724
APPENDIX E TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 728
APPENDIX F ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS AND 732
ABBREVIATIONS
APPENDIX G COLOR CODES 735
APPENDIX H SOLDERING AND TOOLS 741
APPENDIX I SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS 744
ANSWERS TO SELF-EXAMINATIONS 746
ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS 751
INDEX 759
 I H •t< •#I 'ii I 1 I II

Preface
This basic text is for beginning students without circuits, and parallel circuits build up to more
any experience in electricity and electronics. advanced chapters on series-parallel circuits,
The first chapter is on elementary electricity; the voltage dividers, and networks.
last chapters cover integrated circuits and digital The chapters on magnetism and electro-
electronics. In between the topics progress magnetic induction lead into the development
through series and parallel de circuits, net- of sine-wave alternating voltage and current.
works, meters, magnetism, ac circuits with in- There are separate chapters on inductance and
ductance and capacitance, vacuum tubes, and its ac reactance before these fundamentals are
transistors. These fundamentals form the basis combined for inductive circuits. The same se-
for the study of advanced applications, includ- quential development is used for capacitive cir-
ing communications electronics in general and cuits. Then all these principles of L and C are
radio and television in particular, industrial combined for ac circuits and resonance with
electronics, and computers. sinusoidal waveforms.
For each subject, the basic principles are The important details of RC and LI R time
explained first, followed by typical applications constants are reserved for another chapter.
and common troubles. This presentation has Here, the effects on de transients and nonsi-
proved effective in helping students to learn the nusoidal ac waveforms of inductive and capaci-
fundamentals of electronics with a practical ap- tive circuits can be compared.
proach that is interesting and useful. At the end of the book, the chapters on
Mathematics is held to a minimum. Some vacuum tubes, transistors, integrated circuits,
numerical problems require powers of 10 be- and digital principles provide an introduction
cause of the metric units. Trigonometric func- to electronic circuits with rectifiers, amplifiers,
tions are used to explain the details of ac cir- and digital logic functions.
cuits, where the phase angle is important.
The order of topics follows a typical Practical approach. Each chapter has a sec-
one-year course in electronics fundamentals tion at the end to explain common troubles in
that includes de and ac circuits. However, components or applications of the theory. For
Kirchhoff's Laws and Network Theorems may instance, the effects of an open circuit and a
be too advanced for some courses. These two short circuit are explained in the first five chap-
chapters can be used for a separate course on ters on de circuits. Typical troubles in resistors,
network analysis, possibly combined with the coils, capacitors, tubes, and transistors are de-
details of RC and LI R Time Constants. scribed in their respective chapters.
Similarly, the three chapters Semiconduc- For practical theory, the choke coil is ex-
tor Diodes and Transistors, Integrated Circuits, plained as an application of inductive reactance;
and Digital Electronics can be used for a short coupling and bypass capacitors as examples of
course on semiconductor devices. capacitive reactance are described in detail.

Organization. The book is divided into 32 Glossary of technical abbreviations. These

chapters for step-by-step development. For ex- are listed at the end of the chapters for Inte-
ample, individual chapters on Ohm's law, series grated Circuits and Digital Electronics. The ex-
xiv Preface

panding field of semiconductor devices has its the construction, packaging, and circuits for IC
own terminology, especially alphabetical abbre- units, including amplifier and digital applica-
viations such as MOSFET, LSI, and TTL It is tions. Chapter 32, Digital Electronics, explains
helpful to have these summarized for conven- binary arithmetic, logic gates, and flip-flop cir-
ient reference. cuits.
The chapter Semiconductor Diodes and
Numerical problems. This fourth edition has Transistors has been completely rewritten and
additional problems for more work in the nu- updated to present a thorough description of
merical calculations, especially for reactances in solid-state devices. Included are NPN and PNP
ac circuits. With the use of calculators, difficult bipolar transistors, the field-effect transistor
numbers can be used without too much busy- (FET), the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), and
work for the students. the unijunction transistor (UJT). The IC chapter
is an extension of solid-state electronics, as
Programmed questions. A new feature is many of the same principles of semiconductor
Practice Problems at the end of each main devices apply to integrated circuits and discrete
topic. These questions should help the students transistors. The digital chapter is an extension
check their understanding of each section im - of integrated circuits, as IC units are used for
mediately aft~r reading the material. The an- practically all digital circuits.
swers are at the end of each chapter. Chapter 7, Direct-Current Meters, now
comes a little earlier in the book, before the
New material. Entire chapters dealing with material on networks. This way the de meters
voltage dividers, the 60-Hz ac power line, inte- can be related more closely to measurements in
grated circuits, and digital electronics have been series and parallel circuits for ·laboratory work.
added in order to emphasize these important The chapter includes material on digital meters.
subjects. As in the third edition, separate chap- The introduction, Survey of Electronics,
ters are devoted to Kirchhoff's laws, network now has symbols and units for R, L, and C. The
theorems, and time constants. purpose is to help in laboratory work at the start
Chapter 6, Voltage Dividers and Current of the course.
Dividers, has the original material from the The SI standard symbol of Vor v for volt-
chapter on series-parallel circuits. However, age is used throughout the book, eliminating
more space is available to include the practical the use of E or e. Also, the SI unit of the siemens
example of voltage dividers with load currents is used along with the mho unit for conduct-
and the case of current division in proportion to ance. In addition, the SI system is emphasized
the branch conductances. in magnetic units.
Chapter 17, The 60-Hz AC Power Line,
includes practical material on motors, genera- Leaming aids. The entire book is written with
tors, residential wiring, fluorescent lighting, and shorter sentences, shorter paragraphs, and
three-way switches. The wye and delta connec- more subhead titles. With the new two-column
tions for three-phase power are also included. format, the text should be easier to read.
This material is in a separate chapter to allow The practice problems for each main sec-
concentration on the theory of alternating cur- tion and answers at the end of each chapter
rent and voltage in Chap. 16. have the purpose of applying principles of pro-
Chapter 31, Integrated Circuits, describes grammed learning. This self-testing is in short
 Preface xv

units and can be reinforced immediately with 716 lists books on mathematics, electronics,
correct answers. semiconductors, and digital electronics. The
Each chapter starts with an introduction listing also includes manuals for tubes and tran-
that states the objective, followed by a listing of sistors, trade publications, and sources for
topics. At the end of each chapter a short sum- training films.
mary lists the main points to remember. The Answers to all self-examination questions
short-answer questions for self-examination are and to odd-numbered problems are given at the
based on the chapter summary. Summaries for end of the book. A solutions manual for all the
groups of chapters are also given as a review, problems is available to instructors.
with additional self-examination questions. This
definite structure of ideas in the listing of topics,
summaries, and self-testing with review helps Credits. The photographs of components and
the student learn the material. equipment have been provided by many manu-
There are many tables in the text and sum- facturers, as noted in each legend. In the text,
maries. The tables are used for a concise listing this fourth edition continues material that has
of important points and to compare similar or been developed in previous editions with the
opposite characteristics. In many cases, it is help of my colleagues Harry G. Rice, Philip
easier to understand and remember ideas by Stein, and Gerald P. McGinty.
comparisons. Finally, it is a pleasure to thank my wife,
Each review summary has a short list of Ruth, for her excellent work in typing the man-
reference books for the topics in those chapters. uscript.
A more complete bibliography on pages 713 to Bernard Grob
 survey of
Blectronlcs
Electronics and radio communications are practical applications of the
general principles of electricity. The same electricity produced by a battery
for a flashlight can be modified to do any number of jobs, from running a
motor or producing heat and light to more advanced uses such as working
a computer or providing wireless broadcasting for radio and television.
The word radio is an abbreviated form of radiotelegraph or radio-
telephone. In its first form, wireless communication was by radiotelegraph,
using short dots and longer dashes as symbols for letters in the Morse
code. Now radiotelephone is used more, providing wireless voice com-
munications or broadcasting voice and music programs for entertainment.
In general, then, radio is the art of wireless communications.
The word electronics derives from the electron, which is a tiny,
invisible quantity of electricity present in all materials. In terms of its many
uses, electronics can be defined to include all applications of electricity
flowing in a vacuum, as in vacuum tubes, in gas or vapor, and in certain
solid materials such as transistors. More generally, electronics includes all
effects of electricity where the action of individual electrons determines
the application. The main electronic devices are transistors and vacuum
tubes, shown in Fig. 1.
Radio and electronics are closely related. Sometimes they are even
joined in their use. For example, an electronic heating unit generates
radio waves that go through the work to produce heat. The heat bonds the
solid materials together. Even if the applications are not so close, the
principles of radio and electronics are essentially the same. Both are
based on the fundamental laws of electricity.

DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONICS place to another without the need for any con-
1

Wireless transmission can be taken as starting necting wires between the transmitting and re-
with the work of Heinrich Hertz, a German ceiving equipment.
physicist. In 1887 he was the first to demon- Hertz proved that radio waves, although
strate by experiment the process of electromag- invisible, travel with the same velocity as light
netic radiation through space. The distance of waves. In fact, radio waves and light waves are
transmission was only a few feet. However, it just two examples of electromagnetic waves, a
demonstrated radio waves traveling from one form of energy that combines the effects of
2 Survey o( Electronics

II"

1
(a)

(b)

(d)

(c)
FIGURE 1
Electron devices. (a) Vacuum-tube. (b) Tran-
sistors. (c) Silicon-diode rectifiers. (d) Inte-
grated circuit (IC) with four transistors on one
silicon wafer. Length is % in.
 Survey of.'Eiectronics 3

electricity and magnetism. Additional examples 1948 at Bell Telephone Laboratories, there are
of electromagnetic waves include heat radia- new applications in electronics and radio. The
tion, x-rays, and cosmic rays, among others, all transistor is an application of controlled elec-
of which can transmit energy through space tron flow in solids such as germanium and sili-
without the need for any connecting wires. con. Tubes and transistors both have similar
The work of Hertz followed earlier experi- applications for amplification or control pur-
ments on electricity and magnetism. In 1820, a poses. The transistor is smaller, however, and
Danish physicist, H. C. Oersted, showed that an more efficient because there is no heater. See
electrical current produces magnetic effects. Fig. 1. Solid-state electronics using semicon-
Then, in 1831, a British physicist, Michael Fara- ductors includes not only transistors and diodes
day, discovered that a magnet in motion can but also the integrated circuit (IC) in Fig. 1 d. It
produce electricity. In 1864, the British physi- combines these semiconductor components in
cist James Clerk Maxwell, on the basis of work one solid chip with the required resistors and
in electricity and magnetism, predicted the capacitors.
electromagnetic waves demonstrated later by
Hertz. Radio Broadcast Services. Broadcasting
In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi used a long means sending out in all directions. As illus-
wire antenna and developed a practical radio trated in Fig. 2, the transmitter radiates electro-
system for long-distance communication. He magnetic radio waves in all directions by means
succeeded in producing wireless communica- of its antenna. Receivers can pick up the trans-
tion across the Atlantic Ocean in 1901. mitted radio waves by means of a receiving
The rapid advances after that are due antenna or aerial. Practically all radio receivers
largely to the introduction and progress of the now use transistors instead of vacuum tubes
vacuum tube. In 1906 Dr. Lee De Forest, with (see Fig. 3 ).
his audion tube that could amplify electric sig- The carrier is an electromagnetic radio
nals, was a leader in this field. wave that includes the variations of the desired
As the design of vacuum tubes advanced, voice or music information, inserted by modu-
radio broadcasting progressed rapidly. Regu- lation. This technique of modulating a carrier
larly scheduled programs were broadcast in wave is necessary because the desired informa-
1920 by station KDKA in the AM (amplitude tion itself is not suitable for wireless transmis-
modulation) radio band. The commercial FM sion. The carrier is chosen for the best radio
(frequency modulation) broadcast service for transmission; the modulation provides the in-
sound programs was started in 1939. Stereo formation. For the amplitude modulation (AM)
broadcasting in the FM radio band began in shown in Fig. 2, the amplitude of the carrier
1961. wave varies with the modulation. In frequency
With regard to television, after discarding modulation (FM), the modulating voltage varies
previous mechanical systems that used rotating the frequency of the carrier wave.
drums or disks, commercial television broad- Frequency is an important characteristic of
casting was adopted officially in July 1941, al- an alternating voltage or current. How many
though its popular use did not begin until 1945. times per second the carrier wave varies
Our present color-television system was through a complete cycle of reversals in polarity
adopted in 1953. is the frequency in cycles per second (cps). The
Now, with the invention of transistors in unit is the hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 cps.
4 Survey of Electronics

.
Transm1ttmg
antenna/
I
~* ___.._.
\
Electromagnetic
radio waves

Receiving
antenna

Studio Transmitter
equipment

Receiver

Sound waves
to microphone Sound waves
from loudspeaker
FIGURE 2
Radio broadcasting between the transmitter
and receiver. An AM carrier wave is shown.

The transmission distance may be 10 or others. These are all regulated by the Federal
5000 miles, depending on the type of radio Communications Commission (FCC) in the
service. There are many services for different United States. The FCC assigns the carrier wave
uses, including broadcast radio and television to be used by the broadcast station. A few of the
for home entertainment, radio navigation, mar- more important radio services are listed here,
itime radio, police radio, amateur radio broad- but a more complete list is in Appendix B, with
casting, government radio services, and many assigned channels.

FIGURE 3
The old and the new in radio. (RCA)
 Survey of Electronics 5

Standard Broadcast Band. This band is the Amateur Radio. This is perhaps the largest
original system of broadcasting for what we noncommercial radio broadcast service. These
generally call radio, using amplitude modula- self-styled "hams" usually build and operate
tion in the transmission of the station's assigned their own transmitters and receivers to call each
carrier wave. The AM radio band is 535 to other in one of the assigned amateur radio
1605 kHz. The last digit is not on the dial. bands. The largest organization in this field is
the American Radio Relay League (ARRL),
FM Radio Band. This band is 88 to 108 MHz. Newington, Connecticut.
The FM system reduces static and interference.
Also, the FM band is used for broadcasting ELECTRONIC APPLICATIONS
high-fidelity audio signals. For stereo broad- Electronics has its uses in almost all industries
casting, the left and right audio signals are for quality control and automation. Just a few
multiplexed, or combined, on one carrier wave. examples are given here to indicate its many
possibilities. Additional applications are listed in
Television Broadcasting. Television is just Appendix A
another application of radio broadcasting. Two
separate carrier signals are transmitted by the
station in its assigned channel. One is the AM
picture signal; the other is the FM sound signal.
A 1V channel is 6 MHz wide to include the
picture and sound signals. As an example,
channel 4 is 66 to 72 MHz. For color broad-
casting, the color signal is multiplexed with the
black-and-white signal on the one carrier wave
for a picture signal.

Marine Radio. This use is important for ship

navigation and safety. In addition to ship-to-ship
and ship-to-shore communications, radio is the
basis of radar navigation systems.

Aeronautical Radio. In addition to communi-

cations, radio is an important part of air naviga-
tion. It includes radar, radio compass, radio
range, and automatic landing equipment.

Government Radio. There are many radio

stations operated by the federal government for
civilian and military requirements.

Citizen's Band (CB) Radio. Forty 10-kHz

channels from 26.965 to 27.405 MHz are for
public use of two-way radio. The CB transceiver FIGURE 4
includes a· transmitter and receiver. Electronic calculator. (Texas Instruments)
6 Survey of Electronics

Electronic Calculators. See Fig. 4. Using in- Accuracy of the electronic watch is better than
tegrated circuits, the calculator adds, subtracts, 1 min/year.
multiplies, or divides numbers almost instantly.
The display is a photoelectric panel that shows Industrial Electronics. These applications in-
the digits in their proper place. The scientific clude welding, dielectric heating, induction
calculator in Fig. 4 can also be used for trigono- heating, metal detector, smoke detector, mois-
metric functions, logarithms, and exponents. ture control, and computer-controlled machin-
ery. In addition, there are many types of re-
Electronic Data Processing (EDP). This ap- mote-control units, including automatic garage
plication includes computers and automatic door openers and burglar alarms. Closed-cir-
equipment to replace manual office routines in cuit television is often used for surveillance.
filing, sorting, billing, and calculating. Electronic
data processing is very common in banks, in- Supersonics or Ultrasonics. Electronic
surance companies, government agencies, and equipment also uses sound waves with fre-
any office where voluminous records are kept. quencies above the range of human hearing.
Examples are sonar equipment for marine
Medical. Research in schools and laborato- depth equipment, ultrasonic cleaning machines,
ries, diagnosis, treatment, and surgery all use and remote control units for tuning television
electronic equipment. Examples are the elec- receivers to different channels.
tron microscope, diathermy equipment, and the
Classifications. There are so many applica-
cardiograph machine.
tions that they are generally considered in these
broad categories:
Electronic Watches. See Fig. 5. This watch
uses an integrated circuit to produce timing 1. Radio communications. This includes AM
pulses, instead of using mechanical springs. radio, FM radio, including stereo, and tel-
The digital readout can use the light-emitting evision broadcasting, including color.
diode (LED) or liquid-crystal display (LCD). Radio can further be subdivided between
receivers and broadcast equipment, either
at the transmitter or at the studio. High-
fidelity audio equipment can be considered
a specialized branch of receivers.
2. Electronics. Some of the main subdivisions
are computers, industrial control, servo-
mechanisms, testing and recording instru-
ments, and medical electronics. The appli-
cations of computers, including EDP,
probably form the largest branch of elec-
tronics.
3. Electrical power. Generation, distribution,
and uses, including de and ac machinery.
FIGURE 5
Electronic digital watch. (Bulova Watch Co., Branches. Specific divisions in radio and
Inc.) electronics are indicated by the following spe-
 I 1 t • · ·~1 !t I

Survey of Electronics 7

cialized titles for engineers: aeronautical, audio,

antennas, communications, computer, engi-
neering management, engineering sales, geo-
physical, illumination, information theory and
coding, magnetics, medical electronics, micro-
waves, military including guided missiles, nu-
clear power, packaging and materials, radio
astronomy, tubes, semiconductor, space flight
including satellites, test equipment, and, finally,
ultrasonics. Many of these fields combine the
sciences of physics and chemistry.

Job Titles. The types of jobs in each of these

fields include management, engineer for re-
search, development, or production, teacher, FIGURE 6
technician, sales, technical writer, draftsman, Typical resistors. (Ohmite Mfg. Co.)
service worker, inspector, tester, and wirer.
Technicians and service workers are needed for A diode is generally used as a rectifier to
testing, maintenance, and repair on all the types change alternating current to direct current.
of electronic equipment. The other tubes are for amplifier circuits, which
increase the strength of the input signal.
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum
Considering the many different applications of tube with a fluorescent screen. The picture tube
electronics and radio, we can be a little sur- for a television receiver is a common example
prised that there are only five basic types of
components for all the different kinds of equip-
ment. Of course, each type has many variations
for specific uses. Still, the following is a short
list:

1. Electron tubes, including vacuum-tube

amplifiers, gas-filled tubes, and the cath-
ode-ray tube (CRT).
2. Transistors. This is probably the most im-
portant use of solid-state semiconductors,
which includes diodes and integrated cir-
cuits.
3. Resistors (Fig. 6).
4. Capacitors, or condensers (Fig. 7).
5. Inductors, or coils (Fig. 8).
FIGURE 7
Tubes. Types include the two-electrode tubes Typical capacitors. ( Cornell-Dubilier Electric
or diodes, plus triodes, tetrodes, and pentodes. Corp.)
8 Survey of Electronics

(b)

(c)

u
(a) (d) (e)
FIGURE 8
Typical inductors. (Merit Coil and Transformer
Corp.)

of the CRT (Fig. 9). More details of tube types Semiconductor Devices. Similarly, semicon-
and their schematic symbols are in Chap. 29, ductor diodes are rectifiers. Transistors corre-
Vacuum Tubes. spond to triode tubes for use as amplifiers. Both
can control the flow of electric charges between
the input and output terminals. Tubes and tran-
sistors are used in electronic circuits with resis-
tors, capacitors, and inductors. The transistors
and tubes are active components, meaning they
can amplify or rectify. Resistors, capacitors, and
inductors are passive components. Integrated
circuits combine solid-state transistors and
diodes in one IC chip for a complete circuit with
the passive components. More details of solid-
state devices, with schematic symbols, are in
Chaps. 30 to 32.

Resistors. These can be the carbon-composi-

tion type or wound with special resistance wire.
Their function is to limit the amount of current
in a circuit.
FIGURE 9 The unit of resistance (R) is the ohm (Q).
Typical picture tube or CRT. As an example, R = 100 Q is a common value.
 I I t 'rt'J • ~•·•' Cf!J !If l I I t I l'

Survey of Electronics 9

TABLE 1. Schematic Symbols for Resistors

TYPE SYMBOL NOTES
R
Fixed ~
Limits current

~ or Varies current or voltage; volume, contrast, and

Variable R tone controls

~
Schematic symbols for R are shown in Table 1. value for an electrolytic filter capacitor. Sche-
More details are in Chap. 11, Resistors. matic symbols for C are shown in Table 2.
More details on capacitance are in Chaps. 21
Capacitors. A capacitor is constructed as an to 23.
insulator between two conductor plates. The
basic function is to concentrate the electric field Inductors. An inductor is just a coil of wire.
of the voltage applied across the insulator or The basic function is to concentrate the mag-
dielectric. As a result, it has the capacity to store netic field of the current in the coil. An induced
electric charge. voltage is produced when the current with its
With an ac voltage applied, the capacitor magnetic field varies.
can charge and discharge. The practical appli- In the practical application of a choke, the
cation of this effect is to use capacitors to pass inductor can pass a steady direct current better
an ac signal but to block a steady de voltage. than alternating current. The higher the fre-
The higher the frequency, the easier it is for the quency, the greater is the effect of the choke in
capacitor to couple the ac signal from one am - reducing the amount of alternating current.
plifier circuit to the next. A transformer consists of two or more coil
The unit of capacitance (C) is the farad (F). windings in the same magnetic field. The pur-
However, this is a very large unit requiring pose is to increase or decrease the amount of ac
metric fractions. As an example, C = 40 µF voltage coupled between the two windings.
(microfarads), or40/l,OOO,OOO F, is a common Therefore, a transformer can operate only with

TABLE 2. Schematic Symbols for Capacitors

TYPE SYMBOL USES
c Stores charge in dielectric; passes ac voltage but
Fixed 0
)I 0
blocks de voltage
c
Electrolytic 0 )I+ 0 Fixed value with large C but has polarity
c
Variable 0
~~ 0 Variable capacitor; used for tuning
10 Survey of Electronics

TABLE 3. Schematic Symbols for Inductors or Coils

TYPE SYMBOL USES
L
Air core ~
Concentrates magnetic field; for radio frequencies

L
Iron core For 60-Hz and audio frequencies
~

Variable L __ ._
powdered-iron Variable inductance; used for tuning
~
core

Lp
Iron-core ~ Increases or decreases ac voltage from primary Lp
transformer ~ to secondary L8
Ls

alternating current. The magnetic field must Electronic Circuits. In conclusion, whether
vary to induce the current that transforms the we consider radio communications, electronics,
energy between coils. More details on induct- or power machinery, they all depend on the
ance are in Chaps. 18 to 20. · fundamental principles of electricity and mag-
The symbol for inductance is L, for link- netism. The applications of electronics are basi-
ages in the magnetic field. The unit is the henry cally electric circuits with transistors or tubes
(H). As an example, L = 250 µH is a typical and the required, R, C, and L components.
value of a choke for radio frequencies. Sche- A transistor or tube is needed for amplification of
matic symbols for Lare shown in Table 3. a desired signal.
 Blectrlclty
Electricity is an invisible force that can produce heat, light, motion, and
many other physical effects. The force is an attraction or repulsion apter
between electric charges. More specifically, electricity can be explained in
terms of electric charge, current, voltage,' and resistance. The corre-
sponding electrical units are the coulomb for measuring charge, the
ampere for current, the volt for potential difference, and the ohm for
resistance. These characteristics can then be applied to electric circuits.
The topics explained here are:
I
1-1 Negative and Positive Polarities
1-2 Electrons and Protons in the Atom
1-3 Structure of the Atom
1-4 The Coulomb Unit of Charge
1-5 The Volt Unit of Potential Difference
1-6 Charge in Motion Is Current
1-7 Resistance Is Opposition to Current
1-8 The Closed .Circuit
1-9 Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC)
1-10 Sources of Electricity

1..1 poles, electric charges have the opposite polari~

NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE ties labeled negative and positive. The opposing
POLARITIES characteristics provide a method of balancing
We see the effects of electricity in a battery, one against the other to explain different physi ·
static charge, lightning, radio, television, and cal effects.
many other applications. What dQ they all have It is the arrangement of electrons and pro·
in common that is electrical in nature? The tons as basic particles of electricity that deter~
answer is basic particles .of electric charge with mines the electrical characteristics of all
opposite polarities. All the materials we know, substances. As an example, this paper has elec·
including solids, liquids, and gases, contain two trons and protons in it. There is no evidence of
basic particles of electric charge: the electron electricity, though, because the number· of elec-
and the proton. An electron is the smallest trons equals the number of protons. In that case
amount of electric charge having the character· the opposite electrical forces cancel, making the
istic called negative polarity. The proton is a paper electrically neutral. The neutral condition
basic particle with positive polarity. means that opposing forces are exactly bal-
Actually, the negative and positive polari · anced, without any net effect either way.
ties indicate two opposite characteristics that When we want to use the electrical forces
seem to be fundamental in all physical applica · associated with the negative and positive
tions. Just as magnets have north and south charges in all matter, work must be done to
 Chapter 1
12 Electricity

marked to emphasize the two opposite polari-

ties.

Practice Problems 1-1

(answers on page 38)
(a) Is the charge of an electron positive or
negative?
(b) Is the charge of a proton positive or nega-
tive?
(c) Is it true or false that the neutral condition
means equal positive and negative
charges?

1-2
ELECTRONS AND PROTONS
IN THE ATOM
Although there is any number of possible
methods by which electrons and protons might
FIGURE 1-1 be grouped, they assemble in specific combina-
tions that result in a stable arrangement. Each
Negative and positive polarities on 1.5-V dry
stable combination of electrons and protons
cell.
makes one particular type of atom. For exam-
ple, Fig. 1-2 illustrates the electron and proton
separate the electrons and protons. Changing structure of one atom of the gas hydrogen. This
the balance of forces produces evidence of atom consists of a central, mass called the nu-
electricity. A battery, for instance, can do elec- cleus and 1 electron outside. The proton in the
trical work because its chemical energy sepa- nucleus makes it the massive and stable part of
rates electric charges to produce an excess of the atom because a proton is 1840 times heav-
electrons at its negative terminal and an excess ier than an electron.
of protons at its positive terminal. With separate In Fig. 1-2, the 1 electron in the hydrogen
and opposite charges at the two terminals, elec- atom is shown in an orbital ring around the
trical energy can be supplied to a circuit con- nucleus. In order to account for the electrical
nected to the battery. Figure 1-1 shows a battery stability of the atom, we can consider the elec-
with its negative ( - ) and positive ( +) terminals tron as spinning around the nucleus, as planets
revolve around the sun. Then the electrical
,--, force attracting the electrons in toward the nu-
Proton / "" '\ cleus is balanced by the mechanical force out-
in nucleus ---f__f;\ 6,..-- ~lectr?n ward on the rotating electron. As a result, the
\_ ' J ? m orbit
electron stays in its orbit around the nucleus.
\ I
' ............. _..,,,.""' / In an atom that has more electrons and
FIGURE 1-2 protons than hydrogen, all the protons are in
Electron and proton in hydrogen atom. the nucleus, while all the electrons are in one or
 'f't"•t1 '"I''! l 11 111

Chapter 1
Electricity 13

more outside rings. For example, the carbon When there are many atoms close together
atom illustrated in Fig. l -3a has 6 protons in the in a copper wire, the outermost orbital electrons
nucleus and 6 electrons in two outside rings. are not sure which atoms they belong to. They
The total number of electrons in the outside can migrate easily from one atom to another at
rings must equal the number of protons in the random. Such electrons that can move freely
nucleus in a neutral atom. from one atom to the next are often called free
The distribution of electrons in the orbital electrons. This freedom accounts for the ability
rings determines the atom's electrical stability. of copper to conduct electricity very easily. It is
Especially important is the number of electrons the movement of free electrons that provides
in the ring farthest from the nucleus. This· out- electrical current in a metal conductor.
ermost ring requires 8 electrons for stability,
except when there is only one ring, which has a
maximum of 2 electrons. Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconduc-
In the carbon atom in Fig. 1-3a, with 6 tors. When electrons can move easily from
electrons, there are just 2 electrons in the first atom to atom in a material, it is a conductor. In
ring because 2 is its maximum number. The general, all the metals are good conductors,
remaining 4 electrons are in the second ring, with silver the best and copper second. Their
which can have a maximum of 8 electrons. atomic structure allows free movement of the
As another example, the copper atom in outermost orbital electrons. Copper wire is
Fig. l-3b has only 1 electron in the last ring, generally used for practical conductors because
which can include 8 electrons. Therefore, the it costs much less than silver. The purpose of
outside ring of the copper atom is less stable using conductors is to allow electrical current to
than the outside ring of the carbon atom. flow with minimum opposition.

4 electrons in
/,,,........ ...------~N 2-electron orbit,
-0--0 ·-..., complete
8-electron orbit, .... --0-- / J2f' 'C/"M - '
/ c< --0-- L, M- ' 8-electron orbit,
incomplete .........,__. /-'
~ ..... --.K
..... ,L
'\ I
I ¢P c< ....,,,.--·K
-
_ Co{ \ complete
)..J \
I
I
I
/
\
\
\
I
I I
I
I
/ ,
\ \
- ~

$~(0$$ !$$$€)$$$~
\ b \ ~ 18-electron orbit,
'n\ , ___ . . / r (/ '9
\ \ I I

2-electron
complete
;/---;;>/ \ q
\
\
}--\ q_ );:::;) r< I
':::.<. ...... -0-_ . . ,P I
/ complete

°"""0--G'..G ,//"' 1 electron in

' ', 'Y'.::\
'........ ......... 8-electron orbit,
------- incomplete

(a) (b)
FIGURE 1-3
Atomic structure showing nucleus and orbital
rings. (a) Carbon atom with 6 protons in nucleus
and 6 orbital electrons. (b) Copper atom with
29 protons in nucleus and 29 orbital electrons.
 Chapter 1
14 Electricity

A material with atoms in which the elec- The metals listed across the top row are all
trons tend to stay in their own orbits is an insu- good conductors of electricity. Each has an
lator because it cannot conduct electricity very atomic structure with an unstable outside ring
easily. However, the insulators are able to hold that allows many free electrons.
or store electricity better than the conductors. The semiconductors have 4 electrons in
An insulating material, such as glass, plastic, the outermost ring. This means they neither
rubber, paper, air, or mica, is also called a gain nor lose electrons but share them with
dielectric, meaning it can store electric charge. similar atoms. The reason is that 4 is exactly
Insulators can be useful ·when it is neces- halfway to the stable condition of 8 electrons in
sary to prevent current flow. In addition, for the outside ring.
applications requiring the storage of electric Among the gases, those which are active
charge, as in capacitors, a dielectric material chemically and electrically have an atomic
must be used because a good conductor cannot structure with an incomplete outside ring. The
store any charge. inert gases have a complete outside ring of 8
Carbon can be considered a semiconduc- electrons, which makes them chemically inac-
tor, conducting less than the metal conductors tive. Remember that 8 electrons in the outside
but more than the insulators. In the same group ring is a stable structure.
are germanium and silicon, which are com-
monly used for transistors and other semicon- Molecules and Compounds. A group of two
ductor components. or more atoms forms a molecule. For instance,
two atoms of hydrogen (H) form a hydrogen
Elements. The combinations of electrons and molecule (H 2 ). When hydrogen unites chemi-
protons forming stable atomic structures result cally with oxygen, the result is water (H 2 0 ),
in different kinds of elementary substances hav- which is a compound. A compound, then, con-
ing specific characteristics. A few familiar ex- sists of two or more elements. The molecule is
amples are the elements hydrogen, oxygen, the smallest unit of a compound, with the same
carbon, copper, and iron. An element is defined chemical characteristics. We can have mole-
as a substance that cannot be decomposed any cules for either elements or compounds. How-
further by chemical action. The atom is the ever, atoms exist only for the elements.
smallest particle of an element that still has the
same characteristics as the element. Atom itself Practice Problems 1-2
is a Greek word meaning a particle too small to (answers on page 38)
be subdivided. As an example of the fact that (a) Which has more free electrons: metals or
atoms are too small to be visible, a particle of insulators?
carbon the size of a pinpoint contains many (b) Which is the best conductor: silver, carbon,
billions of atoms. The electrons and protons or iron?
within the atom are even smaller. (c) Which is a semiconductor: copper, silicon,
Table 1-1 lists some more examples of or neon?
elements. These are just a few out of a total of
106. * Notice how the elements are grouped.
1-3
*A more complete listing of the elements, in alpha- STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
betical order, is given in Appendix C at the back of Although nobody has ever seen an atom, its
the book. hypothetical structure fits experimental evi-
 Chapter 1
Electricity 15

TABLE 1-1. Examples of the Chemical Elements

ATOMIC ELECTRON
GROUP ELEMENT SYMBOL NUMBER VALENCE
Metal conductors, in Silver Ag 47 +1
order of conductance Copper Cu 29 +1 *
Gold Au 79 +1 *
Aluminum· Al 13 +3
Iron Fe 26 +2*
Semiconductors Carbon c 6 ±4
Silicon Si 14 ±4
Germanium Ge 32 ±4
Active gases Hydrogen H 1 ±1
Oxygen 0 8 -2
Inert gases Helium He 2 0
Neon Ne 10 0
*Some metals have more than one valence number
in forming chemical compounds. Examples are cu-
prous or cupric copper, ferrous or ferric iron, and
aurous or auric gold.

dence that has been measured very exactly. The the nucleus has 1 proton balanced by 1 orbital
size and electric charge of the invisible particles electron. Similarly, the carbon atom in Fig. 1-3
in the atom are indicated by how much they are with atomic number 6 has 6 protons in the
deflected by known forces. Our present plane- nucleus and 6 orbital electrons. Also, the cop-
tary model of the atom was proposed by Niels per atom has 29 protons and 29 electrons be-
Bohr in 1913. His contribution was joining the cause its atomic number is 29. The atomic
new ideas of a nuclear atom developed by Lord number is listed for each of the elements in
Rutherford (1871-1937) with the quantum Table 1-1 to indicate the atomic structure.
theory of radiation developed by Max Planck
(1858-1947) and Albert Einstein (1879-1955). Orbital Rings. The planetary electrons are in
As illustrated in Figs. 1-2 and 1-3, the successive shells called K, L, M, N, 0, P, and Q
nucleus contains protons for all the positive at increasing distances outward from the nu -
charge in the atom. The number of protons in cleus. Each shell has a maximum number of
the nucleus is equal to the number of planetary electrons for stability. As indicated in Table 1-2,
electrons. Thus, the positive and negative these stable shells correspond to the inert gases,
charges are balanced, as the proton and elec- like helium and neon.
tron have equal and opposite charges. The The K shell, closest to the nucleus, is stable
orbits for the planetary electrons are also called with 2 electrons, corresponding to the atomic
shells or energy levels. structure for the inert gas helium. Once the
stable number of electrons has filled a shell, it
Atomic Number. This gives the number of cannot take any more electrons. The atomic
protons or electrons required in the atom for structure with all its shells filled up to the maxi-
each element. For the hydrogen atom in mum number for stability corresponds to an
Fig. 1-2, the atomic number is 1, which means inert gas.
 Chapter 1
16 Electricity

TABLE 1-2. Shells of Orbital Electrons in For most elements, we can use the rule
the Atom that the maximum number of electrons in a
SHELL MAXIMUM ELECTRONS INERT GAS filled inner shell equals 2 n2 , where n is the shell
number in sequential order outward from the
K 2 Helium
nucleus. Then the maximum number of elec-
L 8 Neon
M 8 (up to calcium) or 18 Argon trons in the first shell is 2 X 1 = 2; for the
N 8, 18, or 32 Krypton second shell 2 x 2 2 = 8, for the third shell
0 8 or 18 Xenon 2 x 3 2 = 18, and for the fourth shell
p 8 or 18 Radon 2 X 4 2 = 32. These values apply only to an
Q 8 inner shell that is filled with its maximum num-
ber of electrons.
Elements with a higher atomic number
have more planetary electrons. These are in Electron Valence. This value is the number of
successive shells, tending to form the structure electrons in an incomplete outermost shell.
of the next inert gas in the periodic table. 1 After Copper, for instance, has a valence of 1 be-
the K shell has been filled with 2 electrons, the cause there is 1 electron in the last shell, after
L shell can take up to 8 electrons. Ten electrons the inner shells have been completed with their
filling the K and L shells is the atomic structure stable number. Similarly, hydrogen has a va-
for the inert gas neon. lence of 1, and carbon has a valence of 4. The
The maximum number of electrons in the number of outer electrons is considered positive
remaining shells can be 8, 18, or 32 for differ- valence, as these electrons are in addition to the
ent elements, depending on their place in the stable shells.
periodic table. The maximum for an outermost Except for H and He, the goal of valence is
shell, though, is always 8. 8 for all the atoms, as each tends to form the
To illustrate these rules, we can use the stable structure of 8 electrons in the outside
copper atom in Fig. l -3b as an example. There ring. For this reason, valence can also be con-
are 29 protons in the nucleus balanced by 29 sidered as the number of electrons in the out-
planetary electrons. This number of electrons side ring needed to make 8. This value is the
fills the K shell with 2 electrons, corresponding negative valence. As examples, the valence of
to the helium atom, and the L shell with 8 copper can be considered + 1 or - 7; carbon
electrons. The 10 electrons in these two shells has the valence of +4. The inert gases have a
correspond to the neon atom, which has an valence of 0, as they all have a complete stable
atomic number of 10. The remaining 19 elec- outer shell of 8 electrons.
trons for the copper atom then fill the M shell The valence indicates how easily the atom
with 18 electrons and 1 electron in the outer- can gain or lose electrons. For instance, atoms
most N shell. with a valence of + 1 can lose this 1 outside
electron, especially to atoms with a valence of
1
+ 7 or -1, which need 1 electron to complete
For more details of the periodic table of the ele- the outside shell with 8 electrons.
ments, developed in 1869 by Dmitri Mendelyeev,
refer to a textbook on chemistry or physics, or see
"Periodic Chart of the Atoms," Sargent Welch Sci- Subshells. Although not shown in the drawing
entific Co., Skokie, Ill. 60076. here, all the shells except K are divided into
 Chapter 1
Electricity 17

TABLE 1-3. Stable Particles in the Atom

PARTICLE CHARGE MASS
Electron, in orbital shells 0.16 X 10- 13 C, negative 9.108 x 10-23 g
Proton, in nucleus 0.16 X 10-13 C, positive 1.672 x 10-24 g
Neutron, in nucleus None 1.675 x 10-24 g

subshells. This subdivision accounts for differ- charge. The work of rubbing resulted in sepa-
ent types of orbits in the same shell. For in- rating electrons and protons to produce a
stance, electrons in one subshell may have el- charge of excess electrons on the surface of the
liptical orbits, while other electrons in the same rubber and a charge of excess protons on the
main shell have circular orbits. The subshells paper.
indicate magnetic properties of the atom. Because paper and rubber are dielectric
materials, they hold their extra electrons or
protons. As a result, the paper and rubber are
Particles in the Nucleus. A stable nucleus,
no longer neutral, but each has an electric
which is not radioactive, contains protons and
charge. The resultant electric charges provide
neutrons. A neutron is electrically neutral with-
the force of attraction between the rubber and
out any net charge. Its mass is almost the same
the paper. This mechanical force of attraction
as a proton.
or repulsion between charges is the fundamen-
A proton has the positive charge of a hy-
tal method by which electricity makes itself evi-
drogen nucleus. The charge is the same amount
dent.
as an orbital electron but of opposite polarity.
Any charge is an example of static electric-
There are no electrons in the nucleus. Table 1-3
ity because the electrons or protons are not in
lists the charge and mass for these three basic
motion. There are many examples. When you
particles in all atoms.
walk across a wool rug, your body becomes
charged with an excess of electrons. Similarly,
Practice Problems 1-3 silk, fur, and glass can be rubbed to produce a
(answers on page 38) static charge. This effect is more evident in dry
(a) An element with 14 protons and 14 elec- weather, because a moist dielectric does not
trons has what atomic number? hold its charge so well. Also, plastic materials
(b) What is the electron valence of an element can be charged easily, which is why thin, light-
with atomic number 3? weight plastics seem to stick to everything.
The charge of many billions of electrons or
protons is necessary for common applications
1-4 of electricity. Therefore, it is convenient to
THE COULOMB UNIT OF CHARGE define a practical unit called the coulomb (C) as
If you rub a hard rubber pen or comb on a sheet equal to the charge of 6.25 X 10 18 electrons or
of paper, the rubber will attract a corner of the protons stored in a dielectric (see Fig. 1-4 ). The
paper if it is free to move easily. The paper and analysis of static charges and their forces is
rubber then give evidence of a static electric called electrostatics.
 Chapter 1
18 Electricity

The symbol for electric charge is Q or q, Charges of Opposite Polarity Attract. If two
standing for quantity. For instance, a charge of small charged bodies of light weight are
6.25 X 10 18 electrons 1 is stated as Q = 1 C. mounted so that they are free to move easily
This unit is named after Charles A. Coulomb and are placed close to each other, one can be
(1736-1806), a French physicist, who meas- attracted to the other when the two charges
ured the force between charges. have opposite polarity (Fig. 1-5a). In terms of
electrons and protons, they tend to be attracted
to each other by the force of attraction between
Negative and Positive Polarities. Historically, opposite charges. Furthermore, the weight of
the negative polarity has been assigned to the an electron is only about 1/i. 840 the weight of a
static charge produced on rubber, amber, and proton. As a result, the force of attraction tends
resinous materials in general. Positive polarity to make electrons move to protons.
refers to the static charge produced on glass
and other vitreous materials. On this basis, the
electrons in all atoms are basic particles of neg- Charges of the Same Polarity Repel. In
ative charge because their polarity is the same Fig. 1-5b and c, it is shown that when the two
as the charge on rubber. Protons have positive bodies have an equal amount of charge with the
charge because the polarity is the same as the same polarity, they repel each other. The two
charge on glass. positive charges repel in Fig. 1-5b, while two
negative charges of the same value repel each
other in Fig. 1-5 c.
1
For an explanation of how to use powers of 10, see
B. Grob, "Problems Workbook in Technical Mathe-
matics for Basic Electronics," McGraw-Hill Book Polarity of a Charge. An electric charge must
Company, New York. have either negative or positive polarity, labeled

1 C of 1 C of
excess electrons excess protons
in dielectric in dielectric

(a) {b)
FIGURE 1-4
The coulomb (C) unit of charge. (a)
6.25 X 10 18 excess electrons for negative
charge. ( b) Same amount of protons for posi-
tive charge caused by removing electrons.
 Chapter 1
Electricity 19

.I
Opposite/ Like+ Like -
charges charges charges
attract repel repel

::e .._
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 1-5
Force between charges. (a) Opposite charges
attract. (b) and (c) charges of the same polarity
repel.

- Q or + Q,
with an excess of either electrons Example 4. A neutral dielectric has 12.5 x 10 18
or protons. A 'neutral condition is considered electrons removed. What is its charge?
zero charge. On this basis, consider the follow-
ing examples, remembering that the electron is Answer. The 2 C of electron charge removed
the basic particle of charge and the proton has allows an excess of 12.5 x 10 18 protons. Since the
proton and electron have exactly the same amount
exactly the same amount, although of opposite
of charge, now the dielectric has a positive charge of
polarity.
+Q = 2 c.

Example 1. A neutral dielectric has added to it Note that we generally consider the elec-
12.5 X 10 18 electrons. What is its charge in cou-
trons moving, rather than the heavier protons.
lombs?
However, a loss of a given number of electrons
is equivalent to a gain of the same number of
Answer. This number of electrons is double the protons.
charge of 1 C. Therefore, - Q = 2 C.
Charge of an Electron. Fundamentally, the
Example 2. A dielectric has a positive charge of quantity of any charge is measured by its force
12.5 x 10 18 protons. What is its charge in cou- of attraction or repulsion. The extremely small
lombs? force of an electron or proton was measured by
Millikan 1 in experiments done from 1908 to
Answer. This is the same amount of charge as in 191 7. Very briefly, the method consisted of
Example 1 but positive. Therefore + Q = 2 C. measuring the charge on vaporized droplets of
oil, by balancing the gravitational force against
Example 3. A dielectric with + Q of 2 C has an electrical force that could be measured very
12.5 X 10 18 electrons added. What is its charge precisely.
then?

1Robert A. Millikan (1868-1953), an American

Answer. The 2 C of negative charge added by the
electrons cancels the 2 C of positive charge, making physicist. Millikan received the Nobel prize in physics
the dielectric neutral, with zero charge. for this oil-drop experiment.
 Chapter 1
20 Electricity

A small drop of oil sprayed from an atom- as shown in Fig. 1-6. All the lines form the
izer becomes charged by friction. Furthermore, electric field. The lines and the field are imagi-
the charges can be increased or decreased nary since they cannot be seen. Just as the field
slightly by radiation. These very small changes of the force of gravity is not visible, however, the
in the amount of charge were measured. The resulting physical effects prove the field is there.
three smallest values were 0.16 x 10- 18 C, Each line of force in Fig. 1-6 is directed
0.32 x 10-18 C, and 0.48 x 10-18 C. These outward to indicate repulsion of another charge
values are multiples of 0.16. In fact, all in the field with the same polarity as Q, either
the charges measured were multiples of positive or negative. The lines are shorter fur-
0.16 X 10- 18 C. Therefore, we conclude that ther away from Q to indicate that the force
0.16 X 10-18 C is the basic charge from which decreases inversely as the square of the dis-
all other values are derived. This ultimate tance. The larger the charge, the greater is the
charge of 0.16 x 10- 18 C is the charge of 1 force.
electron or 1 proton. Then The electric field in the dielectric between
two plates with opposite charges is the basis for
1

1 electron or Qe = 0.16 X 10-18 C the ability of a capacitor to store electric charge.

More details are explained in Chap. 21, Capac-
The reciprocal of 0.16 X 10-18 gives the num- itance. In general, any charged insulator has
ber of electrons or protons in 1 C. Then capacitance. A capacitor unit is constructed in a
form to concentrate the electric field.
1 C = 6.25 X 10 18 electrons
Practice Problems 1-4
Note that the factor 6.25 equals exactly 1/o. 16 (answers on page 38)
and the factor 10 18 is the reciprocal of 10-18 . (a) How many electron charges are there in
the practical unit of one coulomb?
The Electric Field of a Static Charge. The (b) How much is the charge in coulombs for a
ability of an electric charge to attract or repel surplus of 25 X 10 18 electrons?
another charge is actually a physical force. To
help visualize this effect, lines of force are used, 1-5
THE VOLT UNIT OF POTENTIAL
Electric lines DIFFERENCE
of force
Potential refers to the possibility of doing work.
+ Any charge has the potential to do the work of
' \ j ;( moving another charge, by either attraction or
~~ <, t ,> ,~
. . . ~--0--.. ~
repulsion. This ability of a charge to do work is
its potential. When we consider two unlike
charges, they have a difference of potential.
, ', ........
.#' JI' I "- A charge is the result of work done in
' t \\ "'' separating electrons and protons. Because of
)I ; the separation, there is stress and strain associ-

FIGURE 1-6 • ated with opposite charges, since normally they

would be balancing each other to produce a
Electrostatic field around a stationary charge Q. neutral condition. We could consider that the
 I ·1t ,,, '''"'I I

Chapter 1
Electricity 21

Electrons
8888 8888 8888
8888 8888 8888
8888 8888 8888
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 1-7
The work required to move electrons between
two charges depends on their difference in
potential. This difference is equivalent to 2 C of
charge in (a), (b), and (c).

accumulated electrons are drawn tight and are In Fig. 1-7 b, one charge is 2 C, while the
straining themselves to be attracted toward pro- other charge is neutral with 0 C. For the differ-
tons in order to return to the neutral condition. ence of 2 C, again 2 X 3 or 6 electrons can be
Similarly, the work of producing the charge attracted to the positive side.
causes a condition of stress in the protons, In Fig. 1-7 c, the difference is still 2 C be-
which are trying to attract electrons and return tween the charges. The +1 C attracts 3 elec-
to the neutral condition. Because of these trons to the side. Also, the -1 C repels 3 elec-
forces, the charge of electrons or protons has trons. This effect is really the same as attracting
potential, as it is ready to give back the work put 6 electrons.
into producing the charge. The force between Therefore, the net number of electrons
charges is in the electric field. moved in the direction of the more positive
charge depends on the difference of potential
Potential between Different Charges. When between the two charges. This difference corre-
one charge is different from the other, there sponds to 2 C for all three cases in Fig. 1-7.
must be a difference of potential between them. Potential difference is often abbreviated P.D.
For instance, consider a positive charge of 3 C The only case without any potential differ-
shown at the right in Fig. 1-7 a. The charge has a ence between charges is where they both have
certain amount of potential, corresponding to the same polarity and are equal in amount.
the amount of work this charge can do. The Then the repelling and attracting forces cancel
work to be done is moving some electrons, as and no work can be done in moving electrons
illustrated. between the two identical charges.
Assume a charge of 1 C can move 3 elec-
trons. Then the charge of +3 C can attract 9 The Volt Unit of Potential Difference. This
electrons toward the right. However, the charge unit is named after Alessandro Volta (1754-
of + 1 C at the opposite side can attract 3 elec- 1827). Fundamentally, the volt is a measure of
trons toward the left. The net result, then, is that the work needed to move an electric charge.
6 electrons can be moved toward the right to When 0.7376 ft· lb (foot-pound) of work is
the more positive charge. required to move 6.25 X 10 18 electrons be-
 Chapter 1
22 Electricity

tween two points, each with its own charge, the the amount of potential difference between the
potential difference is 1 V. two terminals. The cell then is a voltage source,
Note that 6.25 x 10 18 electrons make up or a source of electromotive force (emf).
one coulomb. Therefore the definition of a volt Sometimes the symbol E is used for emf,
is for a coulomb of charge. but the standard symbol now is V for any poten-
Also, 0.7376 ft· lb of work is the same as 1 tial difference. This applies either to the voltage
joule ( J), which is the practical metric unit of generated by a source or to the voltage drop
work 1 or energy. Therefore, we can say briefly across a passive component, such as a resistor.
that one volt equals one joule of work per cou- In a practical circuit, the voltage deter-
lomb of charge. mines how much current can be produced.
The symbol for potential difference is V for
voltage. In fact, the volt unit is used so often, Practice Problems 1-5
potential difference is often called voltage. Re- (answers on page 38)
member, though, that voltage is the potential (a) How much potential difference is there
difference between two points. Two terminals between two identical charges?
are necessary to measure a potential difference. (b) Which supplies a greater P.O., a 1.5-V
Consider the 2.2-V lead-acid cell in battery or a 12-V battery?
Fig. 1-8. Its output of 2.2 V means that this is
1
1-6
See Appendix D, Physics Units.
CHARGE IN MOTION IS CURRENT
When the potential difference between two
charges forces a third charge to move, the
charge in motion is an electrical current. To
produce current, therefore, charge must be
moved by a potential difference.
In solid materials, such as copper wire, the
free electrons are charges that can be forced to
move with relative ease by a potential differ-
ence, since they require relatively little work to
be moved. As illustrated in Fig. 1-8, if a poten-
tial difference is connected across two ends of a
copper wire, the applied voltage forces the free
electrons to move. This current is a drift of
electrons, from the point of negative charge at
V= 2.2 V one end, moving through the wire, and return-
~t-=---o ing to the positive charge at the other end.
To illustrate the drift of free electrons
(a) (b) through the wire shown in Fig. 1-9, each elec-
FIGURE 1-8 tron in the middle row is numbered, corre-
Chemical cell as voltage source. (a) Voltage sponding to a copper atom to which the free
output is potential difference between the two electron belongs. The electron at the left is
terminals. (b) Schematic symbol with longer labeled s to indicate that it comes from the
line for positive side. negative charge of the source of potential dif-
 Chapter 1
Electricity 23

T Copper wire

eeeeeee e
ese e e 8 8 8 e 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 1

eeeeeeeeeee
I. -
11 +
Potential difference= 1.5 V
• I
FIGURE 1-9
Potential difference across two ends of wire
conductor causes drift of free electrons through
the wire, producing electrical current.

ference. This one electron s is repelled from the ence produces current instantaneously through
negative charge - Q at the left and is attracted the entire length of wire.
by the positive charge + Q at the right. There- Furthermore, the current must be the same
fore, the potential difference of the voltage at all points of the wire at any time. Although a
source can make electron s move toward atom point nearer to the negative terminal of the
1. Now atom 1 has an extra electron. As a voltage source has a greater repelling force on
result, the free electron of atom 1 can then the free electrons, at this point the free elec-
move to atom 2. In this way, there is a drift of trons are farther from the positive terminal and
free electrons from atom to atom. The final have less attracting force. At the middle of the
result is that the one free electron labeled 8 at wire, the free electrons have equal forces of
the extreme right in Fig. 1-9 moves out from the attraction and repulsion. Near the positive ter-
wire to return to the positive charge of the minal, there is a greater attracting force on the
voltage source. free electrons but less repelling force from the
Considering this case of just one electron negative terminal of the voltage source. In all
moving, note that the electron returning to the cases, the total force causing motion of the free
positive side of the voltage source is not the electrons is the same at any point of the wire,
electron labeled s that left the negative side. All therefore resulting in the same current through
electrons are the same, however, and have the all parts of the wire.
same charge. Therefore, the drift of free elec-
trons resulted in the charge of one electron Potential Difference Is Necessary to Produce
moving through the wire. This charge in motion Current. The number of free electrons that
is the current. With more electrons drifting can be forced to drift through the wire to pro-
through the wire, the charge of many electrons duce the moving charge depends upon the
moves, resulting in more current. amount of potential difference across the wire.
The current is a continuous flow of elec- With more applied voltage, the forces of attrac-
trons. Only the electrons move, not the poten- tion and repulsion can make more free elec-
tial difference. For ordinary applications, where trons drift, producing more charge in motion. A
the wires are not long lines, the potential differ- larger amount of charge moving with the same
 Chapter 1
24 Electricity

speed means a higher value of current. Less the current is 1 A Similarly, the current is 1 A
applied voltage across the same wire results in a at p 2 because the electron drift is the same
smaller amount of charge in motion, which is a throughout the wire. If twice as many electrons
smaller value of current. With zero potential moved past either point in 1 s, the current
difference across the wire, there is no current. would be 2 A
Two cases of zero potential difference and The symbol for current is I or i for intensity,
no current can be considered in order to em - since the current is a measure of how intense or
phasize the important fact that potential differ- concentrated the electron flow is. Two amperes
ence is needed to produce current. Assume the of current in a copper wire is a higher intensity
copper wire to be by itself, not connected to any than 1 A; a greater concentration of moving
voltage source, so that there is no potential electrons results because of more electrons in
difference across the wire. The free electrons in motion, although all the electrons move with
the wire can move from atom to atom, but this the same speed. Sometimes current is called
motion is random, without any organized drift amperage.
through the wire. If the wire is considered as a
whole, from one end to the other, the current is How Current Differs from Charge. Charge is
zero. a quantity of electricity accumulated in a dielec-
As another example, suppose that the two tric. The charge is static electricity, at rest, with-
ends of the wire have the same potential. Then out any motion. When the charge moves, usu-
free electrons cannot move to either end, be- ally in a conductor, the current I indicates the
cause both ends have the same force, and there intensity of the electricity in motion. This char-
is no current through the wire. A practical ex- acteristic is a fundamental definition of current:
ample of this case of zero potential difference
would be to connect both ends of the wire to
just one terminal of a battery. Each end of the (1-1)
wire would have the same potential and there
would be no current. The conclusion, therefore,
is that two connections are needed to two points where I is the current in amperes, Q is in cou-
at different potentials in order to produce the lombs, and the time Tis in seconds (s). It does
current. not matter whether the moving charge is posi-
tive or negative. The only question is how much
The Ampere of Current. Since current is the charge moves and what its rate of motion is.
movement of charge, the unit for stating the
amount of current is defined in rate of flow of Example 5. The charge of 12 C moves past a given
charge. When the charge moves at the rate of point every second. How much is the intensity of
6.25 x 10 18 electrons flowing past a given charge flow?
point per second, the value of the current is one
ampere (A). This is the same as one coulomb of Answer. I= Q = 12 C
charge per second. The ampere unit of cur- T 1s
rent is named after Andre M. Ampere (1 775- I= 12 A
1836 ).
Referring back to Fig. 1-9, note that if Example 6. The charge of 5 C moves past a given
6.25 x 10 18 free electrons move past p 1 in 1 s, point in 0.1 s. How much is the current?
 Cha ter 1
Electricity 25

Answer. l=Q=SC charges have negative polarity. The direction of

T 0.1 s motion between two terminals for this electron
I= 50 A current, therefore, is toward the more positive
end. It is important to note, however, that there
This fundamental definition of current can are examples of positive charges in motion.
also be used to consider the charge as equal to Common applications include current in liq-
the product of the current multiplied by the uids, gases, and semiconductors. For the case
time. Or of current resulting from the motion of positive
charges, its direction is opposite from the direc-
(1-2) tion of electron flow. Whether negative or posi-
tive charges move, though, the current is still
For instance, we can have a dielectric con- defined fundamentally as Q!T
nected to conductors with a current of 0 .4 A. If
the current can deposit electrons for the time of Types of Electric Charges for Current. See
0.2 s, the accumulated charge in the dielectric Table 1-4. The most common charge is the
will be electron. In metal conductors and solid materi-
als in general, free electrons in the atoms can be
Q =IX T forced to move by setting up a potential differ-
= 0.4 x 0.2 ence. Therefore current is produced. The di-
Q =0.08 c rection of electron flow is from the negative
terminal of the voltage source, through the ex-
The formulas Q = IT for charge and ternal circuit, and returning to the positive
I= Q!T for current illustrate the fundamental source terminal (Fig. 1-1 Oa). Also, electrons are
nature of Q as an accumulation of static charge released by thermionic emission from the
in an insulator, while I measures the intensity of heated cathode in a vacuum tube. Finally, N-
moving charges in a conductor. type semiconductors such as silicon and ger-
manium have unbound electrons as a result of
The General Nature of Current. The moving doping with impurity elements that can provide
charges that provide current in metal conduc- valence electrons from the added atoms.
tors like a copper wire are the free electrons of For P-type semiconductors, the silicon and
the copper atoms. In this case, the moving germanium are doped with impurity elements

TABLE 1-4. Types of Electric Charges for Current

TYPE OF AMOUNT OF TYPE OF
CHARGE CHARGE POLARITY CURRENT APPLICATIONS
Electron Qe = 0.16 X 10- 13
C Negative Electron flow In wire conductors,
vacuum tubes,
and N-type
semiconductors
Ion Oe or multiples Positive Ion current In liquids and gases
of Qe or negative
Hole Oe = 0.16 x 10-13 c Positive Hole current In P-type semiconductors
 Cha ter 1
26 Electricity

~
Voltage External Voltage External
source circuit source circuit

+ +

{a) {b)
FIGURE 1-10
Direction of current I. (a) Dotted lines to show
electron flow. (b) Flow of positive charges for
hole current or ion current.

that cause a deficiency of electrons in the bonds charges is a flow of either hole charges or posi-
between atoms. Each vacant space where an tive ions. The hole charge has the same amount
electron is missing is called a hole charge. The of charge as the proton, which is the same
polarity is positive, opposite from the electron, amount as an electron. However, the positive
but the amount of charge is exactly the same. In hole charge is in the valence structure of the
short, a hole charge is a deficiency of one va- atoms, not in the nucleus.
lence electron in semiconductors. When hole
charges move in a P-type semiconductor, they
provide hole current. The direction of flow for Magnetic Field Around an Electrical Cur-
the positive charges is from the positive termi- rent. When any current flows, it has an associ-
nal of the voltage source, through the external ated magnetic field. Figure 1-11 shows how iron
circuit, and returning to the negative source filings line up in a circular field pattern corre-
terminal (Fig. 1-lOb). sponding to the magnetic lines of force. The
An ion is an atom that has either lost or magnetic field is in a plane perpendicular to the
gained one or more valence electrons to be- current. It should be noted that the iron filings
come electrically charged. Therefore, the ion are just a method of making the imaginary lines
charge may be either positive or negative. The of force visible. The filings become magnetized
amount may be the charge of 1 electron Qe,
2Qe, or 3Qe, etc. Ions can be produced by
applying voltage to liquids and gases to produce
t
: Iron filings
ionization of the atoms. The ions are much less show magnetic
field
mobile than electrons or hole charges because
an ion includes a complex atom with its nu-
cleus.
Note that protons are not included as
charge carriers for current in Table 1-4. The
+~Current in wire

reason is that the protons are bound in the

nucleus. They cannot be released except by FIGURE 1-11
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
nuclear forces. Therefore, a current of positive Magnetic field around any electrical current.
 Chapter 1
Electricity 27

by the magnetic field. Both magnetic and elec- as much current can be produced in the carbon
tric fields can do the physical work of attraction by applying more voltage. For the same current,
or repulsion. though, the higher applied voltage means that
The magnetic field of any current is the more work is necessary, causing more heat.
basis for many electromagnetic applications, Carbon opposes the current more than copper,
including magnets, relays, loudspeakers, trans- therefore, and has a higher value of resistance.
formers, and coils in general. Winding the con-
ductor in the form of a coil concentrates the The Ohm. The practical unit of resistance is
magnetic field. More details of electromagnet- the ohm (Q). A resistance that develops 0.24
ism are explained in Chap. 15, Electromagnetic calorie 1 of heat when one ampere of current
Induction. flows through it for one second has one ohm of
opposition. As an example of a low resistance, a
Practice Problems 1-6 good conductor like copper wire can have a
(answers on page 38) resistance of0.01 Q for a 1-ft length. The resist-
(a) The flow of 2 C!s of electron charges is ance-wire heating element in a 600-W toaster
how many amperes of current? has a resistance of 24 n, and the tungsten fila-
(b) The flow of 2 C!s of hole charges is how ment in a 100-W light bulb has a resistance of
many amperes of current? 144 Q, with a 120-V source.
(c) How much is the current with zero poten- Figure 1-12 shows a carbon-composition
tial difference? resistor. This type of resistance can be manu-
factured with a value from a few ohms to mil-
1-7 lions of ohms. The abbreviation for resistance is
RESISTANCE IS OPPOSITION R or r. The symbol used for the ohm is the
TO CURRENT Greek letter omega, written as Q. In diagrams,
The fact that a wire conducting current can resistance is indicated by a zigzag line as shown
become hot is evidence of the fact that the work by R in Fig. 1-12.
done by the applied voltage in producing cur-
rent must be accomplished against some form Conductance. The opposite of resistance is
of opposition. This opposition, which limits the conductance. The less the resistance, the higher
amount of current that can be produced by the the conductance. Its symbol is G and the unit is
applied voltage, is called resistance. Conductors the siemens (S), named after Ernst von Sie-
have very little resistance; insulators have a mens, a European inventor. It is also called the
large amount of resistance. mho, which is ohm spelled backward. Specifi-
The atoms of a copper wire have a large cally, G is the reciprocal of R, or G = 1 IR. For
number of free electrons, which can be moved example, 5 Q of resistance is equal to %S of
easily by a potential difference. Therefore, the conductance.
copper wire has little opposition to the flow of Whether to use R or G for components is
free electrons when voltage is applied, corre- usually a matter of convenience. In general, R is
sponding to a low value of resistance. easier to use in series circuits, because the se-
Carbon; however, has fewer free electrons
than copper. When the same amount of voltage 1 One calorie is the quantity of heat that will raise the

is applied to the carbon as to the copper, fewer temperature of one gram of water by one degree
electrons will flow. It should be noted that just Celsius. See Appendix D, Physics Units.
 Chapter 1
28 Electricity

R=600.Q

(a) (b)
FIGURE 1-12
(a) Wirewound resistor with cement coating. ( b)
Schematic symbol for any type of resistance.
(International Resistance Co.)

ries voltages are proportional to the resistances; terminals, this voltage is connected across the
G can be more convenient in parallel circuits, filament of the bulb by means of the two wires
because the parallel currents are proportional so that the applied voltage can produce current
to the conductances. (Series and parallel cir- through the filament.
cuits are explained in Chaps. 3 and 4.) In Fig. 1-13c the schematic diagram of the
circuit is shown. Here the components are rep-
Practice Problems 1-7 resented by shorthand symbols. Note the sym-
(answers on page 38) bols for the battery and resistance. The con-
(a) Which has more resistance, carbon or necting wires are shown simply as straight lines
copper? because their resistance is small enough to be
(b) With the same voltage applied, which re- neglected. A resistance of less than 0.01 Q for
sistance will allow more current, 4. 7 Q or the wire is practically zero compared with the
5000 Q? 300-Q resistance of the bulb. If the resistance of
(c) What is the conductance in siemens or the wire must be considered, the schematic
mho units for a 10-Q R? diagram includes it as additional resistance in
the same current path.
1-8 It should be noted that the schematic dia-
THE CLOSED CIRCUIT gram does not look like the physical layout of
In electrical applications requiring the use of the circuit. The schematic shows only the sym-
current, the components are arranged in the bols for the components and their electrical
form of a circuit, as shown in Fig. 1-13. A circuit connections.
can be defined as a path for current flow. The Any electric circuit has three important
purpose of this circuit is to light the incandes- characteristics:
cent bulb. The bulb lights when the tungsten-
filament wire inside is white hot, producing an 1. There must be a source of potential differ-
incandescent glow. ence. Without the applied voltage, current
By itself the tungsten filament cannot pro- cannot flow.
duce current. A source of potential difference is 2. There must be a complete path for current
necessary. Since the battery produces a poten- flow, from one side of the applied voltage
tial difference of 1.5 V across its two output source, through the external circuit, and
 Chapter 1
Electricity 29

Battery
terminals
Resistance
load
Source R=300.Q
+ V= 1.5 V

(b) (c)
FIGURE 1-13
An electrical circuit with voltage source con-
nected to a resistance load. (a) Photo of circuit.
(b) Wiring diagram. (c) Schematic symbol.

returning to the other side of the voltage of the electron flow past any one point in the
source. circuit.
3. The current path normally has resistance. To illustrate the difference between Vand I
The resistance is in the circuit for the pur- another way, suppose the circuit in Fig. 1-13 is
pose of either generating heat or limiting opened by disconnecting the bulb. Now no cur-
the amount of current. rent can flow because there is no closed path.
Still, the battery has its potential difference. If
How the Voltage Is Different from the Cur- you measure across the two terminals, the volt-
rent. It is the current that moves through the meter will read 1.5 V even though the current is
circuit. The potential difference does not move. zero.
The voltage across the filament resistance
makes electrons flow from one side to the
other. While the current is flowing around the
circuit, however, the potential difference re-
v Current I Voltage
mains across the filament to do the work of through R+ R
acrossR
moving electrons through the resistance of the
filament. As illustrated in Fig. 1-14, the voltage
is the potential difference across the two ends of FIGURE 1-14
the resistance, while the current is the intensity Comparison of voltage and current.
 Chapter 1
30 Electricity

The Voltage Source Maintains the Current. otherwise, the term load by itself can be as-
As current flows in the circuit, electrons leave sumed generally to mean the load current.
the negative terminal of the cell, and the same Therefore, a heavy or big load electrically
number of free electrons in the conductor are means a high value of load current, corre-
returned to the positive terminal. With electrons sponding to a large amount of work supplied by
lost from the negative charge and gained by the the source.
positive charge, the two charges would tend to
neutralize each other. The chemical action in-
Direction of the Electron Flow. As shown in
side the dry cell, however, continuously sepa-
Fig. 1-13c, the direction of the electron drift is
rates electrons and protons to maintain the
from the negative side of the battery, through
negative and positive charges on the outside
the load resistance R, and back to the positive
terminals that provide the potential difference.
terminal of the voltage source. Note that this is
Otherwise, the current would neutralize the
the direction in the external circuit connected
charges, resulting in no potential difference,
across the output terminals of the voltage
and the current would stop. Therefore, the dry
source.
cell keeps the current flowing by maintaining
Inside the battery, the electrons move to
the potential difference across the circuit. Thus
the negative terminal because this is how the
the cell is the generator, or voltage source, for
voltage source produces its potential difference.
the circuit.
The battery is doing the work of separating
charges, accumulating electrons at the negative
The Circuit Is a Load on the Voltage Source.
terminal and protons at the positive terminal.
We can consider the circuit as a means whereby
Then the potential difference across the two
the energy of the voltage source is carried by
output terminals can do the work of moving
means of the current through the filament of the
electrons around the external circuit. In the
bulb, where the electrical energy is used in
circuit outside the voltage source, however, the
producing heat energy. On this basis, the bat-
direction of the electron flow is from a point of
tery is the source in the circuit, since its voltage
negative potential to a point of positive poten-
output represents the potential energy to be
tial.
used. The part of the circuit connected to the
voltage source is the load resistance, since it
determines how much work the source will Conventional Current. The direction of mov-
supply. In this case, the bulb's filament is the ing positive charges, opposite from electron
load resistance for the battery. flow, is considered the conventional direction of
The resistance of the filament determines current. In electrical engineering, circuits are
how much current the 1.5-V source will pro- usually analyzed with conventional current. The
duce. Specifically, the current here is 0.005 A, reason is based on the fact that, by the positive
equal to 1.5 V divided by 300 Q. With more definitions of force and work, a positive poten-
opposition, the same voltage will produce less tial is considered above a negative potential. So
current; less opposition allows more current. conventional current is a motion of positive
The current that flows through the load charges "falling downhill" from a positive to a
resistance is the load current. Note that a lower negative potential. The direction of conven-
value of ohms for the load resistance corre- tional current, therefore, is the direction of pos-
sponds to a higher load current. Unless noted itive charges in motion.
 Chapter 1
Electricity 31

An example of positive charges moving in ing wires for a bulb produces too much current
the direction of conventional current is hole in the wires but no current through the bulb.
current in P-type semiconductors. Also, a cur- Then the bulb is shorted out. The bulb is not
rent of positive ions in liquids or gases moves in damaged, but the wires can become hot enough
the opposite direction from electron flow. For to burn unless the line has a fuse as a safety
instance, the current through the electrolyte precaution against too much current.
inside a battery is ionization current.
Actually, either a positive or negative po- Practice Problems 1-8
tential of the same value can do the same (answers on page 38)
amount of work in moving charge. Any circuit Answer true or false for the circuit in
can be analyzed either with electron flow or by Fig. 1-13.
conventional current in the opposite direction. (a) The bulb has a P.O. of 1.5 V across its
In this book the current is considered as elec- filament only when connected to the volt-
tron flow in the applications where electrons are age source.
the moving charges. (b) The battery has a P.O. of 1.5 V across its
In summary, we can say that the closed terminals only when connected to the bulb.
circuit, normal circuit, or just a circuit is a
closed path that has V to produce I with R to 1-9
limit the amount of current. The circuit provides DIRECT CURRENT (DC) AND
a means of using the energy of the battery as a ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)
voltage source. The battery has its potential The electron flow· illustrated in the circuit of
difference V with or without the circuit. How- Fig. 1-13c is direct current because it has just
ever, the battery alone is not doing any work in one direction. The reason for the unidirectional
producing load current. The bulb alone has its current is that the battery maintains the same
resistance, but without current the bulb does not polarity of output voltage.
light. With the circuit, the voltage source is used It is the flow of charges in just one direction
for the purpose of producing current to light the and the fixed polarity of applied voltage that are
bulb. the characteristics of a de circuit. Actually, the
current can be a motion of positive charges,
Open Circuit. When any part of the path is rather than electrons, but the conventional di-
open or broken, the circuit is open because rection of current does not change the fact that
there is no continuity in the conducting path. direct current has just one direction. Further-
The open can be in the connecting wires or in more, the de voltage source can change the
the bulb's filament as the load resistance. The amount of its output voltage, but if the same
resistance of an open circuit is infinitely high. polarity is maintained, direct current will flow in
The result is no current in an open circuit. just one direction, meeting the requirements of
a de circuit. A battery is a steady de voltage
Short Circuit. In this case, the voltage source source because it has fixed polarity and its out-
has a closed path across its terminals, but the put voltage is a steady value.
resistance is practically zero. The result is too An alternating voltage source periodically
much current in a short circuit. Usually, the reverses or alternates in polarity. The resulting
short circuit is a bypass across the load resist- alternating current, therefore, periodically re-
ance. For instance, a short across the conduct- verses in direction. In terms of electron flow, the
 Chapter 1
32 Electricity

current always flows from the negative terminal The details of ac circuits are explained in
of the voltage source, through the circuit, and Chap. 16 and the remainder of the book. Di-
back to the positive terminal, but when the gen- rect-current circuits are analyzed first because
erator alternates in polarity, the current must they usually are simpler. However, the princi-
reverse its direction. The 60-cycle ac power line ples of de circuits also apply to ac circuits. Both
used in most homes is a common example. This types are important, as most electronic circuits
frequency means that the voltage polarity and include ac voltages and de voltages. The wave-
current direction go through 60 cycles of rever- forms for these two types of voltages are illus-
sal per second. trated in Fig. 1-15. Their uses are compared in
The unit for 1 cycle per second is 1 hertz Table 1-5. Note that transistors and tubes re-
(Hz). Therefore 60 cycles per second is a fre- quire de electrode voltages in order to amplify
quency of 60 Hz. an ac signal voltage.

v
+De voltage

l
-1
0
(a)
Time

v
+

(b)
FIGURE 1-15
Comparison of de and ac voltages. (a) Steady
de voltage of one polarity from a battery. (b)
Sine-wave ac voltage with alternating polarity
from small laboratory-type rotary ac generator.
One complete cycle is shown. (Sargent Welch
Scientific Co.)
 Chapter 1
Electricity 33

TABLE 1-5. Comparison of DC Voltage Conversion of Chemical Energy. Wet or dry

and AC Voltage cells and batteries are the applications. Here a
DC VOLTAGE AC VOLTAGE chemical reaction produces opposite charges
Fixed polarity
on two dissimilar metals, which serve as the
Reverses in polarity
Can be steady or vary in Varies between re- negative and positive terminals.
magnitude versals in polarity
Steady value cannot Can be stepped up Ions. Atoms can be made to gain or lose or-
be stepped up or or down for elec- bital electrons, by either a chemical reaction or
down by a trical power dis- the electric field of an applied voltage. Such
transformer tribution atoms with a net charge are ions. The ion
Electrode voltages Signal input and charges can be either negative or positive. Ions
for amplifiers output for are generally the charge carriers that provide
amplifiers ionization current in liquids and gases.
Easier to measure Easier to amplify
Heating effect the same for direct or Electromagnetism. Electricity and magnetism
alternating current
are closely related. Any moving charge has an
associated magnetic field; also, any changing
magnetic field can produce current. A motor is
an example of how current can react with a
Practice Problems 1-9 magnetic field to produce motion; a generator
(answers on page 38) produces voltage by means of a conductor ro-
Answer true or false. tating in a magnetic field.
(a) When the polarity of the applied voltage
reverses, the direction of current flow also Photoelectricity. Some materials are photo-
reverses. electric, meaning they can emit electrons when
(b) A battery is a de voltage source because it light strikes the surface. The element cesium is
cannot reverse the polarity across its out- often used as a source of photoelectrons. Also,
put terminals. photovoltaic cells or solar cells use silicon to
generate output voltage from the light input. In
another effect, the resistance of the element
1-10
selenium changes with light. Combined with a
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
fixed voltage source, wide variations between
There are electrons and protons in the atoms of
dark current and light current can be produced.
all materials, but to do useful work the charges
Such characteristics are the basis of many pho-
must be separated to produce a potential differ-
toelectric devices, including television camera
ence that can make current flow. Some of the
tubes, photoelectric cells, and phototransistors.
more common methods of providing electrical
effects are listed here.
Thermal Emission. Some materials when
heated can "boil off" electrons from the sur-
Static Electricity by Friction. In this method, face. Then these emitted electrons can be con-
electrons in an insulator can be separated by the trolled to provide useful applications of electri-
work of rubbing to produce opposite charges cal current. The emitting electrode is called a
that remain in the dielectric. cathode, while an anode is used to collect the
 Chapter 1
34 Electricity

emitted electrons. A common material for Although there are so many different ap-
thermionic cathodes is barium oxide, heated to plications, remember that all electrons are the
a dull-red temperature. The vacuum tubes in same, with identical charge and mass. Whether
radio and television receivers operate on this the electron flow results from a battery, rotary
principle. generator, or photoelectric device, and is con-
trolled by a vacuum tube or transistor, the anal-
Doping of Semiconductors. Because of a va- ysis of voltage, current, and resistance in the
lence of +-4, combined with a crystalline mo- different types of circuits must follow the basic
lecular structure, semiconductors such as ger- principles described here.
manium and silicon can be changed from the
inert condition by adding small amounts of an
impurity element. This technique of adding Practice Problems 1-10
charges to a semiconductor is called doping. (answers on page 38)
When electrons are added, the result is negative (a) The excess charges at the negative termi-
or N-type material; a deficiency of electrons nal of a battery are ___ .
makes the material positive or P-type. A defi- (b) The charges emitted from a heated cath-
ciency of 1 electron in the semiconductor is ode are ___ .
called a hole charge. With one type of semicon- (c) The charges in a P-type semiconductor are
ductor between two opposite types, the result is
a PNP or NPN transistor. The details of transis- (d) In a liquid that is conducting current, the
tors are explained in Chap. 30. moving charges are ___ .

Summary
1. Electricity is present in all matter in the form of electrons and
protons.
2. The electron is the basic quantity of negative electricity, the proton of
positive electricity. Both have the same amount of charge but oppo-
site polarities. The charge of 6.25 x 10 18 electrons or protons equals
the practical unit of one coulomb.
3. Charges of the same polarity tend to repel each other; charges of
opposite polarities attract. There must be a difference of charges for
any force of attraction or repulsion.
4. Electrons tend to move toward protons because an electron has 1/i 840
the weight of a proton. Electrons in motion provide an electron
current.
5. The atomic number of an element gives the number of protons in the
nucleus of its atom, balanced by an equal number of orbital electrons.
6. The number of electrons in the outermost orbit is the valence of the
element.
7. Table 1-6 summarizes the main features of electric circuits. In the
 Chapter 1
Electricity 35

TABLE 1-6. Electrical Characteristics

CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL UNIT DESCRIPTION
Charge Q or q1 Coulomb (C) Quantity of electrons or protons; Q = I x T
Current I or i 1 Ampere (A) Charge in motion; I= QIT
Voltage V or v1 •2 Volt (V) Potential difference between two unlike
charges; makes charge move to produce I
Resistance Ror r3 Ohm (n) Opposition that reduces amount of current
Conductance G or g3 Siemens (S) or mho Reciprocal of R, or G = 1 IR
1
Small letter q, i, or v is used for an instantaneous
value of a varying charge, current, or voltage.
2
E or e is sometimes used for a generated emf but the
standard symbol is Vor v for any potential difference in
the international system of units (SI).
3 Small letter r or g is used for internal resistance or

conductance of transistors and tubes.

symbols, the small letters q, v, and i are used when the characteristic
varies with respect to time. Also, the small letters r and g indicate
internal characteristics of a source.
8. Types of negative charges include electrons and negative ions. Types
of positive charges include protons, positive ions, and hole charges.
9. An electric circuit is a closed path for electron flow. Potential differ-
ence must be connected across the circuit to produce current. In the
external circuit outside the voltage source, electrons flow from the
negative terminal toward the positive terminal.
10. Direct current has just one direction as the de voltage source has a
fixed polarity. Alternating current periodically reverses in direction as
the ac voltage source reverses its polarity.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.

1. All matter has electricity in the form of electrons and protons in the
atom.
2. The electron is the basic unit of negative charge.
3. A proton has the same amount of charge as the electron but opposite
polarity.
4. Electrons are repelled from other electrons but are attracted to
protons.
5. The force of attraction or repulsion between charges is in their
electric field.
 Chapter 1
36 Electricity

6. The nucleus is the massive stable part of an atom, with positive

charge.
7. Neutrons add to the weight of the atom's nucleus but not to its
electric charge.
8. An element with atomic number 12 has 12 orbital electrons.
9. This element has an electron valence of +2.
10. To produce current in a circuit, potential difference is connected
across a closed path.
11. A de voltage has fixed polarity while ac voltage periodically reverses
its polarity.
12. The coulomb is a measure of the quantity of stored charge.
13. If a dielectric has 2 C of excess electrons, removing 3 C of electrons
will leave the dielectric with the positive charge of 1 C.
14. A charge of 5 C flowing past a point each second is a current of 5 A.
15. A current of 7 A charging a dielectric will accumulate a charge of
14 C after 2 s.
16. A voltage source has two terminals with different charges.
1 7. An ion is a charged atom.
18. The resistance of a few feet of copper wire is practically zero.
19. The resistance of the rubber or plastic insulation on the wire is also
practically zero.
20. A resistance of 600 Q has a conductance of 6 S.

Essay Questions
1. Briefly define each of the following, giving its unit and symbol:
charge, potential difference, current, resistance, and conductance.
2. Name two good conductors, two good insulators, and two semicon-
ductors.
3. Explain briefly why there is no current in a light bulb unless it is
connected across a source of applied voltage.
4. Give three differences between voltage and current.
5. In any circuit: (a) state two requirements for producing current;
(b) give the direction of electron flow.
6. Show the atomic structure of the element sodium (Na) with atomic
number 11. What is its electron valence?
7. Make up your own name for direct current and de voltage to indicate
how it differs from alternating voltage and current.
8. State the formulas for each of the following two statements:
(a) Current is the time rate of change of charge. (b) Charge is current
accumulated over a period of time.
 Chapter 1
Electricity 37

9. Refer to Table 1-4. (a) Name two types of moving charges that
provide current in the direction of electron flow. (b) Name two types
that provide conventional current.
10. Why is it that protons are not considered a source of moving charges
for current flow?
11. Give one difference and one similarity in comparing electric and
magnetic fields.
12. Give three methods of providing electric charges, and give their
practical applications.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. The charge of 8 C flows past a given point every 2 s. How much is

the current in amperes?
2. The current of 4 A charges an insulator for 2 s. How much charge is
accumulated?
3. Convert the following to siemens or mhos of conductance:
(a) 1000 Q; (b) 500 Q; (c) 10 Q; (d) 0.1 Q.
4. Convert the following to ohms ofresistance: (a) 0.001 S; (b) 0.002 S;
(c) 0.1 S; (d) 10 S.
5. A battery can supply 11 J of energy to move 5 C of charge. How
much is the voltage of the battery? (Hint: One volt equals one joule
per coulomb.)
6. A material with a deficiency of 25 x 10 18 electrons gains
31.25 X 10 18 electrons. The excess electrons are then made to flow
past a given point in 1 s. How much current is produced by the
resultant electron flow?
7. Convert 5 S of conductance to ohms of resistance.
8. Connect the components in Fig. 1-16 to.form an electrical circuit.
Label the source voltage, with polarity, and the load resistance. Show
the direction of electron flow. Determine the amount of current /by
Ohm's law.

FIGURE 1-16
For Prob. 8.
 Chapter 1
38 Electricity

Answers to Practice Problems

1-1 (a) negative 1-6 (b) 2 A
(b) positive (c) zero
(c) true 1-7 (a) carbon
1-2 (a) metals (b) 4.7 Q
(b) silver (c) 1/i 0 S or mho
(c) silicon 1-8 (a) T
1-3 (a) 14 (b) F
(b) 1 1-9 (a) T
1-4 (a) 6.25 X 10 18 (b) T
(b) 4C 1-10 (a) electrons
1-5 (a) zero (b) electrons
(b) 12V (c) holes
1-6 (a) 2 A (d) ions
 <
l
-
I

-
 Chapter 2
40 Ohm's Law

I= .Y_
R
IOOOV
=-----
1,000,000 g
1
1000
I= 0.001 A
Low Voltage but High Current. At the oppo-
FIGURE 2-1 site extreme, a low value of voltage in a very low
resistance circuit can produce a very large
Increasing the applied voltage produces more
amount of current. A 6-V battery connected
current I to light the bulb with greater intensity.
across a resistance of 0.01 Q produces 600 A of
current:
High Voltage but Low Current. It is important
to realize that with high voltage, the current can I= .Y_
R
have a low value when there is a very large
amount of resistance in the circuit. For exam- 6V
ple, 1000 Vapplied across 1,000,000 Q results 0.01 g
in a current of only 1/i. 000 A. By Ohm's law, 1=600A

-=.6V V=IR = 6 V

(b)
FIGURE 2-2
Using Ohm's law. (a) Voltage source applied
across R. ( b) Schematic diagram with values
calculated by Ohm's law.
 Chapter 2
Ohm's Law 41

I ls Less with More R. Note the values of I in

the following two examples also:
Example 1. A heater with a resistance of 8 g is
~ 12V
connected across the 120-V power line. How much
is the current I? I
I
+-/
Answer. I= X = 120 V FIGURE 2-3
R 8 Q
The resistance of any component is its VI I
I= 15 A
ratio.
Example 2. A small light bulb with a resistance of
2400 0 is connected across the same 120-V power the applied voltage. The formula is
line. How much is the current I?
(2-2)
Answer. I= X = 120 V
With I in ampere units and R in ohms, their
R 2400 Q
I= 0.05 A
product Vis in volts. Actually, this must be so
because the I value equal to VI R is the amount
Although both cases have the same 120 V that allows the IR product to be the same as the
applied, the current is much less in Example 2 voltage across R.
because of the higher resistance. Besides the numerical calculations possible
with the IR formula, it is useful to consider that
Practice Problems 2-1 the IR product means voltage. Whenever there
(answers on page 53) is current through a resistance, it must have a
(a) Calculate I for 100 V applied across 25 Q. potential difference across its two ends equal to
(b) Calculate I for 50 V applied across 25 Q. the IR product. If there were no potential differ-
(c) Calculate I for 100 V applied across 50 Q. ence, no electrons could flow to produce the
(d) Calculate I for 100 V applied across 5 Q. current.

2-2 Practice Problems 2-2

THE VOLTAGE V = IR
(answers on page 53)
Referring to Fig. 2-2, the amount of voltage (a) Calculate V for 0.002 A through 1000 Q.
across R must be the same as V because the (b) Calculate V for 0.004 A through 1000 Q.
resistance is connected directly across the bat- (c) Calculate V for 0.002 A through 2000 Q.
tery. The numerical value of this Vis equal to 2-3
the product I x R. * For instance, the IR voltage THE RESISTANCE R = VI I
in Fig. 2-2 is 2 A X 3 Q, which equals the 6 Vof As the third and final version of Ohm's law, the
* For an explanation of how to invert factors from three factors V, I, and R are related by the
one side to the other side of an equation, see formula
B. Grob, "Mathematics Outline and Review Prob-
lems for Basic Electronics," -- McGraw-Hill Book (2-3)
Company, New York.
 Chapter 2
42 Ohm's Law

In Fig. 2-2, R is 3 Q because 6 Vapplied across difference, and resistance as follows:

the resistance produces 2 A through it. When-
ever V and I are known, the resistance can be
calculated as the voltage across R divided by the 1 ampere = 11 ohm
volt
current through it.
Physically, a resistance can be considered 1 volt = 1 ampere X 1 ohm
as some material with elements having an 1 ohm = 1 volt
atomic structure that allows free electrons to 1 ampere
drift through it with more or less force applied.
Electrically, though, a more practical way of
One ampere is the amount of current
considering resistance is simply as a VI I ratio.
through a one-ohm resistance that has one volt
Anything that allows 1 A of current with 10 V
of potential difference applied across it.
applied has a resistance of 10 Q. This VI I ratio
One volt is the potential difference across a
of 1O Q is its characteristic. If the voltage is
one-ohm resistance that has one ampere of
doubled to 20 V, the current will also double to
current through it.
2 A, providing the same VI I ratio of a 10-Q
One ohm is the amount of opposition in a
resistance.
resistance that has a VI I ratio of 1, allowing one
Furthermore, we do not need to know the
ampere of current with one volt applied.
physical construction of a resistance to analyze
In summary, the circle diagram in Fig. 2-4
its effect in a circuit, so long as we know its VI!
for V =IR can be helpful in using Ohm's law.
ratio. This idea is illustrated in Fig. 2-3. Here, a
Note that Vis always at the top for V = IR,
box with some unknown material in it is con- VI R = I, or VI I = R.
nected into a circuit where we can measure the
12 V applied across the box and the 3 A of
current through it. The resistance is 12 V13 A,
Practice Problems 2-4
·or 4 Q. There may be liquid, gas, metal, pow-
(answers on page 53)
der, or any other material in the box, but elec-
(a) Calculate V for 0.007 A through 5000 Q.
trically it is just a 4-Q resistance because its VI I
(b) Calculate the amount of I for 12,000 V
ratio is 4.
across 6,000,000 Q.
(c) Calculate R for 8 V with 0.004 A
Practice Problems 2-3
(answers on page 53)
(a) Calculate R for 12 V with 0.003 A
(b) Calculate R for 12 V with 0.006 A
(c) Calculate R for 12 V with 0.001 A

2-4
PRACTICAL UNITS FIGURE 2-4
The three forms of Ohm's law can be used to Circle to memorize V = IR, VI I = R, or
define the practical units of current, potential V!R =I.
 Cha ter 2
Ohm's Law 43

2-5 Example 4. How much current is produced by 60 V

MULTIPLE AND SUBMULTIPLE across 12 kQ?
UNITS
The basic units-ampere, volt, and ohm-are Answer. I -- Rv -- 60 - 5
12 x 10 3 - x
10-3
practical values in most electric power circuits,
I= 5 mA
but in many electronics applications these units
are either too small or too big. As examples, Note that volts across kilohms produces
resistances can be a few million ohms, the out- milliamperes of current. Similarly, volts across
put of a high-voltage supply in a television re- megohms produces microamperes. These
ceiver is about 20,000 V, and current through common combinations can be summarized as
tubes and transistors is generally thousandths or follows:
millionths of an ampere.
volts + kilohms = milliamperes
In such cases, it is helpful to use multiples
volts + megohms = microamperes
and submultiples of the basic units. As shown in
kilohms X milliamperes = volts
Table 2-1, these units are based on the decimal
megohms X microamperes = volts
system of tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. The
common conversions for V, I, and R are given
here, but a complete listing of all the prefixes is Practice Problems 2-5
in Appendix F. Note that capital M is used for (answers on page 53)
(a) Change the following to basic units with
106 to distinguish from small m for 10-3 .
powers of 10: 6 mA, 5 kQ, and 3 µA.
Example 3. The I of 8 mA flows through a 5-kQ R. (b) Change the following to units with metric
How much is the IR voltage? prefixes: 6 X 10-3 A, 5 X 10 3 Q, and
3 x 10-6 A.
Answer. V = IR = 8 x 10-3 x 5 x 10 3
=8x5 2-6
V=40V THE LINEAR PROPORTION
BETWEEN V AND I
In general, milliamperes multiplied by The Ohm's law formula I = VI R states that V
kilohms results in volts for the answer, as 10-3 and I are directly proportional for any one value
and 10 3 cancel. of R. This relation between V and I can be

TABLE 2-1. Conversion Factors

PREFIX SYMBOL RELATION TO BASIC UNIT EXAMPLES
mega M 1,000,000 or 1 x 10 6 5 MQ (megohms) = 5,000,000 ohms
= 5 X 10 6 ohms
kilo k 1000 or 1 X 10 3 18 kV (kilovolts) = 18,000 volts
= 18 x 10 3 volts
milli m 0.001 or 1 X 10-3 48 mA (milliamperes) = 48 X 10-3 ampere
= 0.048 ampere
micro µ. 0.000 001 or 1 x 10-6 15 µ.V (microvolts) = 15 X 10-6 volt
= 0.000 015 volt
 Chapter 2
44 Ohm's Law

analyzed by using a fixed resistance of 2 n for values of voltage and note the resulting current.
RL, as in Fig. 2-5. Then when Vis varied, the Generally, the independent variable is plotted
meter shows I values directly proportional to V on the x axis, which is why the V values are
For instance, with 12 V, I equals 6 A; for 10 V, shown here horizontally while the I values are
the current is 5 A; an 8-V potential difference on the ordinate.
produces 4 A. The two scales need not be the same. The
All the values of V and I are listed in the only requirement is that equal distances on
table in Fig. 2-Sb and plotted in the graph in either scale represent equal changes in magni-
Fig. 2-Sc. The I values are one-half the Vvalues tude. On the x axis here 2-V steps are chosen,
because R is 2 n. However, I is zero with zero while the y axis has 1-A scale divisions. The
volts applied. zero point at the origin is the reference.
The plotted points in the graph show the
values in the table. For instance, the lowest
Plotting the Graph. The voltage values for V point is 2 V horizontally from the origin, and
are marked on the horizontal axis, called the 1 A up. Similarly, the next point is at the inter-
x axis or abscissa. The current values I are on section of the 4-V mark and the 2-A mark. A
the vertical axis, called the y axis or ordinate. line joining these two plotted points includes all
Because the values for V and I depend on values of I, for any value of V, with R constant at
each other, they are variable factors. Vis the 2 n. This also applies to values not listed in the
independent variable here because we assigI) table. For instance, if we take the value of 7 V,

R constant at 2 .Q

Volts Ohms Amperes 6

I ,
1-- L
0 2 0 5
~-~ ~ ~
II

II
2 2 1
4 2 2 I~

V = 0 to 12 V 6 2 3 , ... i
~ ~

8 2 4 2 ...
10 2 5
~ ~
,

t
"' 1-
12 2 6 ~
'-r>

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Volts
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 2-5
Experiment to show that I increases in direct
proportion to V. (a) Circuit with variable V but
constant R. (b) Table of increasing I values for
higher V values. ( c) Graph of V and I values.
The linear voltampere characteristic shows a
direct proportion between V and I.
 Chapter 2
Ohm's Law 45

up to the straight line and over to the I axis, the Practice Problems 2-6
graph shows 3.5 A for I. (answers on page 53)
Refer to the graph in Fig. 2-5c.
Voltampere Characteristic. The graph in (a) Are the values of I on the y or x axis?
Fig. 2-5c is called the voltampere characteristic (b) Is this R linear or nonlinear?
of R. It shows how much current the resistor
allows for different voltages. Multiple and sub-
multiple units of V and I can be used, though.
2-7
For transistors and tubes the units of I are often
POWER
milliamperes or microamperes.
The unit of electrical power is the watt (W),
named after James Watt (1736-1819). One
Linear Resistance. The straight-line graph in
watt of power equals the work done in one
Fig. 2-5 shows R is a linear resistor. A linear
second by one volt of potential difference in
resistance has a constant value of ohms. Its R
moving one coulomb of charge.
does not change with the applied voltage. Then
Remember that one coulomb per second is
V and I are directly proportional. Doubling the
an ampere. Therefore power in watts equals the
value of V from 4 to 8 V results in twice the
product of amperes times volts.
current, from 2 to 4 A. Similarly, three or four
times the value of V will produce three or four
Power in watts = volts X amperes
times I, for a proportional increase in current.
P = V x I (2-4)
Nonlinear Resistance. This type has a nonlin -
When a 6-V battery produces 2 A in a circuit,
ear voltampere characteristic. As an example,
for example, the battery is generating 12 W of
the resistance of the tungsten filament in a light
power. Note the following additional examples:
bulb is nonlinear. The reason is that R increases
with more current as the filament becomes hot- Example 5. A toaster takes 10 A from the 120-V
ter. Increasing the applied voltage does produce power line. How much power is used?
more current, but I does not increase in the
same proportion as the increase in V Answer. P = V X I = 120 V X 10 A
P = 1200W
Inverse Relation Between I and V. Whether R
is linear or not, the current I is less for more R, Example 6. How much current flows in the filament
with the applied voltage constant. This is an of a 300-W bulb connected to the 120-V power line?
inverse relation, meaning that I goes down as R
goes up. Remember that in the formula
Answer. P =V X I or I = PI V Then
I = VI R, the resistance is in the denominator. A 300W
higher value of R actually lowers the value of I= 120 V
the complete fraction. I= 2.5 A
As an example, let V be constant at 1 V.
Then I is equal to the fraction 1 IR. As R in- Example 7. How much current flows in a 60-W bulb
creases, the values of I decrease. For R of 2 Q, I connected to the 120-V power line?
is 1h or 0.5 A. For a higher R of 10 Q, I will be
smaller at 1/i 0 or 0.1 A. Answer. P =VX I or I = PI V Then
 Chapter 2
46 Ohm's Law

60W work, while work is power used during a period

I= 120 V of time. The formulas are
I= 0.5 A
Power= work (2-5)
Note that the lower-wattage bulb uses less current. time

Work and Power. Work and energy are essen- and

tially the same with identical units. Power is
Work = power X time (2-6)
different, however, because it is the time rate of
doing work.
As an example of work, if you move 100 lb With the watt unit for power, one watt used
a distance of 10 ft, the work is 100 lb x 10 ft or during one second equals the work of one
1000 ft · lb, regardless of how fast or how slowly joule. Or one watt is one joule per second.
the work is done. Note that the unit of work is Therefore, 1 W = 1 J/s. The joule is a basic
foot-pounds, without any reference to time. practical unit of work or energy. 1
However, power equals the work divided A unit of work that can be used with indi-
by the time it takes to do the work. If it takes 1 s, vidual electrons is the electron volt (eV). Note
the power in this example is 1000 ft· lb/s; if the that the electron is charge while the volt is po-
work takes 2 s, the power is 1000 ft · lb in 2 s, tential difference. Then 1 eV is the amount of
or 500 ft· Ibis. work required to move an electron between two
Similarly, electrical power is the time rate points having a potential difference of one volt.
at which charge is forced to move by voltage. Since 6.25 X 10 18 electrons equal 1 C and a
This is why the power in watts is the product of joule is a volt-coulomb, there must be
volts and amperes. The voltage states the 6.25 X 10 18 eV in 1 J.
. amount of work per unit of charge; the current Note that the electron volt or the joule unit
value includes the time rate at which the charge of work is the product of charge times voltage,
is moved. but the watt unit of power is the product of
voltage times current. The division by time to
convert work to power corresponds to the divi-
Watts and Horsepower Units. A further ex- sion by time that converts charge to current.
ample of how electrical power corresponds to
mechanical power is the fact that Kilowatthours. This is a unit commonly used
for large amounts of electrical work or energy.
746 W = 1 hp = 550 ft· Ibis The amount is calculated simply as the product
of the power in kilowatts multiplied by the time
This relation can be remembered more easily as in hours during which the power is used. As an
1 hp equals approximately % kilowatt (kW). example, if a light bulb uses 300 W or 0.3 kW
One kilowatt = 1000 W. for 4 hours (h), the amount of energy is
0.3 X 4, which equals 1.2 kWh.
Practical Units of Power and Work. Starting We pay for electricity in kilowatthours of
with the watt, we can develop several other energy. The power-line voltage is constant at
important units. The fundamental principle to
remember is that power is the time rate of doing 1
See Appendix D, Physics Units.
 Chapter 2
Ohm's Law 47

120 V. However, more appliances and light Since power is dissipated in the resistance
bulbs require more current because they all of a circuit, it is convenient to express the power
add in the main line to increase the power. in terms of the resistance R. The V X I formula
Suppose the total load current on the main can be rearranged as follows:
line equals 20 A. Then the power is 20 A X Substituting IR for V,
120 V = 2400 W, or 2.4 kW. If this load current
is used for 5 h, then the energy supplied equals P = V XI= IR XI
2.4 X 5 = 12 kWh. At 6 cents per kWh, the p = J2R (2-7)
cost is 12 X 0.06 = 0.72, or 72 cents, just for 5
hours with a 20-A load. This is a common form for the power formula.
For another form, substitute VI R for I. Then
Practice Problems 2-7
(answers on page 53)
P=VXI=Vx-
v
(a) An electrical heater takes 15 A from the R
120-V power line. Calculate the power.
p = V2 (2-8)
(b) How much is the load current for a 100-W R
bulb connected to the 120-V power line?
In all the formulas, Vis the voltage across
R in ohms, producing the current I in amperes,
2-8 for power in watts.
POWER DISSIPATION IN Any one of the three formulas can be used
RESISTANCE to calculate the power dissipated in a resistance.
When current flows in a resistance, heat is pro- The one to be used is just a matter of conven-
duced because friction between the moving free ience, depending on which factors are known.
electrons and the atoms obstructs the path of In Fig. 2-6, for example, the power dissi-
electron flow. The heat is evidence that power is pated with 2 A through the resistance and 6 V
used in producing current. This is how a fuse across it is 2 X 6 = 12 W.
opens, as heat resulting from excessive current Or, calculating in terms of just the current
melts the metal link in the fuse. and resistance, the power is the product of 2
The power is generated by the source of squared, or 4, times 3, which equals 12 W.
applied voltage and consumed in the resistance Using the voltage and resistance, the
in the form of heat. As much power as the power can be calculated as 6 squared, or 36,
resistance dissipates in heat must be supplied by divided by 3, which also equals 12 W.
the voltage source; otherwise, it cannot main-
tain the potential difference required to produce
the current. . . -+
{ I= 2 A v x /= 12 w
The correspondence between electrical
I 2 R = 12 W
power and heat is indicated by the fact that 1 W = 6V R = 3 S1 v2
R=12W
used during the time of 1 sis equivalent to 0.24
calorie of heat energy. The electrical energy
converted to heat is considered to be dissipated FIGURE 2-6
or used up because the calories of heat cannot Calculating the electrical power in a circuit as
be returned to the circuit as electrical energy. VI, 12 R, or V 2 IR.
 Chapter 2
48 Ohm's Law

No matter which formula is used, 12 W of which is usually the 120 Vof the power line. For
power is dissipated, in the form of heat. This instance, a 600-W 120-V toaster has this rating
amount of power must be generated continu- because it dissipates 600 W in the resistance of
ously by the battery in order to maintain the the heating element when connected across
potential difference of 6 V that produces the 120 v.
2-A current against the opposition of 3 Q. In order to calculate I or R for components
In some applications, the electrical power rated in terms of power at a specified voltage, it
dissipation is desirable because the component may be convenient to use the power formulas in
must produce heat in order -to do its job. For different forms. There are three basic power
instance, a 600-W toaster must dissipate this formulas but nine combinations, as follows:
amount of power to produce the necessary
amount of heat. Similarly, a 300-W light bulb p =VI p = 12R p = V2
R
must dissipate this power to make the filament
white-hot so that it will have the incandescent
glow that furnishes the light. In other applica - or I=E or R=£ or R = V2
v J2 p
tions, however, the heat may be just an unde-
sirable byproduct of the need to provide current
through the resistance in a circuit. In any case,
or V=-
p
I
or l=h or V= VPR
though, whenever there is current in a resist-
ance, it dissipates power equal to 12 R. Example 10. How much current is needed for a
600-W 120-V toaster?
Example 8. Calculate the power in a circuit where
the source of 100 V produces 2 A in a 50-Q R. Answer. I= E_ = 600
v 120
Answer. P = J2R = 4 x 50 l=5A
p = 200 w
Example 11. How much is the resistance of a
This means the source generates 200 W of power 600-W 120-V toaster?
while the resistance dissipates 200 W in the form of
heat. Answer. R = V2 = 14,400
p 600
Example 9. Calculate the power in a circuit where R = 24 Q
the same source of 100 V produces 4 A in a 25-Q R.
Example 12. How much current is needed for a
Answer. P = J2 R = 16 x 25 24-Q R that dissipates 600 W?
p = 400 w
Note the higher power in Example 9 be-
Answer. l=h=!W-= 05
cause of more I, even though R is less than l=5A
Example 8.
Components that utilize the power dissi- Note that all these formulas are based on
pated in their resistance, such as light bulbs and Ohm's law V = IR and the power formula
toasters, are generally rated in terms of power. P = V X I. The following example with a
The power rating is at normal applied voltage, 300-W bulb illustrates this idea. Connected
 Chapter 2
Ohm's Law 49

across the 120-V line, the 300-W filament re- working on power-line circuits, since one side
quires 2.5 A, equal to P!Vor 300/i. 20 . The proof of the line is usually connected to earth. In
is that the VI product then is 120 x 2.5, which addition, the metal chassis of radio and televi-
is 300 W. sion receivers is often connected to the power-
Therefore, the resistance of the filament, line ground. The final and best safety rule is to
equal to Vi I, is 12 %. 5 , or 48 Q. If we use the work on the circuits with the power discon-
formula R = V2 IP, or 14·40%00 , the answer is nected if at all possible and make resistance
the same, 48 Q. tests.
In any case, when this bulb is connected Note that it is current through the body,
across the 120-V line so that it can dissipate its not through the circuit, which causes the elec-
rated power, it draws 2.5 A from the power line, tric shock. This is why high-voltage circuits are
and the resistance of its white-hot filament is most important, since sufficient potential differ-
48Q. ence can produce a dangerous amount of cur-
rent through the relatively high resistance of the
Practice Problems 2-8 body. For instance, 500 V across a body resist-
(answers on page 53) ance of 25,000 Q produces 0.02 A, or 20 mA,
(a) I is 2 A in a 5-Q R. Calculate P which can be fatal. As little as 10 µA through the
(b) Vis 10 V across a 5-Q R. Calculate P body can cause an electric shock. In an experi-
ment1 on electric shock to determine the cur-
2-9 rent at which a person could release the live
ELECTRIC SHOCK conductor, this value of "let-go" current was
While you are working on electric circuits, there about 9 mA for men and 6 mA for women.
is often the possibility of receiving an electric In addition to high voltage, the other im-
shock by touching the "live" conductors when portant consideration in how dangerous the
the power is on. The shock is a sudden involun- shock can be is the amount of power the source
tary contraction of the muscles, with a feeling of can supply. The current of 0.02 A through
pain, caused by current through the body. If 25,000 S1 means the body resistance dissipates
severe enough, the shock can be fatal. Safety 10 W. If the source cannot supply 10 W, its
first, therefore, should always be the rule. output voltage drops with the excessive current
The greatest shock hazard is from high- load. Then the current is reduced to the amount
voltage circuits that can supply appreciable corresponding to how much power the source
amounts of power. The resistance of the human can produce.
body is also an important factor. If you hold a In summary, then, the greatest danger is
conducting wire in each hand, the resistance of from a source having an output of more than
the body across the conductors is about 10,000 about 30 V with enough power to maintain the
to 50,000 Q. Holding the conductors tighter load current through the body when it is con -
lowers the resistance. If you hold only one con- nected across the applied voltage. In general,
ductor, your resistance is much higher. It fol- components that can supply high power are
lows that the higher the body resistance, the physically big because of the need for dissipat-
smaller the current that can flow through you. ing heat.
A safety rule, therefore, is to work with
only one hand if the power is on. Also, keep 1C. F. Dalziel and W. R. Lee, Lethal Electric Cur-
yourself insulated from earth ground when rents, IEEE Spectrum, February 1969.
 Chapter 2
50 Ohm's Law

Practice Problems 2-9

(answers on page 53)
Answer true or false.
(a) 120 V is more dangerous than 12 V for
electric shock.
(b) Resistance tests with an ohmmeter can be
made with power off in the circuit.

Summary
1. The three forms of Ohm's law are I = VI R, V = IR, and R = VI I.
The basic units are volts for V, amperes for I, and ohms for R.
2. One ampere is the amount of current produced by one volt of
potential difference across one ohm of resistance. This current of 1 A
is the same as 1 Cls.
3. With constant R, the amount of I increases in direct proportion as V
increases. This linear relation between V and I is shown by the graph
in Fig. 2-5.
4. With constant V, the current I decreases as R increases. This is an
inverse relation.
5. Power is the time rate of doing work or using energy. The unit is the
watt. One watt equals 1 V x 1 A. Also, watts = joules per second.
6. The unit of work or energy is the joule. One joule equals 1 W X 1 s.
7. The most common multiples and submultiples of the practical units
are listed in Table 2-1.
8. Voltage applied across your body can produce a dangerous electric
shock. Whenever possible, shut off the power and make resistance
tests. If the power must be on, use only one hand. Do not let the
other hand rest on a conductor.
9. Table 2-2 summarizes the practical units used with Ohm's law.

TABLE 2-2. Practical Units of Electricity

UNIT COULOMB AMPERE VOLT WATT OHM MHO

Definition 6.25 X 10 18 electrons Coulomb Joule Joule Volt Ampere

---
second coulomb second ampere volt
 Cha ter 2
Ohm's Law 51

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Fill in the missing answers.

1. With 10 V across 5 n R, the current I is ___ A.

2. When 10 V produces 2.5 A, R is _ _ n.
3. With 8 A through a 2-n R, the IR voltage is _ _ V.
4. The resistance of 500,000 n is ___ Mn.
5. With 10 V across 5000 n R, the current I is ___ mA.
6. The power of 50 W = 2 AX _ _ V.
7. The energy of 50 J = 2 C X _ _ V.
8. The current drawn from the 120-V power line by a 1200-W
toaster = ___ A.
9. The current of 400 µA = ___ mA.
10. With 12 V across a 2-n R, its power dissipation = ___ W.
11. A circuit has a 4-A I. If Vis doubled and R is the same, I = ___ A.
12. A circuit has a 4-A I. If R is doubled and Vis the same, I = ___ A.
13. A television receiver using 240 W from the 120-V power line draws
current I = ___ A.
14. The rated current for a 500-W 120-V bulb = _ _ A.
15. The resistance of the bulb in question 14 is - - - n.
16. The energy of 12.5 x 10 18 eV = _ _ J.
1 7. The current of 1200 mA = _ _ A.
18. In a vacuum-tube amplifier circuit, the plate load resistor RL of 50 kn
has 150 V across it. Through Rv then, the current = ___ mA.
19. In a transistor circuit, a 1-kn resistor R1 has 200 µA through it.
Across R1 , then, its voltage = ___ V.
20. In a transistor circuit, a 50-kn resistor R2 has 6 Vacross it. Through
R2 , then, its current = ___ mA.

Essay Questions
1. State the three forms of Ohm's law relating V, I, and R.
2. (a) Why does higher applied voltage with the same resistance result
in more current? (b) Why does more resistance with the same applied
voltage result in less current?
3. Calculate the resistance of a 300-W bulb connected across the 120-V
power line, using two different methods to arrive at the same answer.
4. State which unit in each of the following pairs is larger: (a) volt or
kilovolt; (b) ampere or milliampere; (c) ohm or megohm; (d) volt or
 Chapter 2
52 Ohm's Law

microvolt; (e} siemens or microsiemens; (f} electron volt or joule;

(g} watt or kilowatt; (h} kilowatthour or joule; (i} volt or millivolt;
(j} megohm or kilohm.
5. State two safety precautions to follow when working on electric
circuits.
6. Referring back to the resistor shown in Fig. 1-12, suppose that it is
not marked. How could you determine its resistance by Ohm's law?
Show your calculations that result in the VI I ratio of 600 Q. However,
do not exceed the power rating of 10 W.
7. What is the difference between work and power? Give two units for
each.
8. Refer to the two resistors in series with each other in Fig. 3-1 on
page 55. If the current through R1 is 2 A, how much would you guess
is the current through R2 ?
9. Prove that 1 kWh is equal to 3.6 x 10 6 J.
10. A circuit has a constant R of 5000 Q, while Vis varied from 0 to 50 V
in 10-V steps. Make a table listing the values of I for each value of V.
Then draw a graph plotting these values of milliamperes vs. volts.
(This graph should be similar to Fig. 2-5c.}

Problems (Answers to odd·numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. A 90-V source is connected across a 30-kQ resistance. (a} Draw the

schematic diagram. (b} How much current flows through the resist-
ance? (c} How much current flows through the voltage source? (d} If
the resistance is tripled, how much is the current in the circuit?
2. A 6-V battery is connected across a 2-Q resistance. (a} Draw the
schematic diagram. (b} Calculate the power dissipated in the resist-
ance. (c} How much power is supplied by the battery? (d} If the
resistance is doubled, how much is the power?
3. A vacuum-tube heater has 0.3 A of current with 6.3 V applied.
(a} Draw the schematic diagram, showing the heater as a resistance.
(b} How much is the resistance of the heater?
4. Convert the following units using powers of 10 where necessary:
(a} 12 mA to amperes; (b} 5000 V to kilovolts; (c} %MQ to ohms;
(d} 100,000 Q to megohms; (e} 1lz A to milliamperes; (f} 9000 µS to
siemens; ( g} 1000 µA to milliamperes; (h} 5 kQ to ohms; (i} 8
nanoseconds (ns} to seconds.
5. A current of 2 A flows through a 6-Q resistance connected across
a battery. (a} How much is the applied voltage of the battery? (b} How
much power is dissipated in the resistance? (c} How much power is
supplied by the battery?
 Chapter 2
Ohm's Law 53

6. (a) How much resistance allows 30-A current with 6 volts applied?
(b) How much resistance allows 1-mA current with 10 kV applied?
Why is it possible to have less current in (b) with the higher applied
voltage?
7. A source of applied voltage produces 1 mA through a 10-Mn resist-
ance. How much is the applied voltage?
8. Calculate the current /, in ampere units, for the following examples:
(a) 45 Vapplied across 68 kn; (b) 250 Vacross 12 Mn; (c) 1200 W
dissipated in 600 n.
9. Calculate the IR voltage for the following examples: (a) 68 µA
through 22 Mn; (b) 2.3 mA through 47 kn; (c) 237 A through
0.012 n.
10. Calculate the resistance R, in ohms, for the following examples:
(a) 134 mA produced by 220 V; (b) 800 W dissipated with 120 V
applied; (c) a conductance of 9000 µS.
11. Find the value of Vin Fig. 2-7.

+I= 12 mA
\. __ 1111--
v =?
FIGURE 2-7
For Prob. 11.

Answers to Practice Problems

2-1 (a) 4A 2-4
(c) 2000 n
(b) 2A 2-5
(a) See Prob. b
(c) 2A (b) See Prob. a
(d) 20 A 2-6 (a) y axis
2-2 (a) 2V (b) linear
(b) 4v 2-7 (a) 1.8 kW
(c) 4V (b) 0.83 A
2-3 (a) 4000 n 2-8 (a) 20 W
(b) 2000 n (b) 20 w
(c) 12,000 n 2-9 (a) T
2-4 (a) 35 V (b) T
(b) 0.002 A
 series
arcuits
When the components in a circuit are connected in successive order with
an end of each joined to an end of the next, as shown in Fig. 3-1, they
apter
s
form a series circuit. The resistors R1 and R2 are in series with each other
and the battery. The result is only one path for electron flow. Therefore,
the current I is the same in all the series components. This and other
important characteristics are analyzed in the following topics:

3-1 Why I Is the Same in All Parts of a Series Circuit

3-2 Total R Equals the Sum of All Series Resistances
3-3 Series IR Voltage Drops
3-4 The Sum of Series IR Drops Equals the Applied VT
3-5 Polarity of IR Voltage Drops
3-6 Polarities to Chassis Ground
3-7 Total Power in a Series Circuit
3-8 Series-Aiding and Series-Opposing Voltages
3 -9 Analyzing Series Circuits
3-10 Effect of an Open Circuit in a Series Path

3-1 in the direction away from the negative battery

WHY I IS THE SAME IN ALL terminal.
PARTS OF A SERIES CIRCUIT At the same time, the positive charge of the
An electrical current is a movement of charges positive battery terminal attracts free electrons,
between two points, produced by the applied causing electrons to drift toward I and J. As a
voltage. In Fig. 3-2, the battery supplies the result, the free electrons in the .resistances R1,
potential.difference that forces electrons to drift R2 , and R3 are forced to drift toward the positive
from the negati\le te1111inal at A, toward B, terminal.
through the connecting wires and resistances The positive terminal of the battery attracts
R1 , R2 , and R3 , back to the positive battery electrons just as much as the negative side of
terminal at .J. the battery repels electrons. Therefore, the mo·
At the negative· battery terminal its negative tion of free electrons in the circuit starts at the
charge repels electrons. Therefore, ·free elec- same time at the same speed in all parts of the
trons in the atoms of the wire at this· terminal Circuit.
are repelled from A toward B. ··Similarly,·• free THe electrons returning to the positive bat-
electrons at point B can then repel adjacent · tery· ~erminal are ngt .t.he. same electrons as
electrons, producing an electron drift toward C those leaving the negative terminal. Free elec-
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 55

(a)
(b)
FIGURE 3-1
A series circuit. (a) Photo of wiring. (b) Sche-
matic diagram.

trons in the wire are forced to move to the trons flowing from an adjacent point in the
positive terminal because of the potential differ- series circuit. All electrons have the same speed
ence of the battery. as those leaving the battery. In all parts of the
The free electrons moving away from one circuit, therefore, the electron drift is the same,
point are continuously replaced by free elec- with an equal number of electrons moving at

C R, D R,
B-------" __ .,..
--+ I= 2 A
I= 2 A
E

/=2 A I
+ R2

F
+1=2 A
: /= 2 A I= 2 A
I..___ _ _ __._-"\.' +-- +--
H G
RJ

(a) (b)
FIGURE 3-2
(a) Electron drift is the same at all points in a
series circuit. (b) The current I is the same at all
points in a series circuit.
 Cha ter 3
56 Series Circuits

one time with the same speed. That is why the series components, and back to the other side
current is the same in all parts of the series of the applied voltage. However, the series path
circuit. must not have any point where the current can
In Fig. 3-2b, when the current is 2 A, for branch off to another path in parallel. This fea-
example, this is the value of the current through ture of series circuits applies not only to direct
R1 , R2 , R3 , and the battery. Not only is the current, but also to alternating current of any
amount of current the same throughout, but in frequency and for any waveshape.
all parts of a series circuit the current cannot
differ in any way because there is just one cur- Practice Problems 3-1
rent path for the entire circuit. (answers on page 72)
The order in which components are con - (a) In Fig. 3-2, name five parts that have the I
nected in series does not affect the current. In of 2 A.
Fig. 3-3b, resistances R1 and R2 are connected (b) In Fig. 3-3e, when I in Rs is 5 A, then I in
in reverse order compared with Fig. 3-3a, but in R3 is A.
both cases they are in series. The current
through each is the same because there is only 3-2
one path for the electron flow. Similarly, R3 , R4 , TOTAL R EQUALS THE SUM OF
and Rs are in series and have the same current ALL SERIES RESISTANCES
for the connections shown in Fig. 3-3c, d, and When a series circuit is connected across a
e. Furthermore, the resistances need not be voltage source, as shown in Fig. 3-3, the free
equal. electrons forming the current must drift through
The question of whether a component is all the series resistances. This path is the only
first, second, or last in a series circuit has no way the electrons can return to the battery. With
meaning in terms of current. The reason is that two or more resistances in the same current
I is the same amount at the same time in all the path, therefore, the total resistance across the
series components. voltage source is the opposition of all the resist-
In fact, series components can be defined ances.
as those in the same current path. The path is Specifically, the total resistance (RT) of a
from one side of the voltage source, through the series string is equal to the sum of the individual

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

FIGURE 3-3
Series connections. R1 and R2 are in series in
both (a) and (b). Also, R3 , R4 , and R5 are in
series in (c), (d), and (e).
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 57

P,
---- ....... ----2 A....... ~
,,----- .......

/~=3.!_;~ , .... /=
R,
' /=2A "::al
3
3.Q

= 10V
R,
3.Q =10V
Rr
sn
R2
= 10V

1t............. ____ , / 111:., .... _____ ,.-'

2n ~ ............ ____ , ..~
P2 -------P2
(a) {b) (c)
FIGURE 3-4
Series resistances are added. (a) R1 alone is
3 Q. (b) R1 and R2 in series total 5 Q. (c) Total
Rr is the same as one resistance of 5 Q between
P1 and P2 .

resistances. This rule is illustrated in Fig. 3-4. In of the individual resistances. The formula is
Fig. 3-4b, 2 Q is added in series with the 3 Q of
Fig. 3-4a, producing the total resistance of 5 Q. RT= R1 + R2 + R3 + · · · +etc. (3-1)
The total opposition of R1 and R2 limiting the
amount of current is the same as though a 5-Q where RT is the total resistance and R1 , R2 , and
resistance were used, as shown in the equiva- R3 are individual series resistances. This for-
lent circuit in Fig. 3-4c. mula applies to any number of resistances,
whether equal or not, as long as they are in the
Series String. A combination of series resist- same series string.
ances is often called a string. The string resist- Note that RT is the resistance to use in
ance equals the sum of the individual calculating the current in a series string. Then
resistances. For instance, R1 and R2 in Fig. 3-4 Ohm's law is
form a series string having the RT of 5 Q.
By Ohm's law, the amount of current be-
(3-2)
tween two points in a circuit equals the potential
difference divided by the resistance between
these points. As the entire string is connected where RT is the sum of all the resistances, VT is
across the voltage source, the current equals the voltage applied across the total resistance,
the voltage applied across the entire string di- and I is the current in all parts of the string.
vided by the total series resistance of the string.
Between points P1 and P2 in Fig. 3-4, for exam- Example 1. Two resistances R1 and R2 of 5 Q each
ple, 10 Vis applied across 5 Qin (b) and (c) to and R3 of 10 Q are in series. How much is RT?
produce 2 A This current flows through R1 and
Answer. RT = Rl + R2 + R3 = 5 + 5 + 10
R2 in one series path. RT= 20 Q

Series Resistance Formula. In summary, the Example 2. With 80 V applied across the series
total resistance of a series string equals the sum string of Example 1, how much is the current in R3 ?
 Chapter 3
58 Series Circuits

I= VT = 80 v The IR voltage across each resistance is

Answer.
RT 20 Q called an IR drop, or a voltage drop, because it
l=4A reduces the potential difference available for the
remaining resistance in the series circuit. Note
This 4-A current is the same in R3 , R2 , R1 , or that the symbols \.'i and V:z are used for the
any part of the series circuit. voltage drops across each resistor to distinguish
Note that adding series resistance reduces them from the source VT applied across both
the current. In Fig. 3-4a the 3-Q R1 allows 10 V resistors.
to produce 3% A. However, I is reduced to 2 A In Fig. 3-5, the VT of 10 Vis applied across
when the 2-Q R2 is added for a total series the total series resistance of R1 and R2 . How-
resistance of 5 Q opposing the 10-V source. ever, because of the IR voltage drop of 4 V
across R1 , the potential difference across R2 is
Practice Problems 3-2 only 6 V. The negative potential drops from
(answers on page 72) 10 Vat point a, with respect to the common
(a) V is 10 V and R1 is 5 kQ. Calculate I. reference point at c, down to 6 Vat point b. The
(b) A 2-kQ R2 and 3-kQ R3 are added in series potential difference of 6 V between b and the
with R1 . Calculate RT. reference at c is the voltage across R2 •
(c) Calculate I in R1 , R2 , and R3 • Similarly, there is an JR voltage drop of 6 V
across R2 . The negative potential drops from
3-3 6 V at point b with respect to point c, down to
SERIES IR VOLTAGE DROPS 0 Vat point c with respect to itself. The potential
With current through a resistance, by Ohm's difference between any two points on the return
law there is a voltage across the resistance line to the battery must be zero because the wire
equal to I X R. This rule is illustrated in Fig. has practically zero resistance and therefore no
3-5. Here the current equals 1 A through the IR drop.
4-Q R1 and 6-Q R2 in series. The total RT of It should be noted that voltage must be
10 Q is across the applied VT of 10 V. The re- applied by a source of potential difference such
sult is an JR voltage of 4 V equal to 1 A x as the battery in order to produce current and
4 Q across R1 and 6 V equal to 1 A X 6 Q have an JR voltage drop across the resistance.
across R2 • With no current through a resistor, it has resist-
ance only, but there is no potential difference
1A across the two ends.
a
The IR drop of 4 V across R1 in Fig. 3-5
represents that part of the applied voltage used
to produce the current of 1 A through the 4-Q
resistance. Also, across R2 the IR drop is 6 V
because this much voltage allows 1 A in the 6-Q
resistance. The IR drop is more in R2 because
more potential difference is necessary to pro-
duce the same amount of current in the higher
c c resistance. For series circuits, in general, the
FIGURE 3-5 highest R has the largest IR voltage drop
IR voltage drops in a series circuit. across it.
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 59

Practice Problems 3-3 It really is logical that VT is the sum of the

(answers on page 73) series IR drops. I is the same in all the series
Refer to Fig. 3-5. components. The total of all the series voltages
(a) How much is the sum of \1i and \'2? is needed to produce the same I in the total of
(b) Calculate I as VT! RT. all the series resistances as the I that each resis-
(c) How much is I through R1 ? tor voltage produces in its R.
(d) How much is I through R2 ?

Series Heater String for a Television Re-

3-4 ceiver. A common practical application of se-
THE SUM OF SERIES IR DROPS ries circuits is shown in Fig. 3-6. This is a typical
EQUALS THE APPLIED VT heater circuit for black-and-white television re-
The whole applied voltage is equal to the sum ceivers that use tubes. All the heaters, including
of its parts. For example, in Fig. 3-5, the indi- the picture tube, are in a series string. The
vidual voltage drops of 4 V and 6 V total the heater current is alternating current from the ac
same 10 V produced by the battery. This rela- power line, but the rules of series components
tion for series circuits can be stated apply the same way to de circuits or ac circuits.
The first digits in the tube number give the
required heater voltage for the rated amount of
VT = \1i + \'2 + \'3 + · · · + etc. (3-3)
heater current. As an example, the 17BF11
amplifier tube needs 17 V across the two heater
Where VT is the applied voltage equal to the pins for 450 mA.
total of the individual IR drops. For picture tubes, however, the first digits
give the screen size. For instance, the 16CWP4
Example 3. A voltage source produces an IR drop picture tube has a 16-in screen, measured diag-
of 40 V across a 20-D RI, 60 V across a 30-D R2 , and
onally between opposite corners. The P4 is the
180 V across a 90-D R3 , all in series. How much is
the applied voltage?
phosphor number for a white screen; P22 indi-
cates red, green, and blue phosphors for color
Answer. VT = 40 + 60 + 180 television receivers. The heater voltage for most
VT= 280V picture tubes is 6 .3 V.
Each heater needs less than the 120 V
Note that the JR drop across each R results from the from the power line, but they all use the same
same current of 2 A, produced by 280 V across the heater current for normal operation. Therefore,
total RT of 140 n. the heaters are in a series string connected
across the voltage source. The idea is to make
Example 4. An applied VT of 120 V produces IR the sum of the series IR drops equal the
drops across two series resistors RI and R2 . If the power-line voltage, approximately. In Fig. 3-6,
drop across RI is 40 V, how much is the voltage
across R2 ?
the series voltages are 17 + 33 + 23 + 15 +
11 + 8 + 6.3 + 3 + 6.3, which add up to
Answer. Since \.'i and \.'z must total 120 V, and 122.6 v.
one is 40 V, the other must be the difference between Any one heater has its proportional part of
120 and 40 V. Or \.'z = VT - \.'i, which equals the applied voltage. As determined by the
120 - 40. Then V2 = 80 V. heater resistance, its part of the applied voltage
 Chapter 3
60 Series Circuits

178F11 33GY7 23Z9 158011 118011 8LT8

heater heater heater

0
17 v 33 v 23V 15 v 11 v av
Applied
voltage 6CG8 3GK5
VT= 122.6 V heater 6.3V
/=450 mA

16CWP4
picture tube
heater
6.3V 3V

On the tuner chassis

FIGURE 3-6
Typical string for tubes in a television receiver
using series heaters.

is the required amount of heater voltage. The the same value of I as VT! RT for the entire series
series circuit provides the same current for all circuit.
the heaters, however. Tubes made for the series
string have the same current rating but a higher The Case of Zero IR Drop. Remember that
heater voltage for tubes that need more power. the product of I X R can be zero when either I
The reason why there can be different voltages or R is zero. For a wire conductor used for
in the series string with the same current is that connections, R is practically zero. Therefore,
the heaters with higher resistance have more IR the IR voltage drop across the interconnecting
voltage drop. wires is practically zero, even though the nor-
mal current is flowing. The other possibility is to
How Series Circuits Are Used. The circuit in have resistance but no current. Either the ap-
Fig. 3-6 shows how a series circuit is the way to plied voltage is disconnected or there is an open
connect components that all need the same circuit. A resistor by itself can have its normal
current but with a voltage rating less than the resistance, but it cannot have an IR voltage drop
source voltage. Then the applied voltage VT is unless I is flowing through R.
high enough to produce the required current I
for the total resistance RT. Practice Problems 3-4
Remember that VT is across RT, not each (answers on page 73)
individual R. If you use only one R to calculate (a) A series circuit has 10-, 20-, ·and 30-V IR
I, then use the individual voltage drop for that drops. How much is the applied voltage
component. Then VI R for each component is VT of the source?
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 61

(b) 100 Vis applied to R 1 and R2 in series. If

\1i is 25 V, how much is Vz?
, ... --/- ........,
3-5
a -
=VT
' \
\
POLARITY OF IR VOLTAGE b + I
I

DROPS /
I

When an IR voltage drop exists across a resist- ~ ... __ ..,.,,/

ance, one end must be either more positive or
more negative than the other end. Otherwise,
without a potential difference no current could FIGURE 3-8
flow through the resistance to produce the IR Two IR voltage drops in series. Electron flow
drop. The polarity of this IR· voltage can be shown for direction of I.
associated with the direction of I through R. In
brief, electrons flow into the negative side of the shown in Fig. 3-8. We can analyze these polari-
IR voltage and out the positive side (Fig. 3-7 a). ties in terms of electron flow. The electrons
If we want to consider conventional current move from the negative terminal of the source
with positive charges moving in the opposite VT through R1 from point c to d. Electrons move
direction from electron flow, the rule is reversed into c and out from d. Therefore c is the nega-
for the positive charges. See Fig. 3-7b. Here the tive side of the voltage drop across R1 . Simi-
positive charges for I are moving into the posi- larly, for the IR voltage drop across R2 , point e
tive side of the IR voltage. is the negative side, compared with point f.
However, for either electron flow or con- A more fundamental way to consider the
ventional current the actual polarity of the IR polarity of IR voltage drops in a circuit is the fact
drop is the same. In both a and b of Fig. 3-7, the that between any two points the one nearer to
top end of R in the diagrams is negative since the positive terminal of the voltage source is
this is the negative terminal of the source pro- more positive; also, the point nearer to the
ducing the current. After all, the resistor does negative terminal of the applied voltage is more
not know which direction of current we are negative. A point nearer to the terminal means
thinking of. there is less resistance in its path.
A series circuit with two IR voltage drops is In Fig. 3-8 point c is nearer to the negative
battery terminal than point d. The reason is that
c has no resistance to a, while the path from d
---+
Electron to a includes the resistance of R1 . Similarly,
flow point f is nearer to the positive battery ter-
Conventional minal than point e, which makes f more positive
--1...,. than e.
Notice that points d and e in Fig. 3-8 are
(a) (b) marked with both plus and minus polarities.
FIGURE 3-7 The plus polarity at d indicates it is more posi-
Polarity of IR voltage drops. (a) Electron flows tive than c. This polarity, however, is shown just
into negative end. (b) Same polarity with posi- for the voltage across R1 . Point d cannot be
tive charges into positive end. more positive than points f and b. The positive
 Chapter 3
62 Series Circuits

terminal of the applied voltage must be the most On a plastic board with printed wiring, a rim of
positive point because the battery is generating solder around the edge serves as the chassis
the positive potential for the entire circuit. ground return, as illustrated in Fig. 3-9a. Then
Similarly, points a and c must have the only one terminal of the source voltage VT is
most negative potential in the entire string, used for the high side of the wiring. The circuit
since this point is the negative terminal of the components have return connections to the
applied voltage. Actually, the plus polarity opposite side of VT through the chassis ground
marked at d only means this end of R1 is less conductor.
negative than c, by the amount of voltage drop Either the negative or the positive terminal
across R1 . of VT can be connected to the chassis ground
Consider the potential difference between return line. With the negative side grounded, VT
e and din Fig. 3-8, which is only a piece of wire. supplies positive voltage for the high side of the
This voltage is zero because there is no resist- circuit (Fig. 3-9b}. For the opposite case in Fig.
ance between these two points. Without any 3-9c, the high side of the circuit has negative
resistance here, the current cannot produce the voltage with respect to chassis ground.
IR drop necessary for a difference in potential. In Fig. 3-9, the two equal resistances divide
Points e and d are, therefore, the same electri- the applied voltage equally. Then R1 and R2
cally since they have the same potential. each have a voltage drop of 10 V, equal to
When we go around the external circuit one-half the 20 V of VT. The sum of the IR
from the negative terminal of VT, with electron drops is 10 + 10 = 20 V, equal to the total
flow, the voltage drops are drops in negative applied voltage.
potential. For the opposite direction, starting
from the positive terminal of VT, the voltage Positive Voltages to Ground. In Fig. 3-9b
drops are drops in positive potential. Either point S is at + 20 V. However, point J at the
way, the voltage drop of each series R is its junction of R1 and R2 is at + 10 V. The potential
proportional part of VT needed for the one value of + 10 V is 10 V less than at S because of the
of current in all the resistances. 10-V drop across R1 . All these voltages are
positive to chassis ground because the negative
Practice Problems 3-5 side of VT and the ground return are really the
(answers on page 73) same.
Refer to Fig. 3-8.
(a) Which point in the circuit is the most nega- Negative Voltages to Ground. In Fig. 3-9c
tive? everything is the same as in (b) but with negative
(b) Which point in the circuit is the most posi- instead of positive voltages. Point Sis at -20 V,
tive? since the positive side of the source voltage is
(c) Which is more negative, point d or f? grounded.

3-6 Practice Problems 3-6

POLARITIES TO CHASSIS (answers on page 73)
GROUND (a) In Fig. 3-9b, give each voltag~ to ground at
In practical circuits, one side of the voltage points S, J, and G.
source VT is usually connected to chassis (b) In Fig. 3-9c, give each voltage to ground at
ground. The purpose is to simplify the wiring. points S, J, and G.
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 63

+ 20 v o-------- - 20 v o------

R 2 10 kn

Chassis ground

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 3-9
Polarity of IR voltage drops to chassis ground.
(a) Wiring diagram with ground wiring around
printed-circuit board. (b) Schematic diagram
with +20 V for VT with respect to chassis
ground. (c) VT is -20 V as positive side is
grounded.

3-7 VT X I. The reason is that VT is the sum of all the

TOTAL POWER IN A series voltages and I is the same in all the series
SERIES CIRCUIT components. In this case, then, PT is
The power needed to produce current in each 60 X 2 = 120 W, calculated as VT X I.
series resistor is used up in the form of heat. The total power here is 120 W, calculated
Therefore, the total power used is the sum of either from the total voltage or from the sum of
the individual values of power dissipated in P1 and P2 . This is the amount of power pro-
each part of the circuit. As a formula, duced by the battery. The voltage source pro-
duces this power, equal to the amount used by
PT= P1 + P2 + P3 + · · · + etc. (3-4) the load.

As an example, in Fig. 3-10, R1 dissipates

40 W for P1 , equal to 20 V X 2 A for the VI (2A
---+ R,
P 1 =40W
product. Or, the P1 calculated as I2 R is I 1on
used
20V
4 X 10 = 40 W. Also, the P1 is V2/ R, or
Pr= 120W ~ Vr
400/10 = 40 w. generated ~sov
Similarly, P2 for R2 is 80 W. This value is Rz
40 X 2 for VI, 4 X 20 for J2 R, or 160%0 for + 20 n P2 = 80 W

V2!R.
The total power dissipated by R1 and R2 , FIGURE 3-10
I
' -- 40V
used

then, is 40 + 80 = 120 W. This power is gen- The sum of the individual powers P1 and P2
erated by the source of applied voltage. used in each resistance equals the total power
The total power can also be calculated as PT produced by the source.
 Chapter 3
64 Series Circuits

Practice Problems 3-7 and to voltage drops across resistances. Any

(answers on page 73) number of voltages can be added, as long as
{a) Each of three equal resistances dissipates they are connected with series-aiding polarities.
2 W. How much is PT supplied by the Series-opposing voltages are subtracted, as
source? shown in Fig. 3-llb. Notice here that the posi-
{b) A 1-kn R1 and 40-kn R2 are in series with tive terminals of \1i and Vz are connected. Sub-
a 50-V source. Which R dissipates more tract the smaller from the larger value, and give
power? the net V the polarity of the larger voltage. In
this example, VT is 8 - 6 = 2 V. The polarity of
3-8 VT is the same as Vz because it is larger than "1 ·
SERIES-AIDING AND If two series-opposing voltages are equal,
SERIES-OPPOSING VOLTAGES the net voltage will be zero. In effect, one volt-
Series-aiding voltages are connected with age balances out the other. The current I also is
polarities that allow current in the same direc- zero, without any net potential difference.
tion. In Fig. 3-11 a, the 6-V of "1 alone could
produce 3-A electron flow from the negative Practice Problems 3-8
terminal, with the 2-n R. Also, the 8-V of Vz (answers on page 73)
could produce 4 A in the same direction. The (a) \1i of 40 Vis series-aiding with Vz of 60 V.
total I then is 7 A. How much is VT?
Instead of adding the currents, however, (b) The same "1 and Vz are connected series-
the voltages \1i and Vz can be added for a VT of opposing. How much is VT?
6 + 8 = 14 V. This 14 V produces 7 A in all
parts of the series circuit with a resistance of 3-9
2 n. ANALYZING SERIES CIRCUITS
Voltages are connected series-aiding with Refer to Fig. 3-12. Suppose that the source VT
the plus terminal of one to the negative terminal of 50 Vis known, with the 14-n R1 and 6-n R2 •
of the next. They can be added for a total The problem is to find RT, I, the individual
equivalent voltage. This idea applies in the voltage drops "1 and Vz across each resistor,
same way to voltage sources, such as batteries, and the power dissipated.

r
v,_-
6V -

V2 _-
av-==-
+
l
Vr=14V R=2D.

(a) (b)
FIGURE 3-11
Voltages Vi and \'2 in series. (a) Aiding.
(b) Opposing.
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 65

v, =? current is the same in all parts of a series

P, =? circuit.
2. To calculate I, the total VT can be divided
R,
14.Q by the total RT, or an individual IR drop
can be divided by its R. For instance, the
VT= 50 V current in Fig. 3-12 could be calculated as
+ Vz! R2 or 1%, which equals the same 2.5 A
t, __/=? for I. However, do not mix a total value for
the entire circuit with an individual value
FIGURE 3-12 for only part of the circuit.
Analyzing a series circuit to find I, \.'i_, \'2, P1 , 3. When you know the individual voltage
and P2 • See text for solution. drops around the circuit, these can be
added to equal the applied VT. This also
We must know the total resistance RT to means a known voltage drop can be sub-
calculate /because the total applied voltage VT is tracted from the total VT to find the re-
given. This VT is applied across the total resist- maining voltage drop.
ance RT. In this example, RT is 14 + 6 = 20 n.
Now I can be calculated as V/ RT, or 5 %0 , These principles are illustrated by the
which equals 2.5 A This 2.5-A I flows through problem in Fig. 3-13. In this circuit R1 and R2
R1 and R2 • are known but not R3 • However, the current
The individual voltage drops are through R3 is given as 3 mA.
With just this information, all values in this
\1i = IR1 = 2.5 X 14 = 35 V circuit can be calculated. The I of 3 mA is the
\'2 = IR2 = 2.5 X 6 = 15 V same in all three series resistances. Therefore,

Note that \1i and Vz total 50 V, equal to the Vi = 3 mA x 10 kn = 30 V

applied VT. Vz = 3 mA x 30 kn = 90 V
To find the power dissipated in each resis-
tor, The sum of \1i and Vz is 30 + 90 = 120 V.

P1 = \1i XI= 35 X 2.5 = 87.5 W R,

P2 = Vz XI= 15 X 2.5 = 37.5 W 10 kQ

These two values of dissipated power total

125 W. The power generated by the source
equals VT XI or 50 X 2.5, which is also 125 W. Vr=180V

+ /=3 mA
General Methods for Series Circuits. For +--
other types of problems with series circuits it is
useful to remember the following:
FIGURE 3-13
1. When you know the I for one component, Find the resistance of R3 • See text for analysis
use this for I in all the components, as the of this series circuit.
 Chapter 3
66 Series Circuits

This 120 V plus \,j must total 180 V. Therefore, \.1s is the difference between \{ and the higher
\,j is 180 - 120 = 60 V. VT. As a formula,
With 60 V for \,j, equal to IR3 , then R3
must be 6°/o. 003 , equal to 20,000 Q or 20 ks-2.
The total circuit resistance is 60 ks-2, which re-
sults in the current of 3 mA with 180 Vapplied, \.1s = 12.6 - 9 = 3.6 v
as specified in the chapter.
Another way of doing this problem is to Furthermore, this voltage drop of 3.6 V
find RT first. The equation I= VT! RT can be must be provided with a current of 18 mA, as
inverted to calculate the RT as VT! I. With a the current is the same through Rs and RL. To
3-mA I and 180 V for VT, the value of RT calculate Rs, then, it is 3.6 V/18 mA, which
must be 180 V/3 mA = 60 ks-2. Then R 3 is equals 0.2 ks-2 or 200 Q.
60 kQ - 40 ks-2 = 20 kQ. The power dissipated in RL is calculated as
The power dissipated in each resistance is \{ X IL. This value is 3.6 V X 18 mA, which
90 mW in RI, 270 mW in R2 , and 180 mW in equals 64.8 mW.
R 3 . The total power is 540 mW.
Circuit with Voltage Sources in Series. See
Series Voltage-Dropping Resistors. A com- Fig. 3-15. Note that \.1i and Vz are series-oppos-
mon application of series circuits is to use a ing, with + to + through RI. Their net effect
resistance to drop the voltage from the source then is 0 V. Therefore, VT consists only of \,j,
VT to a lower value, as in Fig. 3-14. The load RL equalto4.5 V. The total Ris2 + 1 + 2 = 5 ks-2
here represents a transistor radio that operates for RT. Finally, I is VT! RT or 4.5 V/5 ks-2, which
normally with a 9-V battery. When the radio is is equal to 0.9 mA.
on, the de load current with 9 V applied is
18 mA. Therefore, the requirements are 9 V, at Practice Problems 3-9
18 mA as the load. (answers on page 73)
To operate this radio from 12.6 V, the volt- Refer to Fig. 3-13.
age-dropping resistor Rs is inserted in series to (a) Calculate \.1i across RI.
provide a voltage drop \.1s that will make \{ (b) Calculate Vz across R 2 .
equal to 9 V. The required voltage drop across (c) How much is \,j?

~ R ~ R2
~-"'
Rs }v, v
1.5 2 kn . v 1 kn 15

- Vr =
- 12.6V
9V }
RL at VL V3 _!..... R3
18 mA
.___--1111----"2 1

4.5 v kr!
FIGURE 3-14 FIGURE 3-15
Series voltage-dropping resistor to drop VT of Find I for this series circuit with three voltage
12.6 V to 9 V for RL. See text for calculations. sources. See text for solution.
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 67

3-10 the resistance of the open. Such a high resist-

EFFECT OF AN OPEN CIRCUIT ance is practically infinite ohms.
IN A SERIES PATH By Ohm's law, the current that results from
An open is a break in the current path. The 40 V applied across 40 billion Q is one-billionth
resistance of the open is very high because an of an ampere, which is practically zero. This is
insulator like air takes the place of a conducting the value of current in all parts of the series
part of the circuit. Remember that the current is circuit. With practically no current, the IR volt-
the same in all parts of a series circuit. There- age drop is practically zero across the 25 Q of
fore, an open in any part results in no current R1 , the 10 Q of R2 , and the 5 Q of R3 •
for the entire circuit. As illustrated in Fig. 3-16, In summary, with an open in any part of a
the circuit is normal in (a), but in (b) there is no series circuit the current is zero in the entire
current in R1 , R2 , or R3 because of the open in circuit. There is no IR voltage drop across any
the series path. of the series resistances, although the generator
The open between P1 and P2 , or at any still maintains its output voltage.
other point in the circuit, has practically infinite
resistance because its opposition to electron The Case of Zero IR Drop. In Fig. 3-16b, each
flow is so great compared with the resistance of of the resistors in the open circuit has an IR
R1 , R2 , and R3 • Therefore, the value of current drop of zero. The reason is that current of
is practically zero, even though the battery pro- practically zero is the value in all the series
duces its normal applied voltage of 40 V. components. Each R still has its resistance.
To take an example, suppose that the open However, with zero current the IR voltage is
between P1 and P2 has a resistance of 40 billion zero.
Q. The resistance of the entire circuit is essen-
tially 40 billion Q, since the resistance of R1 , R2 , The Source Voltage VT ls Still Present with
and R3 can then be neglected compared with Zero I. The open circuit in Fig. 3-16b illus-

R, R,
25n 25n

. . -+ P,
( Zero Open,
current infinite n
_VT P2
40V
+zero ov R2
_
'current
..... ov 10 n

Ra
5n

(a) (b)
FIGURE 3-16
Effect of an open in a series circuit. (a) Normal
closed circuit with current of 1 A (b) Open in
any part of the circuit results in no current in
the entire circuit.
 Chapter 3
68 Series Circuits

trates another example of how V and I are The extremely small current of one-bil-
different forms of electricity. There is no current lionth of an ampere is not enough to develop
with the open circuit because there is no com- any appreciable IR drop across R1 , R2 , and R3 .
plete path outside the battery between its two However, across the open 1 the resistance is 40
terminals. However, the battery is generating a billion Q. Therefore, the IR voltage across the
potential difference across the positive and open here is one-billionth of an ampere multi-
negative terminals. This source voltage is pres- plied by 40 billion Q, which equals 40 V.
ent with or without current in the external cir- We could also consider the open circuit as
cuit. If you measure VT, the meter will read 40 V a proportional voltage divider. Since practically
with the circuit closed or open. all the series resistance is between P1 and P2 , all
The same idea applies to the 120-V ac the applied voltage is across the open terminals.
voltage from the power line in the home. The The fact that the open terminals have the
120-V potential difference is across the two entire applied voltage indicates a good way to
terminals of the wall outlet. If you connect a find an open component in a series string. If
lamp or appliance, current will flow in the cir- you measure the voltage across each good
cuit. When nothing is connected, though, the component, zero voltage. will be normal. How-
120-V potential difference is still there at the ever, the component that has the full source
outlet. If you should touch it, you will get an voltage is the one that is open.
electric shock. The generator at the power sta -
tion is maintaining the 120-V at the outlets as a Open Heater String. As another example,
source to produce current in any circuits that refer back to the series heaters in Fig. 3-6 for a
will be plugged in. television receiver with tubes. If one heater
opens, the entire string will be open. Then none
The Applied Voltage Is Across the Open Ter- of the tubes can operate, including the picture
minals. It is useful to note that the entire ap- tube. The result is no picture and no sound,
plied voltage is present across the open circuit. from the simple trouble of an open heater in the
Between P1 and P2 in Fig. 3-16b, there is 40 V. series string.
The reason is that essentially all the resistance
of the series circuit is between P1 and P2 . There- Practice Problems 3-10
fore, the resistance of the open circuit develops (answers on page 73)
all the IR voltage drop. Refer to Fig. 3-6.
(a) How much is the normal voltage across the
1 The voltage across an open circuit equals the ap- 158011 heater?
plied voltage, even without any current, after the (b) How much is the voltage across the
capacitance between the open terminals becomes 158011 heater if the 3GK5 heater is
charged by V, as described in Chap. 21, Capacitance. open?

Summary
1. There is only one current I in a series circuit. I = VT! RT, where VT is
the voltage applied across the total series resistance RT. This I is the
same in all the series components.
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 69

2. The total resistance RT of a series string is the sum of the individual

resistances.
3. The applied voltage VT equals the sum of the series IR voltage drops.
4. The negative side of an IR voltage drop is where electrons flow in,
attracted to the positive side at the opposite end.
5. The sum of the individual values of power used in the individual
resistances equals the total power supplied by the source.
6. Series-aiding voltages are added; series-opposing voltages are sub-
tracted.
7. An open results in no current in all parts of the series circuit.
8. In an open circuit, the voltage across the two open terminals is equal
to the applied voltage.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. When two resistances are connected in series, (a) they must both
have the same resistance value; (b) the voltage across each must be
the same; (c) they must have different resistance values; (d) there is
only one path for current through both resistances.
2. In Fig. 3-3c, if the current through R5 is 1 A, then the current through
R3 must be (a) %A; (b) Yz A; (c) 1 A; (d) 3 A.
3. With a 10-kQ resistance in series with a 2-kQ resistance, the total RT
equals (a) 2 kQ; (b) 8 kQ; (c) 10 kQ; (d) 12 kQ.
4. With two 45-kQ resistances in series across a 90-V battery, the
voltage across each resistance equals (a) 30 V; (b) 45 V; (c) 90 V;
(d) 180 v.
5. The sum of series IR voltage drops (a) is less than the smallest voltage
drop; (b) equals the average value of all the voltage drops; (c) equals
the applied voltage; (d) is usually more than the applied voltage.
6. R1 and R2 are in series with 90 V applied. If \'i is 30 V, then \.'z must
be (a) 30 V; (b) 90 V; (c) 45 V; (d) 60 V.
7. With a 4-Q resistance and a 2-Q resistance in series across a 6-V
battery, the current (a) in the larger resistance is l1h A; (b) in the
smaller resistance is 3 A; (c) in both resistances is 1 A; (d) in both
resistances is 2 A.
8. When one resistance in a series string is open, (a) the current is
maximum in the normal resistances; (b) the current is zero in all the
resistances; (c) the voltage is zero across the open resistance; (d) the
current increases in the voltage source.
 Chapter 3
70 Series Circuits

9. The resistance of an open series string is (a) zero; (b) infinite;

(c) equal to the normal resistance of the string; (d) about double the
normal resistance of the string.
10. A source of 100 Vis applied across a 20-Q R1 and 30-Q R2 in series.
\1i is 40 V. The current in R2 is (a) 5 A; (b) 3% A; (c) 1% A; (d) 2 A.

Essay Questions
1. Show how to connect two resistances in series with each other across
a voltage source.
2. State three rules for the current, voltage, and resistance in a series
circuit.
3. For a given amount of current, why does n:iore resistance have a
bigger voltage drop across it?
4. Two 300-W 120-V light bulbs are connected in series across a 240-V
line. If the filament of one bulb burns open, will the other bulb light?
Why? With the open, how much is the voltage across the source and
across each bulb?
5. Prove that if VT = \1i + Vz + \'3, then RT = R1 + R2 + R3 .
6. State briefly a rule for determining polarity of the voltage drop across
each resistor in a series circuit.
7. Redraw the circuit in Fig. 3-13, marking the polarity of \'i, Vz, and \'3.
8. State briefly a rule to determine when voltages are series-aiding.
9. Derive the formula PT = P1 + P2 + P3 from the fact that
VT = Vi + Vz + \'3.
10. In a series string, why does the largest R dissipate the most power?

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back

of book.)

1. A circuit has 10 V applied across a 10-Q resistance R1 . How much is

the current in the circuit? How much resistance R2 must be added in
series with R1 to reduce the current one-half? Show the schematic
diagram of the circuit with R1 and R2 •
2. Draw the schematic diagram of 20-, 30-, and 40-Q resistances in
series. (a) How much is the total resistance of the entire series string?
(b) How much current flows in each resistance, with a voltage of
180 V applied across the series string? (c) Find the voltage drop
 Cha ter 3
Series Circuits 71

across each resistance. (d) Find the power dissipated in each resist-
ance.
3. R1 of 90 kQ and an R2 of 10 kQ are in series across a 3-V source.
(a) Draw the schematic diagram. (b) How much is Vz?
4. Draw a schematic diagram showing two resistances R1 and R2 in
series across a 100-V source. (a) If the IR voltage drop across R1 is
60 V, how much is the IR voltage drop across R2 ? (b) Label the
polarity of the voltage drops across R1 and R2 . ( c) If the current is 1 A
through R1 , how much is the current through R2 ? (d) How much is
the resistance of R1 and R2 ? How much is the total resistance across
the voltage source? (e) If the voltage source is disconnected, how
much is the voltage across R1 and across R2 ?
5. Three 10-Q resistances are in series across a voltage source. Show
the schematic diagram. If the voltage across each resistor is 10 V,
how much is the applied voltage? How much is the current in each
resistance?
6. How much resistance R1 must be added in series with a 100-Q R2 to
limit the current to 0.3 A with 120 V applied? Show the schematic
diagram. How much power is dissipated in each resistance?
7. Find the total RT of the following resistances in series: 2 MQ, 0 .5 MQ,
47 kQ, 5 kQ, and 470 Q.
8. Referring to Fig. 3-6, calculate the resistance of each heater with its
normal load current. How much is the total normal resistance of the
heater string? How much is the resistance with one heater open?
9. Draw the circuit with values for three equal series resistances across
a 90-V source, where each R has one-third the applied voltage and
the current in the circuit is 2 mA.
10. A 100-W bulb normally takes 0.833 A, and a 200-W bulb takes
1.666 A from the 120-V power line. If these two bulbs were con-
nected in series across a 240-V power line, prove that the current
would be 1.111 A in both bulbs, assuming the resistances remain
constant.
11. Referring to Fig. 3-9, calculate I in R1 and R2 for the diagrams in (a),
(b), and (c).
12. In Fig. 3-17, calculate I, \'1., Vz, P1 , P2 , and PT. (Note: R1 and R2 are in
series with VT even though the source is shown at the right instead of
at the left.)
13. If R1 is increased to 8 kQ in Fig. 3-17, what will be the new I?
14. In Fig. 3-18, find R1 . Why is I in the direction shown?
15. In Fig. 3-19, find R2 •
16. Figure 3-20 shows the circuit for keeping a 12.6-V car battery
charged from a 15-V de generator. Calculate I and show the direction
of electron flow.
 Chapter 3
72 Series Circuits

17. In Fig. 3-21, find \.'z. Show polarity for Vi, Vz, and \'3.
18. In Fig. 3-22, find VT. Show polarity for VT, Vi, Vz, and \'3.
R, =?
R1 =2kn
+--
/ = 5 mA

Vr
-=- 40 v

FIGURE 3-17 FIGURE 3-18

For Probs. 12 and 13. For Prob. 14.

R1 =Sn R = 0.6 n
--------'V\/\;....-~--.

1- ~
P 1 =80 W

V1 12.6 V 15 V V2

r+ +r
FIGURE 3-19 FIGURE 3-20
For Prob. 15. For Prob. 16.

R 1 =2kn

VT= 39 V ,-+
; I= 5 mA
r-------t1111--
R, Ra
1.7 Mn 1.7Mn

FIGURE 3-21 FIGURE 3-22

For Prob. 1 7. For Prob. 18.

Answers to Practice Problems

3-1 (a) R1 , R2 , R3 , VT and the wires 3-2 (a) 2 mA
(b) 5 A (b) 10 kQ
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 73

3-2 (c) 1 mA 3-6 (b) Sis -20 V

3-3 (a) lOV J is -10 V
(b) 1 A G is OV
(c) 1 A 3-7 (a) 6W
(d) 1 A (b) 40-kg R2
3-4 (a) 60V 3-8 (a) 100 V
(b) 75 v (b) 20V
3-5 (a) point a or c 3-9 (a) \1i = 30 V
(b) point b or f (b) Vz = 90 v
(c) point d (c) Vj = 60 V
3-6 (a) Sis +20 V 3-10 (a) 15 V
J is +10 V (b) 0 v
G is OV
 Parallel
Circuits
When two or more components are connected across one voltage source,
as shown in Fig. 4- 1, they form a parallel circuit. The resistors R1 and R2 Chapter
are in parallel with each othe.r and with the battery. Each parallel path is
then a branch, with its own individual current. Parallel circuits, therefore,
have one common voltage across all the branches hut individual branch
cµrrents that can be different. These characteristics are opposite from
series circuits that have one common current but individual voltage drops
that can be different. The important features of parallel circuits are
4
explained in the following topics:
4-1 The Applied Voltage ~ Is the Same Across Parallel Branches
4-2 Each Branch I Equals ~/ R
4-3 The Main-Line IT Equals the Sum of the ·Branch Currents
4-4 Resistances in Parallel
4-5 Conductances in Parallel
4-6 Total Power in Parallel Circuits
4- 7 Analyzing Parallel Circuits
4·8 Effect of an Open Branch in Parallel Circuits
4-9 Effect of a Short Circuit across Parallel Branches

4-1 A comrnon application of parallel circuits is

THE APPLIED VOLTAGE ~ typical ·house wiring. to the power line, with
IS THE SAME ACROSS many lights and. appliances .connected across
PARALLEL BRANCHES the 120:.V source (Fig. 4-2). The wall receptacle
In Fig. 4~ 1 b, the points a, b, c. and e are really has the potential difference of 120 V across
equivalent to a direct connection at the negative each pair of terminals. Therefore, any resist-
terminal of the battery because the· connecting ance connected to a.n outlet has the applied
wit:~s .have practically no r.esistance. Similarly, voltage of 120 V. The light bulb is connected to
points h, g, d, and f are the same as a direct 9ne outlet and the toaster to. another outlet, but
connection at the· positive battery terminal. both: have the same applied voltage of 120 V.
Since ·R1 (lnd R2 are directly connected ,across Therefore, 'each operates independently of any
the two terminals of the battery, both resistances otl)et appliance, with· all the individual branch
must have the same potential difference as,the circuits connected across.the 120-V line.
battery. It follow~ that the voltage is the same
across components connected in parallel.. Jhe :·'<P,raC!ice Prebl~ 4;1
parallel circuit arrangement. is used~ therefore, fll.n. . •-.u.<.'~.'$. :. o.··,rtPQ······g. 90.J
e.•.·.·.

to connect components that. require the sarne (~f lrt' f'g: 4}• how .much. is the common
voltage. v,ol~g~: ~crpss ,R1 .· ~nd R2 ?
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 75

c b e

a
R 1 =5.Q

d g f
(b)
FIGURE 4-1
A parallel circuit. (a) Photograph of wiring.
(b) Schematic diagram.

(b} In Fig. 4-2, how much is the common plied. In Fig. 4-3, 10 Vis applied across the 5 Q
voltage across the bulb and the toaster? of R2 , resulting in the current of 2 A between
points e and /through R2 • The battery voltage is
also applied across the parallel resistance of R1 ,
4-2 applying 10 V across 10 Q. Through R1 , there-
EACH BRANCH I EQUALS ~IR fore, the current is 1 A between points c and d.
In applying Ohm's law, it is important to note The current has a different value through R1 ,
that the current equals the voltage applied with the same applied voltage, because the re-
across the circuit divided by the resistance be- sistance is different. These values are calculated
tween the two points where that voltage is ap- as follows:

R, 120-V R2
bulb source toaster
120-V

Grounding terminal~+ Wall receptacle

(a) (b)
FIGURE 4-2
Light bulb and toaster connected in parallel to
the 120-V line. (a) Wiring diagram. (b) Sche-
matic diagram.
 Chapter 4
76 Parallel Circuits

c b e 4-3
THE MAIN-LINE IT EQUALS
r----+---- ----+----.
1 11 =1 A 12 = 2 A I THE SUM OF THE BRANCH
I CURRENTS
+
I
II +
•I

I
I
I
Components to be connected in parallel are
usually wired directly across each other, with
I I
'----+------' +--------J the entire parallel combination connected to the
voltage source, as illustrated in Fig. 4-4. This
d g f circuit is equivalent to wiring each parallel
FIGURE 4-3
branch directly to the voltage source, as shown
The current in each parallel branch equals the in Fig. 4-1, when the connecting wires have
applied voltage divided by each branch R.
essentially zero resistance.
The advantage of having only one pair of
~ 10 connecting leads to the source for all the paral-
11 = - = - = 1 A
R1 10 lel branches is that usually less wire is neces-
sary. The pair of leads connecting all the
l2_VA_l0_2A
- - - branches to the terminals of the voltage source
R2 5 is the main line. In Fig. 4-4, the wires from g to
a on the negative side and from b to f in the
Just as in a circuit with just one resistance,
return path form the main line.
any branch that has less R allows more I. If R1
In Fig. 4-4b, with 20 Q of resistance for R1
and R2 were equal, however, the two branch
connected across the 20-V battery, the current
currents would have the same value. For in-
through R1 must be 20 V /20 Q = 1 A. This
stance, in Fig. 4-1 b each branch has its own
current is electron flow from the negative termi-
current equal to 1.5 V/5 Q = 0.3 A.
nal of the source, through R1 , and back to the
The I can be different in parallel circuits
positive battery terminal. Similarly, the R 2
having different R because Vis the same across
branch of 10 Q across the battery has its own
all the branches. Any voltage source generates a
branch current of 20 V/10 Q = 2 A. This cur-
potential difference across its two terminals.
rent flows from the negative terminal of the
This voltage does not move. Only I flows
source, through R 2 , and back to the positive
around the circuit. The source voltage is availa-
terminal, since it is a separate path for electron
ble to make electrons move around any closed
flow.
path connected to the generator terminals. How
All the current in the circuit, however,
much I is in the separate paths depends on the
must come from one side of the voltage source
amount of R in each branch.
and return to the opposite side for a complete
path. In the main line, therefore, the amount of
Practice Problems 4-2 current is equal to the total of the branch cur-
(answers on page 90) rents.
Refer to Fig. 4-3. For example, in Fig. 4-4b, the total current
(a) How much is the voltage across R1 ? in the line from point g to point a is 3 A. The
(b) How much is 11 through R1 ? total current at branch point a subdivides into its
( c) How much is the voltage across R 2 ? component branch currents for each of the
(d) How much is 12 through R2 ? branch resistances. Through the path R1 from a
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 77

a c a c
+--· --· --· --· --· --+ --· --·
•
I •
I
--· --· --· ---. - - · ---. ,
•
--+ --·
+
I
,--.
{Ir= 3 A
lab = 1 A: led= 2 A:

•
I
+-- +-- + +
I

• + 't.
I
•
I I
I I - -~ I I
I +I

I
+
I I

+t
T I I

~ ~ • I g

§ I f
I

•t
I
I
+I
I

+
I
I

't
:
't
1
N

~
...
0

I
•
•
I
I

I
I
f
=
+
20V R 1 20.Q

lab = 1 A:
R 2 10 .Q

:•
• l
+
l
...
I
t, ____ Ir= 3 A +
led= 2 A:

•
·--T..b +-- +- +d. .
'+- +- +--
I · - ·--
b d

(a) (b)
FIGURE 4-4
The main-line current equals the sum of the
branch currents. From g to a is the negative
side and from b to f is the positive side of the
main line. (a) Wiring diagram. Arrows inside
lines indicate current for RI; arrows outside
lines indicate current for R2 . (b) Schematic
diagram. IT is total line current.

to b the current is 1 A. The other branch path Answer. II for the ·RI branch is I 2%0 or 6 A
acdb through R2 has a current of 2 A. At the Similarly I2 is I 2%0 or 3 A, and I3 is I 2%0 or 2 A The·
branch point b, the electron flow from both total current in the main line is
parallel branches combines, so that the current
in the main-line return path from b to f has the IT = II + I2 + I3 =6 +3 +2
same value of 3 A as in the other side of the IT= 11 A
main line.
Example 2. Two branches RI and R2 across the
The formula for the total current IT in the 120-V power line draw a total line current IT of 15 A
main line is The RI branch takes 10 A How much is the current
I 2 in the R2 branch?
(4-1)
Answer. I2 = IT - II = 15 - 10
This rule applies for any number of parallel I2 = 5 A
branches, whether the resistances are equal or
unequal. With two branch currents, one must equal the differ-
ence between IT and the other branch current.
Example 1. An RI of 20 Q, an R2 of 40 Q, and an R3
of 60 Q are connected in parallel across the 120-V Example 3. Three parallel branch currents are
power line. How much is the total line current IT? 0 .1 A, 500 mA, and 800 µA Calculate IT.
 Chapter 4
78 Parallel Circuits

Answer. All values must be in the same units to the combined resistance RT, is the opposition to
be added. Converted to milliamperes, therefore the total current in the main line. In this exam-
0.1 A = 100 mA and 800 µA = 0.8 mA. Then ple ~!IT is 60 V/3 A= 20 n for RT.
The total load connected to the source
IT = 100 + 500 + 0.8 voltage is the same as though one equivalent
IT= 600.8 mA resistance of 20 Q were connected across the
main line. This is illustrated by the equivalent
You can add the currents in A, mA, or µA
circuit in Fig. 4-Sb. For any number of parallel
units, as long as the same unit is used for all the
resistances of any value, therefore,
currents.

(4-2)
Practice Problems 4-3
(answers on page 90)
(a) Parallel branch currents are 1 A for II, 2 A where IT is the sum of all the branch currents
for I2 , and 3 A for I3 • Calculate IT. and RT is the equivalent resistance of all the
(b) IT = 6 A for three branch currents. I1 is parallel branches across the voltage source ~.
1 A and I2 is 2 A Calculate I3 .
Example 4. Two branches, each with a 5-A current,
are connected across a 90-V source. How much is
4-4 the equivalent total resistance RT?
RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL
The total resistance across the main line in a Answer. The total line current IT is
parallel circuit can be found by Ohm's law: 5 + 5 = 10 A Then,
Divide the common voltage across the parallel
resistances by the total current of all the R _ ~ _ 90
branches. Referring to Fig. 4-Sa, note that the T - IT - 10
parallel resistance of RI with R2 , indicated by RT= 9 Q

........... I I,= i I2 = ..--+

I IT= {IT= 3 A
1 +1A +2A I
3A r-- -------- ----..,
1 I
vA I I
-
= I R, R2 I _VA=
- 60V I
I
son 30.n I - 60V
I
L-
I
-~-;T 20.n

(a) (b)
FIGURE 4-5
Resistances in parallel. (a) Combined parallel
resistance of R1 and R2 is the total resistance RT
in the main line. (b) Equivalent circuit showing
combined RT drawing the same 3-A IT as the
parallel combination of R1 and R2 •
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 79

I'-+ I'-+
I
I
I= 2 A f IT= 4 A
R, R,
30.Q 30.Q

(a) (b)

........
{IT= 6 A
I
+I.I 2
= 2A

R, R2
VA = 60 V
30 n 30 n

(c) (d)
FIGURE 4-6
How adding parallel branches increases IT but
reduces RT. (a) One branch. (b) Two branches.
(c) Three branches. (d) Equivalent of (c).

Parallel Bank. A combination of parallel RI, which allows 2 A with 60 V applied. In (b)
branches is often called a bank. In Fig. 4-5, the the R2 branch is added across the same ~. This
bank consists of the 60-Q RI and 30-Q R2 in branch also has 2 A. Now the parallel circuit
parallel. Their combined parallel resistance RT has a 4-A total line current because of II + I2 .
is the bank resistance, equal to 20 Q in this Then the third branch is added in (c), which
example. also takes 2 A for I3 . The combined circuit with
When a circuit has more current with the three branches therefore requires a total load
same applied voltage, this greater value of I current of 6 A, which is supplied by the voltage
corresponds to less R because of their inverse source.
relation. Therefore, the combination of parallel The combined resistance across the source
resistances RT for the bank is always less than then is ~/IT, which is 6%or 10 Q. This equiva-
the smallest individual branch resistance. The lent resistance RT, representing the entire load
reason is that IT must be more than any one on the voltage source, is shown in (d). More
branch current. resistance branches reduce the combined re-
sistance of the parallel circuit because more
Why RT ls Less Than Any Branch R. It may current is required from the same voltage
seem unusual at first that putting more resist- source.
ance into a circuit lowers the equivalent resist-
ance. This feature of parallel circuits is illus-
trated in Fig. 4-6. Note that equal resistances of Reciprocal Resistance Formula. We can de-
30 Q each are added across the source voltage, rive this formula from the fact that IT is the sum
one branch at a time. The circuit in (a) has just of all the branch currents, or,
 Chapter 4
80 Parallel Circuits

Notice that the value for 1 I RT must be inverted

to obtain RT when using Formula (4-3} because
However, IT is VI RT. Also, each I is VI R. Sub- it gives the reciprocal of RT.
stituting VI RT for IT on the left side of the equa-
tion and VI R for each branch I on the right side,
Total-Current Method. Figure 4-7 b shows
the result is
how this same problem can be calculated in
terms of total current instead of by the recipro-
cal formula, if it is easier to work without frac-
tions. Although the applied voltage is not known
always, any convenient value can be assumed
Dividing by V because it is the same across all
because it cancels in the calculations. It is usu-
the resistances
ally simplest to assume an applied voltage of the
same numerical value as the highest resistance.
Then one assumed branch current will auto-
matieally be 1 A and the other branch currents
will be more, eliminating fractions less than 1 in
This reciprocal formula applies to any
the calculations.
number of parallel resistances of any value.
For the example in Fig. 4-7 b, the highest
Using the values in Fig. 4-7 a as an example,
branch R is 20 n. Therefore, assume 20 V for
the applied voltage. Then the branch currents
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 s· are 1 A in R1 , 2 A in R2 , and 2 A in R3 . Their
RT = 20 + 1o + 1o = 20 + 20 + 20 = 20
sum is 1 + 2 + 2 = 5 A for IT. The combined
R _ 20 resistance RT across the main line is ~I IT or
T- 5
20 VIS A = 4 n. This is the same value calcu-
_RT= 4 Q lated with the reciprocal resistance formula.

V;.. = 20 V
R, R,
20 .n 20 .n

..!. = ..!. + _!__ + .!.. VA 20

RT=-=-
RT R1 R2 R3 IT 5
RT= 4 .Q RT= 4 .n
(a) (b)
FIGURE 4-7
Combining parallel resistances using (a) recip-
rocal resistance formula and (b) total line cur-
rent method with an assumed line voltage
of 20 V.
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 81

Each R can have any value but there must be

only two resistances. Note that this method
R, gives RT directly, not its reciprocal. If you use
RT= 20 kn
so kn the reciprocal formula for this example, the
answer will be 1 I RT = %4 , which is the same
value as RT equals 24 Q.
R _value of one resistance= 60 kn
T number of resistances 3 Short-Cut Calculations. Figure 4-10 shows
FIGURE 4-8 how these special rules can help in reducing
For equal branch resistances, R divided by the parallel branches to a simpler equivalent circuit.
number of branches is the RT. Here RT is In (a), the 60-Q R1 and R4 are equal and in
60 kS-2/3 = 20 kQ. parallel. Therefore, they are equivalent to the
30-Q R 14 in (b). Similarly, the 20-Q R2 and R3
Special Case of Equal R in All Branches. If R are equivalent to the 10 Q of R23 . The circuit in
is equal in all branches, the combined RT equals (a) is equivalent to the simpler circuit in (b) with
the value of one branch resistance divided by just the two parallel resistances of 30 and 10 Q.
the number of branches. This rule is illustrated Finally, the combined resistance for these
in Fig. 4-8 where three 60-kQ resistances in two equals their product divided by the sum,
parallel equal 20 kQ. which is 300/40 or 7.5 Q, as shown in (c). This
The rule applies to any number of parallel
resistances, but they must all be equal. As an-
value of R; in (c) is equivalent to the combina-
tion of the four branches in (a). If you connect a
other example, five 60-Q resistances in parallel voltage source across either circuit, the genera-
have the combined resistance of 6°/s, or 12 Q. A tor current in the main line will be the same for
common application is two equal resistors wired both cases.
in a parallel bank for RT one-half each R. The order of connections for parallel re-
sistances does not matter in determining RT.
Special Case of Only Two Branches. When
There is no question as to which is first or last
there are two parallel resistances and they are
because they are all across the same voltage
not equal, it is usually quicker to calculate the
source.
combined resistance by the method shown in
Fig. 4-9. This rule says that the combination of
two parallel resistances is their product divided
by their sum.
R,
RT= 24 n 40n
(4-4)

where RT is in the same units as all the individ- R, X R2 2400

ual resistances. For the example in Fig. 4-9, RT = -+R
R = 100
1 2
FIGURE 4-9
R1 x R2 40 x 60 2400
For only two parallel resistances, RT is the
RT = Rl + R2 = 40 + 60 = 100 product divided by the sum. Here RT is
RT= 24 Q 2400/100 = 24 Q.
 Chapter 4
82 Parallel Circuits

R, RT
60.Q 7.5.Q

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 4-10
An example of parallel-resistance calculations.
(a) Circuit with four branches. (b) Circuit com-
bined into two branches. (c) Equivalent circuit
reduced to one RT.

Finding an Unknown Branch Resistance. In Practice Problems 44

some cases with two parallel resistors, it is use- (answers on page 90)
ful to be able to determine what size Rx to (a) Find RT for three 4. 7 -MQ resistances in
connect in parallel with a known R in order to parallel.
obtain a required value of RT. Then the factors (b) Find RT for 3 MQ in parallel with 2 MQ.
can be transposed as follows:

4-5
R =Rx RT (4-5) CONDUCTANCES IN PARALLEL
x R - RT
Since conductance G is equal to 1 IR, the re-
ciprocal resistance Formula (4-3) can be stated
Example 5. What Rx in parallel with 40 Q will pro-
vide an RT of 24 Q? for conductance as

R - R x RT - 40 x 24 - 960
GT = G1 + G2 + G3 + · · · + etc. (4-6)
Answer.
x - R - RT - 40 - 24 - 16
With R in ohms, G is in siemens units or mhos.
Rx= 60 Q
For the example in Fig. 4-11,
This problem corresponds to the circuit in Fig. 4-9.
GT= 0.05 + 0.2 + 0.5 = 0.75 Sor 0.75 mho
Note that Formula (4-5) for Rx has a prod-
uct over a difference. RT is subtracted because it
is the smallest R. R, R2 R3
20.Q 5.Q 2.Q

Example 6. What R in parallel with 50 kQ will pro- GT= 0.75 mho

or c, G2 G3
vide an RT of 25 kQ? 0.75 s 0.05 mho 0.2 mho 0.5 mho
or or or
0.05 s 0.2 s 0.5 s
Answer. R = 50 kQ
FIGURE 4-11
Two equal resistances in parallel have RT equal to Conductances in parallel are added for the
one-half the R of either one. total GT.
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 83

Notice that adding the conductances does not circuit as an example of how to apply the rules
require reciprocals. Actually, each value of G is of current, voltage, and resistance for a parallel
the reciprocal of R. circuit.
Working with G may be more convenient The applied 10 Vis across the 10-Q R1 and
than working with R in parallel circuits since it the 5-Q R2 in Fig. 4-12. The branch current I1
will avoid using the reciprocal formula for RT. then is ~/ R1 or 1o/i 0 , which equals 1 A Simi-
Each branch current is directly proportional to larly I2 is 1%, or 2 A The total IT is
its conductance. This idea corresponds to the 1 + 2 = 3 A If we want to find RT, it equals
fact that in series circuits each voltage drop is VA! IT or 1%, which is 3% Q.
directly proportional to each series resistance. The power dissipated in each branch R is
The reason why parallel conductances are ~ X I. In the R1 branch, I1 is 1o/i 0 = 1 A Then
added directly can be illustrated by assuming a P1 is ~ X I1 or 10 X 1 = 10 W.
1-V source across all the branches. Then calcu- For the R2 branch, I2 is 1% = 2 A Then P2
lating the values of 1 IR for the conductances is is ~ X I2 or 10 X 2 = 20 W.
the same as calculating the branch currents. Adding P1 and P2 , the answer is
These values are added for the total IT or GT. 10 + 20 = 30 W. This PT is the total power
dissipated in both branches.
Practice Problems 4-5 This value of 30 W for PT is also the total
(answers on page 90) power supplied by the voltage source by means
(a) G1 is 2 Sand G2 in parallel is 5 S. Calcu- of its total Hne current IT. With this method, the
late GT. total power is ~ X IT or 10 X 3 = 30 W for PT.
(b) G1 is 0.05 µS, G2 is 0.2 µS, and G3 is The 30 W of power supplied by the voltage
0.5 µS, all in parallel. Find GT and RT. source is dissipated or used up in the branch
resistances.
4-6 Note that in both parallel and series circuits
TOTAL POWER IN PARALLEL the sum of the individual values of power dissi-
CIRCUITS pated in the circuit equals the total power gen-
Since the power dissipated in the branch resist- erated by the source. This can be stated as a
ances must come from the voltage source, the formula
total power equals the sum of the individual
values of power in each branch. This rule is PT= P1 + P2 + P3 + · · · +etc. (4-7)
illustrated in Fig. 4-12. We can also use this
The series or parallel connections can alter
Ir= the distribution of voltage or current, but power
3A is the rate at which energy is supplied. The
VA=-=-
R2 circuit arrangement cannot change the fact that
.n
30W IO;- 5 all the energy in the circuit comes from the
source.
1ow/ \20W
generated used used
FIGURE 4-12 Practice Problems 4-6
The sum of the individual powers P1 and Pz (answers on page 90)
used in each resistance equals the total power (a) Two parallel branches each have 2 A at
PT produced by the source. 120 V. Calculate PT.
 Chapter 4
84 Parallel Circuits

{b) Three parallel branches of 10, 20, and IT is given as 7 A The two branches take
30 Q have 60 V applied. Calculate PT. 2 +4= 6 A The third branch current through
R3 must be 7 - 6 = 1 A for I3 .
Now R3 can be calculated as ~I I3 . This is
4-7 12 o/i = 120 Q for R3 .
ANALYZING PARALLEL CIRCUITS
For many types of problems with parallel cir-
cuits it is useful to remember the following Practice Problems 4-7
points: (answers on page 90)
Refer to Fig. 4-13.
1. When you know the voltage across one {a) How much is Vz across R2 ?
branch, this voltage is across all the {b) Calculate I1 through R1 .
branches. There can be only one voltage
across branch points with the same poten-
tial difference. 4-8
2. If you know IT and one of the branch cur- EFFECT OF AN OPEN BRANCH
rents I1 , you can find I2 by subtracting from IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS
IT. Since IT = I1 + I2 , it is also true that An open in any circuit is an infinite resistance
= =
I2 IT - I1 or I1 IT - I2 • that results in no current. However, in parallel
circuits there is a difference between an open in
The circuit in Fig. 4-13 illustrates these the main line and an open in a parallel branch.
points. The problem is to find the applied volt- These two cases are illustrated in Fig. 4-14. In
age ~ and the value of R3 . Of the three branch {a) the open in the main line prevents any elec-
resistances, only R1 and R2 are known. How- tron flow in the line to all the branches. The
ever, since I2 is given as 2 A, the I2 R2 voltage current is zero in every branch, therefore, and
must be 2 X 60 = 120 V. none of the bulbs can light.
Although the applied voltage is not given, However, in Fig. 4-14b the open is in the
this must also be 120 V. The voltage across all branch circuit for bulb 1. The open branch
the parallel branches is the same 120 V that is circuit has no current, then, and this bulb can-
across the R2 branch. not light. The current in all the other parallel
Now I1 can be calculated as ~I R1 . This is branches is normal, though, because each is
12
%0 = 4 A for I1 . connected to the voltage source. Therefore, the
other bulbs light.
The circuit in Fig. 4-14b applies to televi-
sion receivers with tubes where the heaters are
wired in parallel. If one heater opens, the other
R, tubes will still operate normally. Usually, you
30.Q can see which heater is not red-hot.
These circuits show the advantage of wir-
ing components in parallel. An open in one
FIGURE 4-13 component only opens one branch, while the
Analyzing a parallel circuit. What are the values other parallel branches have their normal volt-
for ~ and R 3 ? See solution in text. age and current.
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 85

0-- x----.,....------.------.
Open in Bulb 3

120-V
main line Bulb 1 Bulb 2 Bulb 3 Bulb 1
~)1/
....
source

Open filament /11\\

(a) (b)
FIGURE 4-14
Open in parallel circuits. (a) Open in main
line-no current and no light in all bulbs.
(b) Open in one branch-bulb 1 is dark, but the
two other bulbs operate normally.

Practice Problems 4-8 more than 100 A instead of the normal line
(answers on page 90) current of 1 A illustrated in Fig. 4-15. This ex-
(a) How much is the R of an open filament or cessive current flows in the voltage source V, in
heater? the line to the short circuit at point a, through
(b) In Fig. 4-14b, if only bulb 3 is open, which the short circuit, and in the line returning to the
bulbs will light? source from b. Because of the large amount of
current, the wires can become hot enough to
4-9 ignite and burn. There should be a fuse that
EFFECT OF A SHORT CIRCUIT would open if there is too much current in the
ACROSS PARALLEL BRANCHES main line because of a short circuit across any
A short circuit has practically zero resistance. Its of the branches.
effect, therefore, is to allow excessive current.
Consider the example in Fig. 4-15. Suppose the The Short-Circuited Components Have No
conducting wire at point a should accidentally Current. For the short circuit in Fig. 4-15, the I
contact the wire at point b. Since the wire is an is 0 A in the parallel resistors R1 and R2 . The
excellent conductor, the short circuit results in reason is that the short circuit is a parallel path
practically zero resistance from points a to b. with practically zero resistance. Then all the
These two points are connected directly across current flows in this path, bypassing the resis-
the voltage source. With no opposition, the
applied voltage could produce an infinitely high
a
value of current through this current path.

The Short-Circuit Current. Practically, the 10V R, Short

20n circuit
amount of current is limited by the small resist-
ance of the wire. Also, the source usually can-
not maintain its output voltage while supplying b
much more than its rated load current. Still the FIGURE 4-15
amount of current can be dangerously high. For A short circuit across one parallel branch must
instance, the short-circuit current might be short all the branches.
 Chapter 4
86 Parallel Circuits

tors R1 and R2 • Therefore R1 and R2 are short- two, three, or more resistances, or any number
circuited or shorted-out of the circuit. They of parallel components, they would all be
cannot function without their normal current. If shorted out by the short circuit across points a
they were filament resistances of light bulbs or and b. Therefore, a short circuit across one
heaters for tubes, they would not light without branch in a parallel circuit shorts out all the
any current. parallel branches.
The short-circuited components are not This idea also applies to a short circuit
damaged, however. They do not even have any across the voltage source in any type of circuit.
current passing through them. Assuming the Then the entire circuit is shorted out.
short circuit has not damaged the voltage
source and the wiring for the circuit, the com -
ponents can operate again when the circuit is Practice Problems 4-9
restored to normal by removing the short cir- (answers on page 90)
cuit. Refer to Fig. 4-15.
(a) How much is the R of the short circuit
between a and b?
All the Parallel Branches Are Short-Cir- (b) How much is 11 in R1 with the short circuit
cuited. If there were only one R in Fig. 4-15, across R2 ?

Summary
1. There is only one voltage ~ across all components in parallel.
2. The current in each branch lb equals the voltage~ across the branch
divided by the branch resistance Rb. Or lb = ~I Rb.
3. The total line current equals the sum of all the branch currents. Or
IT = 11 + 12 + 13 + · · · + etc.
4. The equivalent resistance RT of parallel branches is less than the
smallest branch resistance, since all the branches must take more
current from the source than any one branch.
5. For only two parallel resistances of any value, RT = R1 R2 !(R 1 + R2 ).
6. For any number of equal parallel resistances, RT is the value of one
resistance divided by the number of resistances.
7. For the general case of any number of branches, calculate RT as ~I IT
or use the reciprocal resistance formula.
8. For any number of conductances in parallel, their values are added
for GT, in the same way as adding parallel branch currents.
9. The sum of the individual values of power dissipated in parallel
resistances equals the total power produced by the source. Or
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + . . . + etc.
10. An open in one branch results in no current through that branch, but
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 87

the other branches can have their normal current. However, an open
in the main line results in no current for any of the branches.
11. A short circuit has zero resistance, resulting in excessive current.
When one branch is short-circuited, all the parallel paths are also
short-circuited. The entire current is in the short circuit and bypasses
the short-circuited branches.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. With two resistances connected in parallel: (a) the current through

each must be the same; (b) the voltage across each must be the same;
(c) their combined resistance equals the sum of the individual values;
( d) each must have the same resistance value.
2. With 100 V applied across ten 50-Q resistances in parallel, the
current through each resistance equals (a) 2 A; (b) 10 A; (c) 50 A;
(d) 100 A. .
3. With three 1-kQ resistances connected in parallel, their combined
equivalent resistance equals (a) %kQ; (b) 1 kQ; (c) 2 kQ; (d) 3 kQ.
4. A 1-Q resistance in parallel with a 2-Q resistance provides a com-
bined equivalent resistance of (a) 3 Q; (b) 1 Q; (c) 2 Q; (d) %Q.
5. With resistances of 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 Qin parallel, RT is
(a) less than 100 Q; (b) more than 1 MQ; (c) about 500 Q; (d) about
1 kQ.
6. With two resistances connected in parallel, if each dissipates 10 W,
the total power supplied by the voltage source equals (a) 5 W;
(b) 10 W; (c) 20 W; (d) 100 W.
7. With eight 10-MQ resistances connected in parallel across a 10-V
source, the main-line current equals (a) 0.1 µA; (b) 1/s µA; (c) 8 µA;
(d) 10 µA.
8. A parallel circuit with 20 V applied across two branches has a total
line current of 5 A. One branch resistance equals 5 Q. The other
branch resistance equals (a) 5 Q; (b) 20 Q; (c) 25 Q; (d) 100 Q.
9. Three 100-W light bulbs are connected in parallel across the 120-V
power line. If one bulb opens, how many bulbs can light? (a) None;
(b) one; (c) two; (d) all.
10. If a parallel circuit is open in the main line, the current (a) increases
in each branch; (b) is zero in all the branches; (c) is zero only in the
branch that has highest resistance; (d) increases in the branch that
has lowest resistance.
 Chapter 4
88 Parallel Circuits

Essay Questions
1. Draw a wiring diagram showing three resistances connected in
parallel across a battery. Indicate each branch and the main line.
2. State two rules for the voltage and current values in a parallel circuit.
3. Explain briefly why the current is the same in both sides of the main
line that connects the voltage source to the parallel branches.
4. (a} Show how to connect three equal resistances for a combined
equivalent resistance one-third of the value of one resistance.
(b} Show how to connect three equal resistances for a combined
equivalent resistance three times the value of one resistance.
5. Why can the current in parallel branches be different when they all
have the same applied voltage?
6. Why does the current increase in the voltage source as more parallel
branches are added to the circuit?
7. Show the algebra for deriving the formula RT= RIR2 !(RI + R2 }
from the reciprocal formula for two resistances.
8. Draw the circuit of five heaters for vacuum tubes wired in parallel
across a 6.3-V ac source.
9. State briefly why the total power equals the sum of the individual
values of power, whether a series circuit or parallel circuit is used.
10. Explain why an open in the main line disables all the branches, but an
open in one branch affects only that branch current.
11. Give two differences between an open circuit and a short circuit.
12. List as many differences as you can in comparing series circuits with
parallel circuits.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back

of book.)

1. A 15-Q RI and a 45-Q R2 are connected in parallel across a 45-V

battery. (a} Draw the schematic diagram. (b} How much is the voltage
across RI and R2 ? (c} How much is the current in RI and R2 ? (d} How
much is the main-line current? (e} Calculate RT.
2. For the circuit in question 1, how much is the total power supplied by
the battery?
3. A parallel circuit has three branch resistances of 20, 10, and 5 Q for
RI, R2 , and R3 . The current through the 20-Q branch is 1 A (a} Draw
the schematic diagram. (b} How much is the voltage applied across
all the branches? (c} Find the current through the 10-Q branch and
the 5-Q branch.
4. (a} Draw the schematic diagram of a parallel circuit with three branch
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 89

resistances, each having 10 V applied and a 2-A branch current.

(b) How much is IT? (c) How much is RT?
5. Referring to Fig. 4-12, assume that R2 opens. (a) How much is the
current in the R2 branch? (b) How much is the current in the R1
branch? (c) How much is the line current? (d) How much is the total
resistance of the circuit? (e) How much power is generated by the
battery?
6. Two resistances R1 and R2 are in parallel across a 100-V source. The
total line current is 10 A. The current I1 through R1 is 4 A. Draw a
schematic diagram of the circuit, giving the values of currents I 1 and
I2 and resistances R1 and R2 in both branches. How much is the
combined equivalent resistance of both branches across the voltage
source?
7. Find the RT for the following groups of branch resistances: (a) 10 g
and 29 g; (b) five 10-kg resistances; (c) two 500-g resistances;
(d) 100 g, 200 g, and 300 g; (e) two 5-kg and two 2-kg resistances;
( f) four 40-kg and two 20-kg resistances.
8. How much parallel Rx must be connected across a 100-kg resistance
to reduce RT to (a) 50 kg; (b) 25 kg; (c) 10 kg?
9. Find the total conductance in siemens for the following branches:
G1 = 9000 µS; G2 = 7000 µS; G3 = 22,000 µS.
10. Referring to Fig. 4-11, calculate RT by combining resistances. Show
that this RT equals 1 !GT, where GT is 0.75 S.
11. Find R3 in Fig. 4-16.
12. In Fig. 4-17: (a) find each branch current and show the direction of
electron flow; (b) calculate IT; (c) calculate RT; (d) calculate P1 , P2 , P3 ,
and PT.

RT =400 .Q R1 R3=?
2k.Q

FIGURE 4-16
For Prob. 11.

R1
4.7k.Q

FIGURE 4-17
For Prob. 12.
 Chapter 4
90 Parallel Circuits

Answers to Practice Problems

4-1 (a) 1.5 V 4-5 (b) GT= 0.75 µS or 0.75 µmho and
(b) 120 v RT= 1.33 MQ
4-2 (a) lOV 4-6 (a) 480 W
(b) 1A (b) 660 w
(c) lOV 4-7 (a) 120 V
(d) 2A (b) /1 = 4 A
4-3 (a) IT= 6 A 4-8 (a) Infinite ohms
(b) 13 = 3 A (b) Bulbs 1 and 2
4-4 (a) RT= 1.57 MQ 4-9 (a) 0 Q
(b) RT= 1.2 MQ (b) 11 = 0 A
4-5 (a) GT = 7 S or 7 mhos
 Sedes~
Parallel
arcults
In many circuits, some components are connected in series to have the
same current, while others are in parallel for the same voltage. Figure 5-1
shows an example. Such a circuit is used where it is necessary to provide
different amounts of current and voltage with one source of applied
voltage. The main features of series-parallel circuits are explained in the
following topics:

5-1 Finding RT for Series-Parallel Resistances

5-2 Resistance Strings in Parallel
5-3 Resistance Banks in Series
5-4 Resistance Banks and Strings in Series-Parallel
5-5 Analyzing Series-Parallel Circuits
5-6 Wheatstone Bridge
5-7 Chassis-Ground Connections
5-8 Voltages Measured to Chassis Ground
5-9 Opens and Shorts in Series-Parallel Circuits

5..1 In Fig. 5-lc, the 0.5-kO R1 and 0.5-kO R2

FINDING RT FOR in series total 1 kO for R1 _2 . Also, the 1-kO R3 in
SERIES-PARALLEL parallel with the 1-kO R4 can be combined for
RESISTANCES an equivalent resistance of 0 .5 kO for R3 _4 , as
In Fig. 5-1, R1 is in series with R2 . Also, R3 is in shown in Fig. 5-ld.
parallel with R4 . However, R2 is not in series This parallel R3 _4 combination of 0 .5 kO is
with R3 or R4 • The reason is the branch point A then added to the series R1 _2 combination of 1
where the currentthrough R2 divides for R3 and kO, for the final RT value of 1.5 kO.
R4. As a result, the current through R3 must be With RT known, we can find IT in the main
le.ss than the current through R2 • Therefore, R2 line produced by the 1.5 ·V source VT. Then IT is
and R3 cannot be in series because they do not VT/RT or 1.5 V/1.5 kO = 1 mA. This 1-mA /pis
have the same current. For the same reason, R4 the current through R1 and R2 •
also cannot be in series with R2 • At branch point A, the 1-mA IT divides into
To find RT, we add the series resistances the two branch currents of 0.5 mA each for R3
and combine the parallel resistances. and R4 • At branch point B, the two 0.5-mA
 Chapter 5
92 Series-Parallel Circuits

(a) (b)

R,_2 R,_2
A A

1 ld1

R3-4
500.Q

B B
(c) (d)
FIGURE 5-1
Series-parallel circuit. (a) Photograph of wiring.
(b) Schematic diagram. (c) R 1 and R2 in series
added for R1 _ 2 . (d) R3 and R4 in parallel com-
bined as R3 _4 .

branch currents combine to equal the 1-mA IT 5-2

in the main line, returning to the source VT. RESISTANCE STRINGS IN
PARALLEL
Practice Problems 5-1 More details about the voltages and currents in
(answers on page 112) a series-parallel circuit are illustrated by the
Refer to Fig. 5-1. example in Fig. 5-2. Suppose there are four
(a) Calculate the series R of R1 and R2 . 120-V 100-W light bulbs to be wired, with a
(b) Calculate the parallel R of R3 and R4 . voltage source that produces 240 V. Each bulb
(c) Calculate RT across the source VT. needs 120 V for normal brilliance. If the bulbs
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 93

Ra
V3 = 120 V
VA = 240 V VA= 240 V

String 1 String 2 String 1 String 2

(a) (b)
FIGURE 5-2
Two identical series strings iri parallel. All bulbs
have a 120-V 100-W rating. (a) Wiring dia-
gram. (b) Schematic diagram.

were connected across the source, each would Branch Currents 11 and 12 • Each branch cur-
have the applied voltage of 240 V, causing ex- rent equals the voltage applied across the
cessive current in all the bulbs that could result branch divided by the total .resistance in the
in burned-out filaments. branch. In branch 1, R1 and R2 total 12 Q. With
If the four bulbs were connected in series, 12 V applied, this branch current I 1 is
12/i = 1 A. Branch 2 has only the 6-Q R . Then
each would have a potential difference of 60 V, 2 3
equal to one-fourth the applied voltage. With I2 in this branch is 1% = 2 A.
too low a voltage, there would be insufficient
current for normal operation and the bulbs
Series Voltage Drops in a Branch. For any
would not operate at normal brilliance. one resistance in a string, the current in the
However, two bulbs in series across the
string multiplied by the resistance equals the IR
240-V line provide 120 V for each filament,
voltage drop across that particular resistance.
which is the normal operating voltage. There-
Also, the sum of the series IR drops in the string
fore, the four bulbs are wired in strings of two in
equals the voltage across the entire string.
series, with the two strings in parallel across the
In string 1, the I 1 R1 drop equals 8 V, while
240-V source. Both strings have 240 V applied.
the I1 R2 drop is 4 V. These drops of 8 and 4 V
In each string two series bulbs divide the applied
add to equal the 12 V applied. The voltage
voltage equally to provide the required 120 V
across the R3 branch is also 12 V.
for the filaments.
Another example is illustrated in Fig. 5-3.
This circuit has just two parallel branches where Calculating IT. The total line current equals
one branch includes R1 in series with R2 • The the sum of the branch currents for all the paral-
other branch has just the one resistance R3 . lel strings. Here IT is 3 A, equal to the sum of
Ohm's law can be applied to each branch. 1 A in branch 1 and 2 A in branch 2.
 Chapter 5
94 Series-Parallel Circuits

Branch 1 Branch 2 Branch 1 Branch 2

,...... +I1 =1 A +I2 = 2 A ,..+ +I 1 =1 A +: I -2 A

2 -
f IT= {IT=
I 3A R,
I
3A
an
v R3 R,_2 R3
12 12 v
+ GU + 12 n GU
R2
4U

(a) (b)
FIGURE 5-3
Series string in parallel with another branch.
(a) Schematic diagram. (b) Equivalent circuit.

Calculating RT. The resistance of the total 5-3

series-parallel circuit across the voltage source RESISTANCE BANKS IN SERIES
equals the applied voltage divided by the total In Fig. 5-4a, the group of parallel resistances R 2
line current. In Fig. 5-3, RT equals 12 V/3 A, or and R3 is a bank. This is in series with RI be-
4 Q. This resistance can also be calculated as cause the total current of the bank must go
12 Q in parallel with 6 Q, equivalent to one through RI.
combined resistance of 72fi 8 = 4 Q, for the The circuit here has R 2 and R 3 in parallel
product over the sum. in one bank so that these two resistances will
have the same potential difference of 20 V
across them. The source applies 24 V, but there
is a 4-V drop across RI.
Applying Ohm's Law. There can be any
The two series voltage drops of 4 V across
number of parallel strings and more than two
RI and 20 V across the bank add to equal the
series resistances in a string. Still, Ohm's law
applied voltage of 24 V. The purpose of a circuit
can be used in the same way for the series and ·
like this is to provide the same voltage for two
parallel parts of the circuit. The series parts
or more resistances in a bank, where the bank
have the same current. The parallel parts have
voltage must be less than the applied voltage by
the same voltage. Remember that for VI R the R
the amount of IR drop across any series resist-
must include all the resistance across the two
ance.
terminals of V.
To find the resistance of the entire circuit,
combine the parallel resistances in each bank
and add the series resistance. As shown in
Practice Problems 5-2 Fig. 5-4b, the two 10-Q resistances R 2 and R 3 in
(answers on page 112) parallel are equivalent to 5 Q. Since the bank
·Refer to Fig. 5-3a. resistance of 5 Q is in series with l Q for RI, the
(a) If I in R2 were 6 A, what would I in RI be? total resistance is 6 Q across the 24-V source.
(b) If the source voltage were 72 V, what Therefore, the main-line current is 24 V/6 Q,
would \,j be across R3 ? which equals 4 A
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 95

Parallel bank
R2
10 n.

.....
,
l /1 =2 A

VT= 24 V R, VT= 24 V
1 n.
+ +

(a) (b)
FIGURE 5-4
Parallel bank of R2 and R3 in series with R1 .
(a) Schematic diagram. (b) Equivalent circuit.

The total line current of 4 A divides into 5-4

two parts of 2 A each in the parallel resistances RESISTANCE BANKS AND
R2 and R3 . Note that each branch current STRINGS IN SERIES-PARALLEL
equals the bank voltage divided by the branch In the solution of such circuits, the most impor-
resistance. For this bank, 20/i. 0 = 2 A for each tant fact to know is which components are in
branch. series with each other and what parts of the
The branch currents are combined in the circuit are parallel branches. The series compo-
line to provide the total 4 A in R1 . This is the nents must be in one current path without any
same total current flowing in the main line, in branch points. A branch point such as point A
the source, into the bank, and out of the bank. or B in Fig. 5-5 is common to two or more
There can be more than two parallel re- current paths. For instance, R1 and R6 are not
sistances in a bank and any number of banks in in series with each other. They do not have the
series. Still, Ohm's law can be applied the same same current, because the current in R1 divides
way to the series and parallel parts of the circuit. at point A into its two component branch cur-
The general procedure for circuits of this type is rents. Similarly, R5 is not in series with R2 ,
to find the equivalent resistance of each bank because of the branch point B.
and then add all the series resistances. To find the currents and voltages in
Fig. 5-5, first find RT in order to calculate the
Practice Problems 5-3 main-line current IT as VT! RT. In calculating RT,
(answers on page 112) start reducing the branch farthest from the
Refer to Fig. 5-4a. source and work toward the applied voltage.
(a) \'z across R2 were 40 V, what would \'3
If The reason for following this order is that you
across R3 be? cannot tell how much resistance is in series with
(b) If I in R2 were 4 A, with 4 A in R3 , what R1 and R2 until the parallel branches are re-
would I in R1 be? duced to their equivalent resistance. If no
 Chapter 5
96 Series-Parallel Circuits

VT= R4 VT= R5 R1
100 v 12 n 100 v 10.n 6.Q

R2
30.Q

(a) (b)

R, R,
15.Q 15.Q

~A
A ,.. -+
v l IT= 2 A
VT=
100 v

R2
30.Q
B
R5
10.n
R,3
10.n
1oovl.dBsn
VT= R,a VT=
100V
+
RT
son

R2
30.Q

(c) (d) (e)

FIGURE 5-5
Reducing a series-parallel circuit to an equiva-
lent series circuit to find the RT. (a) Actual
circuit. (b) R3 and R4 in parallel equal R7 • (c) R7
and R6 in series equal R13 . (d) R13 and R5 in
parallel equal R18 . ( e) R18 , R1, and R2 in series
are added for the total circuit resistance of
son.
source voltage is shown, RT can still be calcu- R5, across the branch points A and B.
lated from the outside in toward the open ter- Their equivalent resistance then is the 5-n
minals where a source would be connected. R18 in (d).
To calculate RT in Fig. 5-5, the steps are as 4. Now the circuit in (d) has just the 15-Q R1 ,
follows: 5-n R18 , and 30-n R2 in series. These re-
sistances total 50 n for RT, as shown in (e).
1. The bank of the 12-n R3 and 12-n R4 in 5. With a 50-n RT across the 100-V source,
parallel in (a) is equal to the 6-n R7 in (b). the line current IT is 10%0 = 2 A.
2. The 6-Q R7 and 4-n R6 in series in the
same current path total 10 n for R 13 in (c). To see the individual currents and voltages, we
3. The 10-n R 13 is in parallel with the 10-n can use the IT of 2 A for the equivalent circuit in
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 97

(d). Now we work from the source V out toward 5-5

the branches. The reason is that IT can be used ANALYZING SERIES-PARALLEL
to find the voltage drops in the main line. The CIRCUITS
IR voltage drops here are: The circuits in Figs. 5-6 to 5-9 will be solved
now. The following principles are illustrated:
Vi = ITRI = 2 x 15 = 30 v
\'is = ITR18 = 2 X 5 = 10 V 1. With parallel strings across the main line,
Vz = ITR2 = 2 x 30 = 60 v
the branch currents and IT can be found
without RT (see Figs. 5-6 and 5-7).
The 10-V drop across R18 is actually the
2. When parallel strings have series resist-
potential difference between branch points A
ance in the main line, RT must be calcu-
and B. This means 10 V across Rs and R13 in
(c). The 10 V produces 1 A in the 10-Q Rs lated to find IT, assuming no branch cur-
rents are known (see Fig. 5-9).
branch. The same 10 V is also across the R 13
branch. 3. The source voltage is applied across the RT
Remember that the R 13 branch is actually of the entire circuit, producing an IT that
flows only in the main line.
the string of R6 in series with the R3 R4 bank.
4. Any individual series R has its own IR drop
Since this branch resistance is 10 Q, with 10 V
that must be less that the total VT. In addi-
across it, the branch current here is 1 A. The
tion, any individual branch current must be
1 A through the 4 Q of R6 produces a voltage
less than IT.
drop of 4 V. The remaining 6-V IR drop is
across the R 3 R4 bank. With 6 Vacross the 12-Q
R3 , its current is 1/z A; the current is also 1/z A in Solution for Fig. 5-6. The problem here is to
R4. calculate the branch currents I 1 and I2 _3 , total
Tracing all the current paths from the line current IT, and the voltage drops \'i, Vz, \'3.
source, the main-line current through R1 is 2 A. This order will be used for the calculations,
At the branch point A, this current divides into because we can find the branch currents from
1 A for Rs and 1 A for the string with R 6 • There the 90 V across the known branch resistances.
is a 1-A branch current in R6 , but it subdivides
in the bank with Yz A in R 3 and 1/z A in R4 . At the
branch point B, the total bank current of 1 A ,...... I 11 I
combines with the 1 A through the Rs branch, /2-3+
resulting in a 2-A total line current through R2 ,
: Ir
+ R2 V2
the same as through R1 in the opposite side of 20 .n
the line. VA= 90 V v, R,
30 .n
+
R3
Practice Problems 5-4 25 .n
V3
(answers on page 112)
Refer to Fig. 5-Sa.
(a} Which R is in series with R2 ? FIGURE 5-6
(b} Which R is in parallel with R3 ? Find all the currents and voltages. See text for
(c} Which R is in series with the R3 R4 bank? solution by calculating the branch currents first.
 Chapter 5
98 Series-Parallel Circuits

In the 30-Q branch of R1 , the branch cur- age. Therefore, ~equals the sum of 30 + 60,
rent is 9 %0 = 3 A for I1 . The other branch re- or 90 V. This 90 V is also across the other
sistance, with a 20-Q R2 and a 25-Q R3 , totals branch combining R3 and R4 in series.
45 Q. This branch current then is 9 %5 = 2 A for The other branch current I2 in Fig. 5-7
I2 _ 3 • In the main line, IT is 3 + 2, which equals must be 4 A, equal to the 7-A IT minus the 3-A
5A I1 . With 4 A for I2 , the voltage drop across the
For the branch voltages, Vi must be the 12-Q R3 equals 48 V for \,j. Then the voltage
same as ~' equal to 90 V. Or Vi = I1 R1 , which across R4 is 90 - 48, or 42 V for \'4, as the sum
is 3 X 30 = 90 V. of \'3 and \'4 must equal the applied 90 V.
In the other branch, the 2-A I2 _3 flows Finally, with 42 V across R4 and 4 A
through the 20-Q R2 and the 25-Q R3 . There- through it, this resistance equals 4 %, or 10.5 Q.
fore, \'2 is 2 X 20 = 40 V. Also, \'3 is Note that 10.5 Q for R4 added to the 12 Q of R3
2 X 25 = 50 V. Note that these 40-V and 50-V equals 22.5 Q, which allows 9 %2 .5 or a 4-A
series IR drops in one branch add to equal the branch current for I2 .
90-V source.
If we want to know RT, it can be calculated Solution for Fig. 5-8. The division of branch
as ~!IT. Then 90 V/5 A equals 18 Q. Or RT currents also applies to Fig. 5-8, but the main
can be calculated by combining the branch re- principle here is that the voltage must be the
sistances of 30 Qin parallel with 45 Q. Then RT same across R1 and R2 in parallel. For the
is (30 X 45)/(30 + 45). This answer is 135%5 , branch currents, I2 is 2 A, equal to the 6-A IT
which equals the same value of 18 Q for RT. minus the 4-A I 1 . The voltage across the 10-Q
R1 is 4 X 10, or 40 V. This same voltage is also
Solution for Fig. 5-7. To find the applied volt- across R2 • With 40 Vacross R2 and 2 A through
age first, the I1 branch current is given. This 3-A it, R2 equals 4% or 20 Q.
current through the 10-Q R1 produces a 30-V If we want to find VT in Fig. 5-8, it can be
drop Vi across R1 . The same 3-A current calculated as 100 V. The 6-A IT through R3
through the 20-Q R2 produces 60 V for \'2 produces a voltage drop of 60 V for \,j. Also,
across R2 • The 30-V and 60-V drops are in the voltage across the parallel bank with R1 and
series with each other across the applied volt-

,. .+
: Ir= 7 A
.v1
I
=3A
I

+.1i
R,
10.Q
R, R3
10.Q 12 n
VA=?
+ R4 =?
R2
20.Q V4 =?
R 2 ="'>•

tlr
,,.. __= 6 A
FIGURE 5-7 +
Find the applied voltage ~, \{, and R4 . See
text for solution by calculating 12 and the branch FIGURE 5-8
voltage. Find R2 and 12 . See text for solution.
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 99

R2 has been calculated as 40 V. This 40 V \..'s and \'6 happen to be equal at 40 Veach.
across the bank in series with 60 V across R3 They split the 80 Vin half because the 10-Q R6
totals 100 V for the applied voltage. equals the combined resistance of 10 Q be-
tween points a and b.
Solution for Ag. 5-9. In order to find all the With \..'s known to be 40 V, then Is through
current and voltage drops, we need RT to cal- the 20-Q Rs is 4 %0 = 2 A Since Is is 2 A and IT
culate IT through R6 in the main line. Combining is 4 A, I4 must be 2 A also, equal to the differ-
resistances for RT, we start with R1 and R2 and ence between IT and Is. At the branch point a,
work in toward the source. Add the 8-Q R 1 and the 4-A IT divides into 2 A through Rs and 2 A
8-Q R2 in series with each other for 16 Q. This through R4 .
16 Q combined with the 16-Q R3 in parallel The 2-A I4 through the 12-Q R4 produces
equals 8 Q between points c and d. Add this 8 Q an IR drop equal to 2 X 12 = 24 V for \{. It
to the series 12-Q R4 for 20 Q. This 20 Q com- should be noted now that \{ and \'3 must add to
bined with the parallel 20-Q Rs equals 10 Q equal \..'s. The reason is that both \..'s and the
between points a and b. Add this 10 Q in series path with \{ and \'3 are across the same two
with the 10-Q R6 , to make RT of 20 Q for the points ab or ad. Since the potential difference
entire series-parallel circuit. across any two points is the same regardless of
IT in the main line is VT! RT, or 8°/z 0 , which the paths, \..'s = \{ + \'3. To find \'3 now, we can
equals 4 A This 4-A IT flows through the 10-Q subtract the 24 V of \{ from the 40 V of \..'s.
R6 , producing a 40-V IR drop for \'6. Then 40 - 24 = 16 V for \'3.
Now that we know IT and \'6 in the main With 16 V for \'3 across the 16-Q R3 , its
line, we use these values to calculate all the current I3 is 1 A Also I1 _2 in the branch with R1
other voltages and currents. Start from the main and R2 is equal to 1 A The 2-A I4 into branch
line, where we know the current, and work point c divides into the two equal branch cur-
outward from the source. To find \.'s, the IR rents of 1 A each because of the equal branch
drop of 40 V for \'6 in the main line is subtracted resistances.
from the source voltage. The reason is that \.'s Finally, with 1 A through the 8-Q R2 and
and \'6 must add to equal the 80 V of VT. Then 8-Q R 1 , their voltage drops are \..'z = 8 V and
\.'s is 80 - 40 = 40 V. \..'i = 8 V. Note that the 8 V of \..'i in series with

R 6 = 10 n a c
.. -+
(IT
I

VT= 80 V R,
an
+

b d
FIGURE 5-9
Find all currents and voltages. See text for
solution in which RT and then IT are calculated
to find \.'6 first.
 Chapter 5
100 Series-Parallel Circuits

the 8 V of \'2 add to equal the 16-V potential the input. In Fig. 5-10 the input terminals are C
difference \'3 between points c and d. and D, while the output terminals are A and B.
All the answers for the solution of Fig. 5-9 The bridge circuit has many uses for com -
are summarized below: parison measurements. In the Wheatstone
bridge, an unknown resistance Rx is balanced
RT= 20 0 IT= 4 A ~ =40V against a standard accurate resistor Rs for pre-
Vs = 40 v 15 = 2 A /4= 2A cise measurement of resistance.
\'4 = 24 v \'3 = 16 v 13 = 1 A In Fig. 5-10, S 1 applies battery voltage to
11-2 = 1A \'2 =8V Vi = 8 v the four resistors in the bridge. To balance the
bridge, the value of Rs is varied. Balance is
indicated by zero current in the galvanometer
Practice Problems 5-5 G. S2 is a spring switch that is closed just to
(answers on page 112) check the meter reading.
(a) In Fig. 5-6, which R is in series with R 2 ? The reason for zero current in the meter
(b) In Fig. 5-6, which R is across ~? can be seen by analysis of the voltage drops
(c) In Fig. 5-7, how much is 12 ? across the resistors. Rs in series with Rx forms a
(d) In Fig. 5-8, how much is \tj? voltage divider across VT; the parallel string of
R1 in series with R2 is also a voltage divider
across the same source. When the voltage divi-
5-6 sion is in the same ratio for both strings, the
WHEATSTONE 1 BRIDGE voltage drop across Rs equals the voltage
A bridge circuit has four terminals, two for input across R2 • Also, the voltage across Rx then
voltage and two for output. The purpose is to equals the voltage across R1 . In this case, points
have a circuit where the voltage drops can be A and B must be at the same potential. The
balanced to provide zero voltage across the difference of potential across the meter then
output terminals, with voltage applied across must be zero, and there is no deflection.
At balance, the equal voltage ratios in the
1
Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875), English two branches of the Wheatstone bridge can be
physicist and inventor. stated as

Unknown resistor
Rx

VT= 1.5 V Ratio arm

R1
Standard resistor R2
Rs

D
FIGURE 5-10
Wheatstone-bridge circuit.
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 101

metal chassis, which is used as a common re-

or turn for connections to the source. With printed
wiring on a plastic board instead of a metal
Note that IA and ls cancel. Now, inverting Rs to chassis, a conducting path around the entire
the right side of the equation, board is used as a common return for chassis
ground. The chassis ground may or may not be
connected to earth ground. In either case the
(5-1) grounded side is called the "cold side" or "low
side" of the applied voltage, while the un-
Usually, the total resistance of R1 and R2 is grounded side is the "hot side" or "high side."
fixed, but any desired ratio can be chosen by
moving point B on the ratio arm. The bridge is
balanced by varying Rs for zero current in the Grounding One Side of the Source Voltage.
meter. At balance, then, the value of Rx can be Three examples are shown in Fig. 5-11. In (a)
determined by multiplying Rs by the ratio of one side of the 120-V ac power line is
R1 I R2 • As an example, if the ratio is 1/ioo and Rs grounded. Note the symbol -=- for earth
is 248 Q, the value of Rx equals 248 x 0.01, or ground. This symbol also indicates a chassis
2.48 Q. ground that is connected to one side of the
The balanced bridge circuit can be ana- voltage source. In electronic equipment, black
lyzed as simply two series resistance strings in wire is generally used for chassis ground returns
parallel when the current is zero through the and red wire for the high side of the voltage
meter. Without any current between A and B source. See Table F-1 in Appendix F.
this path is effectively open. When current flows In Fig. 5-llb and c the 12-Vbattery is used
through the meter path, however, the bridge as an example of a voltage source connected to
circuit must be analyzed by Kirchhoff's laws or chassis ground but not to earth. For instance, in
network theorems, as described in Chaps. 8 an automobile one side of the battery is con-
and 9. nected to the metal frame of the car. In (b), the
negative side is grounded, while in (c) the posi-
tive side is grounded. Some people have the
Practice Problems 5-6 idea that ground must always be negative, but
(answers on page 112) this is not necessarily so.
(a) A bridge circuit has how many pairs of The reason for connecting one side of the
terminals? 120-V ac power line to earth ground is to re-
(b) In Fig. 5-10, how much is ~Bat balance? duce the possibility of electric shock. However,
chassis ground in electronic equipment is
5-7 mainly a common-return connection. Where
CHASSIS-GROUND CONNECTIONS the equipment operates from the power line,
In the wiring of practical circuits, one side of the the metal chassis should be at ground potential,
voltage source is usually grounded. For the not connected to the hot side of the ac outlet.
120-V ac power line in residential wiring, the This connection reduces the possibility of elec-
ground is actually earth ground, usually by con- tric shock from the chassis. Also, hum from the
nection to a metal cold-water pipe. For elec- power line is reduced in audio, radio, and tele-
tronic equipment, the ground just indicates a vision equipment.
 Chapter 5
102 Series-Parallel Circuits

Black or red,
high side

i
120 v
Ac
n~
n
12V ~ 12V

White, neutral

Ground ~

(a)
T Ground

(b)
l r l Ground

(c)
FIGURE 5-11
Grounding one side of a voltage source.
(a) The ac power line. (b) Negative side of
battery connected to chassis ground. (c) Pos-
itive side of battery connected to chassis ground.

Practice Problems 5-7 Positive Voltages to Negative Ground. In

(answers on page 112) Fig. 5-12b, the negative side of VT is grounded
(a} In Fig. 5-11 b, give the voltage to ground and the bottom end of R1 is also grounded to
with polarity. complete the circuit. The ground is at point A.
(b} Do the same for Fig. 5-11 c. Note that the individual voltages \'1, Vz, and ~
are still 10 V each. Also the current is still 1 A.
5-8 The direction is also the same, from the nega-
VOLTAGES MEASURED TO tive side of VT, through the metal chassis, to the
CHASSIS GROUND bottom end of R1 . The only effect of the chassis
When a circuit has the chassis as a common ground here is to provide a conducting path
return, we generally measure the voltages with from one side of the source to one side of the
respect to chassis. Let us consider the voltage load.
divider in Fig. 5-12 without any ground in (a}, With the ground in Fig. 5-12b, though, it is
and then analyze the effect of grounding differ- useful to consider the voltages with respect to
ent points on the divider. It is important to chassis ground. In other words, the ground at
realize that this circuit operates the same way point A will now be the reference for all volt-
with or without the ground. The only factor that ages. When a voltage is indicated for only one
changes is the reference point for measuring point in a circuit, generally the other point is
the voltages. assumed to be chassis ground. We must have
In Fig. 5-12a, the three 10-Q resistances two points for a potential difference.
R1 , R2 , and R3 divide the 30-V source equally. Let us consider the voltages at points B, C,
Then each voltage drop is 3% = 10 V for Vi, Vz, and D. The voltage at B to ground is VBA. This
and \'3. The polarity is positive at the top and double subscript notation shows that we meas-
negative at the bottom, the same as VT. ure at B with respect to A. In general. the first
If we want to consider the current, I is letter indicates the point of measurement and
3
%0 = 1 A. Each IR drop is 1 X 10 = 10 Vfor the second letter is the reference point.
Vi, Vz, and \'3. Then VBA is + 10 V. The positive sign is
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 103

D VDA = + 30 V
,-- ,--
~I= 1A ~ /= 1A +
V3 = 10 V

+ +
VT = 30 V VT = 30V

v, = 10 v R,
10 n I
: /= 1 A I/= 1 A
'--+ '-+
(a)
- (b)
-
Vna =+20V
,-- ,-- -
~/= 1 A ~/= 1 A
V 3 = 10 V V3 = 10 V

Vea=+ 10 V Ven= -10 V

+ +
VT= 30V V 2 = 10 V VT= 30V V2 = 10 V

Van= - 20 V

v, = 10 v v, = 10 v
l /= 1 A I /= 1 A
\ . -+
'-+
~--------e VAa = - 10 v Lo---------• VAD = - 30 V

(c) (d)
FIGURE 5-12
Voltages to chassis ground. (a) Voltage divider
without ground. (b) With negative side of
source VT grounded, all voltages are positive to
the chassis ground. ( c) Positive and negative
voltages with respect to the ground at point B.
(d) With positive side of source grounded, all
voltages are negative to chassis ground.
 Chapter 5
104 Series-Parallel Circuits

used here to emphasize the polarity. The value grounded, which is the same as grounding the
of 10 V for VBA• is the same as \.'i across R1 positive side of the source VT. The voltage
because pqjnts' B and .A, are across R1 . How- source here is inverted, compared with (a), as
ever, \.'i' as· the voltage across R1 really cannot the opposite side is grounded. In (d), all the
be given any pola,ritywitpout a reference point. voltages on the divider are negative to ground.
Wb~we consld<i;"the voltage at C, then, Here, Ven = -10 V, while VBD = -20 V and
VcA is +20 V;.J\Jis volh1ge equals \.'i + \'z, con- ~n = -30 V. Any point in the circuit must be
nected with· deries-aiqftrg ·polarities. Also, for more negative than the positive terminal of the
point D at the top, Vn~ is +30 V for source, even when this terminal is grounded.
Vi + \'z + ~·
Positive and Negative Voltages to a Grounded
Practice Problems 5-8
(answers on page 112)
Tap. In Fig. 5-12c point B in the divider is
Refer to Fig. 5-12c and give the voltage
grounded. The purpose is to have the divider
with polarity for
supply negative and positive voltages with re-
(a) A to ground.
spect to chassis ground. The negative voltage
(b) B to ground.
here is ~B' which equals -10 V. This value is
( c) D to ground.
the same 10 V of \.'i, but ~B is the voltage at the
negative end A with respect to the positive end ( d) VnA across VT.
B. The other voltages in the divider are
5-9
VcB = +10 V and VnB = +20 V.
OPENS AND SHORTS IN
We can consider the ground at B as a
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS
dividing point for positive and negative voltages.
A short circuit has practically zero resistance. Its
For all points toward the positive side of VT, any
effect, therefore, is to allow excessive current.
voltage is positive to ground. Going the other
An open circuit has the opposite effect because
way, at all points toward the negative side of VT,
an open circuit has infinitely high resistance
any voltage is negative to ground.
with practically zero current. Furthermore, in
Negative Voltages to Positive Ground. In series-parallel circuits an open or short circuit in
Fig. 5-12 d, point D at the top of the divider is one path changes the circuit for the other re-

R 1 =10.Q A R 3 = 80 .n R 1 =10.Q
A

Short
VT= 100 V
circuit
S1 closed
....__ _ _ _ _ B

(a) (b)
FIGURE 5-13
Effect of a short circuit with series-parallel con-
nections. (a) Normal circuit with S1 open.
(b) Circuit with short between A and B when S 1
is closed. R2 and R3 are short-circuited.
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 105

R 3 = 80 .n

100 v Ven= 89 V
+

(a) (b)
FIGURE 5-14
Effect of an open in a series-parallel circuit.
(a) Normal circuit with S 2 closed. (b) Series
circuit with R1 and R2 when S 2 is open. R3 in
the open path has no current and zero IR
voltage drop.

sistances. For example, in Fig. 5-13, the se- with R2 is also short-circuited. The closed switch
ries-parallel circuit in (a) becomes a series cir- short-circuits everything connected between
cuit with only RI when there is a short circuit terminals A and B. The result is the series cir-
between terminals A and B. As an example of cuit shown in Fig. 5-13b.
an open circuit, the series-parallel circuit in Now the 10-Q RI is the only opposition to
Fig. 5- l 4a becomes a series circuit with just RI current. I equals VI RI' which is 100/io = 10 A.
and R2 when there is an open circuit between This 10 A flows through RI, the closed switch,
terminals C and D. and the source. With 10 A through RI, instead
of its normal 2 A, the excessive current can
Effect of a Short Circuit. We can solve the cause excessive heat in RI. There is no current
series-parallel circuit in Fig. 5-13a in order to through R2 and R3 , as they are short-circuited.
see the effect of the short circuit. For the normal out of the path for current.
circuit, with SI open, R2 and R3 are in parallel.
Although R3 is drawn horizontally, both ends Effect of an Open Circuit. Figure 5-l 4a shows
are across R2 • The switch SI has no effect as a the same series-parallel circuit as Fig. 5-.13a,
parallel branch here because it is open. except that switch 5 2 is used now to connect R3
The combined resistance of the 80-Q R2 in in parallel with R2 . With 5 2 closed for normal
parallel with the 80-Q R3 is equivalent to 40 Q. operation, all currents and voltages have the
This 40 Q for the bank resistance is in series values calculated for the series-parallel circuit.
with the 10-Q RI. Then RT is 40 + 10 = 50 n. However, let us consider the effect of opening
In the main line IT is 10%0 = 2 A. Then \1i 5 2 , as shown in Fig. 5-140. An open switch has
across the 10-Q RI in the main line is infinitely high resistahte':· Now there is an open
2 X 10 = 20 V The remaining 80 V is across between terminals C and D. Furthermore, be-
R2 and R3 as a parallel bank. As a result, cause R3 is in the operi;path its 80 Q cannot be
\'2 = 80 V and \'3 = 80 V considered in parallel with R2 ~ ·
Now consider the effect of closing switch The circuit with 5 2 open in Fig. 5-14b is
SI. A closed switch has zero resistance. Not really the same as having just RI and R2 in
only is R2 short-circuited, but R3 in the bank series with the 100-V source. The open path
 Cha ter 5
106 Series-Parallel Circuits

with R3 has no effect as a parallel branch. The terminals C and D is the same 89 V as the
reason is that no current flows through R3 . potential difference Vz across R2 . Since there is
We can consider R1 and R2 in series as no voltage drop across R3 , terminal C has the
a voltage divider, where each IR drop is pro- same potential as the top terminal of R2 . Termi-
portional to its resistance. The total series nal Dis directly connected to the bottom end of
R is 80 + 10 = 90 Q. The 10-Q R1 is 1%0 R2 . Therefore, the potential difference from C
or % of the total R and the applied VT. to D is the 89 V across R2 .
Then Vi is % X 100 V = 11 V and Vz is
% X 100 V = 89 V, approximately. The 11-V Practice Problems 5-9
drop for \1i and 89-V drop for Vz add to equal (answers on page 112)
the 100 V of the applied voltage. (a) In Fig. 5-13, the short circuit increases IT
Note that Vj is zero. Without any current from 2 A to what value?
through R3 , it cannot have any voltage drop. (b) In Fig. 5-14, the open branch reduces IT
Furthermore, the voltage across the open from 2 A to what value?

Summary
1. Table 5-1 summarizes the main characteristics of series and parallel
circuits. In circuits combining series and parallel connections, the
components in one current path without any branch points are in
series; the parts of the circuit connected across the same two branch
points are in parallel.
2. To calculate RT in a series-parallel circuit with R in the main line,
combine resistances from the outside back toward the source.
3. Chassis ground is commonly used as a return connection to one side
of the source voltage. Voltages measured to chassis ground can have
either negative or positive polarity.
4. When the potential is the same at the two ends of a resistance, its
voltage is zero. Or if no current flows through a resistance, it cannot
have any IR voltage drop.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. In the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 5-1 b: (a) R1 is in series with R 3 ;

(b) R2 is in series with R3 ; (c) R4 is in parallel with R3 ; (d) R1 is in
parallel with R3 .
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 107

TABLE 5-1. Comparison of Series and

Parallel Circuits
SERIES CIRCUIT PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Current the same in Voltage the same

all components across all branches
V across each series I in each branch R
R is Ix R is V!R
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 IT = Il + I2 + I3
+ . · · +etc. + · .. + etc.
RT = R1 + Rz + R3 GT = G1 + G2 + G3
+ ... + etc. + · · · + etc.
RT must 1 be more than RT must be less than
the largest the smallest
individual R branch R
p T = pl + P2 + P3 PT = pl + P2 + P3
+ ... + etc. + ... + etc.
Applied voltage is Main -line current is
divided into divided into branch
IR voltage drops currents
The largest IR drop The largest branch I
is across the is in the smallest
largest series R parallel R
Open in one component Open in one branch
causes entire circuit does not prevent I
to be open in other branches

2. In the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 5-2b: (a) R1 is in parallel with R3 ;

(b) R2 is in parallel with R4 ; (c) R1 is in series with R2 ; (d) R2 is in
series with R4 .
3. In the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 5-5, the total of all the branch
currents into branch point A and out of branch point B equals
(a) 1lz A; (b) 1 A; (c) 2 A; (d) 4 A.
4. In the circuit in Fig. 5-2 with four 120-V 100-W light bulbs, the
resistance of one bulb equals (a) 72 Q; (b) 100 Q; (c) 144 Q;
(d) 120 n.
5. In the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 5-4a: (a) R2 is in series with R3 ;
(b) R1 is in series with R3 ; (c) the equivalent resistance of the R2 R3
bank is in parallel with R1 ; ( d) the equivalent resistance of the R2 R3
bank is in series with R1 .
6. In a series circuit with unequal resistances: (a) the lowest R has the
highest V; (b) the highest R has the highest V; (c) the lowest R has the
most I; (d) the highest R has the most I.
 Chapter 5
108 Series-Parallel Circuits

7. In a parallel bank with unequal branch resistances: (a) the current is

highest in the highest R; (b) the current is equal in all the branches;
(c) the voltage is highest across the lowest R; (d) the current is highest
in the lowest R.
8. In Fig. 5-14, with S2 open, RT equals (a) 90 Q; (b) 100 Q; (c) 50 Q;
(d) 10 Q.
9. In Fig. 5-12c, VDA equals (a) +10 V; (b) -20 V; (c) -30 V;
(d) +30 v.
10. In the Wheatstone bridge of Fig. 5-10, at balance: (a) IA = O;
(b) IB = O; (c) Vz = O; (d) ~B = 0.

Essay Questions
1. In a series-parallel circuit, how can you tell which resistances are in
series with each other and which are in parallel?
2. Draw a schematic diagram showing two resistances in a bank that is
in series with one resistance.
3. Draw a diagram showing how to connect three resistances of equal
value so that the combined resistance will be 11;~ times the resistance
of one unit.
4. Draw a diagram showing two strings in parallel across a voltage
source, where each string has three series resistances.
5. Explain why components are connected in series-parallel, showing a
circuit as an example of your explanation.
6. Give two differences between a short circuit and an open circuit.
7. Explain the difference between voltage division and current division.
8. Show an example where a voltage is negative with respect to chassis
ground.
9. Draw a circuit with nine 40-V 100-W bulbs connected to a 120-V
source.
10. (a) Two iO-Q resistors are in series with a 100-V source. If a third
10-Q R is added in series, explain why I will decrease. (b) The same
two 10-Q resistors are in parallel with the 100-V source. If a third
10-Q R is added in parallel, explain why IT will increase.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back

of book.)

1. Refer to Fig. 5-1. (a) Calculate the total resistance of the circuit if all
resistances are 10 Q. (b) How much is the main-line current if VT
equals 100 V?
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 109

R2
an
B c
R3
2on Rl R3
an an

R4 A D
2on
R4
an
FIGURE 5-15 FIGURE 5-16
For Prob. 3. For Prob. 5.

2. In Fig. 5-2, calculate the total power supplied by the source for the
four 100-W bulbs.
3. Refer to the diagram in Fig. 5-15. (a) Why is RI in series with R3 but
not with R2 ? (b) Find the total circuit resistance across the battery.
4. Two 60-Q resistances RI and R2 in parallel require 60 V across the
bank with 1 A through each branch. Show how to connect a series
resistance R3 in the main line to drop an applied voltage of 100 V to
60 Vacross the bank. (a) How much is the required voltage across
R 3 ? (b) How much is the required current through R3 ? (c) How much
is the required resistance of R3 ? (d) If R 3 opens, how much is the
voltage across RI and R2 ? (e) If RI opens, what are the voltages
across R2 and R3 ?
5. Refer to the diagram in Fig. 5-16. (a) Cakulate R across points AD.
(b) How much is R across points AD with R4 open?
6. Show how to connect four 100-Q resistances in a series-parallel
circuit with a combined resistance equal to 100 Q. (a) If the combi-
nation is connected across a 100-V source, how much power is
supplied by the source? (b) How much power is dissipated in each
resistance?
7. The following four resistors are in series with a 32-V source: RI is
24 Q, R2 is 8 Q, R3 is 72 Q, and R4 is 240 Q. (a) Find the voltage drop
across each resistor. (b) Calculate the power dissipated in each
resistor. (c) Which resistor has the most voltage drop? (d) Which
resistor dissipates the most power?
8. The same four resistors are in parallel with the 32-V source. (a) Find
the branch current in each resistor. (b) Calculate the power dissi-
pated in each resistor. (c) Which resistor has the most branch
current? (d) Which resistor dissipates the most power?
9. Find RI and R2 for a voltage divider that takes 10 mA from a 200-V
source, with 50 V across R2 .
 Chapter 5
110 Series-Parallel Circuits

R 2 =700n
R1
Rx 1 kn

= 11 v
Rs R2
= 300V R1
15 kn
R3
4kn
R4
1 kn
42n 10 kn

FIGURE 5-17 FIGURE 5-18

For Prob. 11. For Prob. 12.

10. Refer to Fig. 8-2 in Chap. 8. Show the calculations for RT, IT, and
each of the individual voltages and currents.
11. In the Wheatstone-bridge circuit of Fig. 5-17, find each voltage, label
polarity, and calculate Rx. The bridge is balanced.
12. In Fig. 5-18, find each Vand I for the four resistors.
13. In Fig. 5-19, calculate RT.
14. In Fig. 5-20, find \{,.
15. Refer to Fig. 5-21. (a) Calculate Vz. (b) Find Vz when R3 is open.
16. In Fig. 5-22, find I and V for the five resistors and calculate VT.
17. Refer to Fig. 5-23. (a) Find \'1_, Vz, \'3, I1 , I2 , I3 , and IT in the circuit as
shown. (b) Now connect point G to ground. Give the voltages, with
polarity, at terminals A, B, and Cwith respect to ground. In addition,
give the values of I1 , I2 , I3 , and IT with point G grounded.
18. In Fig. 5-24, give the voltages at points A, B, and C with polarity to
ground when (a) point A is grounded; (b) point B is grounded;
(c) point C is grounded.

12 v
------11111--
R,
5n

FIGURE 5-19 FIGURE 5-20

For Prob. 13. For Prob. 14.
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 111

R 1 =2kn

45V

FIGURE 5-21 FIGURE 5-22

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-

For Prob. 15. For Prob. 16.

R 1 = 6.8 kn

R 2 = 6.8 kn

A B 48 v B

R, R 3 = 6.8 kn
20kn
+ G
-=- 80 v A

R 4 = 6.8 kn

c
FIGURE 5-23 FIGURE 5-24
For Prob. 1 7. For Prob. 18.
 Cha ter 5
112 Series- Parallel Circuits

Answers to Practice Problems

5-1 {a) R = 1 kn 5-5 (c) /2 =4 A
{b) R = a.5 kn (d) \'3 = 6a v
(c) Rr = 1.5 kn 5-6 (a) Two
5-2 (a) I= 6 A (b) av
(b) ~ = 72 v 5-7 (a) +12 V
5-3 (a) \'3 = 4a V (b) -12 v
{b) I= 8 A 5-8 (a) -10 V
5-4 (a) R1 (b) av
(b) R4 (c) +2a v
(c) R6 (d) +3a v
5-5 {a) R3 5-9 (a) I= 10 A
{b) R1 (b) I= 1.1 A
 Review of
Chapters
1tos
Summary
1. The electron is the basic quantity of negative electricity; the proton is
the basic quantity of positive electricity. Both have the same charge
but opposite polarities.
2. A quantity of electrons is a negative charge; a deficiency of electrons
is a positive charge. Like charges repel each other; unlike charges
attract. ·
3. Charge is measured in coulombs; 6.25 X 10 18 electrons equals one
coulomb. Charge in motion is current. One coulomb per second
equals one ampere of current.
4. Potential difference is measured in volts. One volt produces one
ampere of current against the opposition of one ohm of resistance.
=
5. The three forms of Ohm's law are I = VI R, V IR, and R VI I. =
6. Power in watts equals VI, I 2 R, or V2 IR, with V, I, and R in volts,
amperes, and ohms, respectively.
7. The most common multiples and submultiples of the practical units
are mega or M for 106 , micro or µ. for 1o- 6 , kilo or k for 103 , and m illi
or m for 10-3 .
8. For series resistances: (a) the current is the same in all resistances;
(h) the IR drops can be different with unequal resistances; (c) the
applied voltage equals the sum of the series IR drops; (d) the total
resistance equals the sur;fi of the individual resistances; (e) an open
circuit in one resistance results in no current through the entire series
circuit.
9. For parallel resistances: (a) the voltage is the same across all resist-
ances; (h) the branch currents can be different with unequal resist-
ances; (c) the total line current equals the sum of the parallel branch
currents; (d) the combined resistance of parallel branches is less than
the smallest resistance, as determined by the reciprocal Formula
(4-3); (e) an open circuit in one branch does not open the other
114 Review of Chapters 1 to 5

branches; (f) a short circuit across one branch short-circuits all the
branches.
10. In series-parallel circuits, the resistances in one current path without
any branch points are in series; all the rules of series resistances
apply. The resistances across the same two branch points are in
parallel; all the rules of parallel resistances apply.

Review Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. In which of the following circuits will the voltage source produce the
most current? (a) 10 Vacross a 10-Q resistance; (b) 10 Vacross two
10-Q resistances in series; (c) 10 V across two 10-Q resistances in
parallel; (d) 1000 V across a 1-MQ resistance.
2. Three 120-VlOO-Wbulbs are in parallel across the 120-Vpower line.
If one bulb burns open: (a) the other two bulbs cannot light; (b) all
three bulbs light; (c) the other two bulbs can light; (d) there is
excessive current in the main line.
3. A circuit allows 1 mA of current to flow with 1 V applied. The
conductance of the circuit equals (a) 0.002 Q; (b) 0.005 µS;
(c) 1000 µS; (d) 1 S.
4. If 2 A of current is allowed to accumulate charge for 5 s, the resultant
charge equals (a) 2 C; (b) 10 C; (c) 5 A; (d) 10 A
5. A potential difference applied across a 1-MQ resistor produces 1 mA
of current. The applied voltage equals (a) 1 µV; (b) 1 mV; (c) 1 kV;
(d) 1,000,000 v.
6. A string of two 1000-Q resistances is in series with a parallel bank of
two 1000-Q resistances. The total resistance of the series-parallel
circuit equals (a) 250 Q; (b) 2500 Q; (c) 3000 Q; (d) 4000 Q.
7. In the circuit of question 6, one of the resistances in the series string
opens. Then the current in the parallel bank (a) increases slightly in
both branches; (b) equals zero in one branch but is maximum in the
other branch; (c) is maximum in both branches; (d) equals zero in
both branches.
8. With 100 V applied across a 10,000-Q resistance, the power dissi-
pation equals (a) 1 mW; (b) 1 W; (c) 100 W; (d) 1 kW.
9. Ten volts is applied across R1 , R2 , and R3 in series, producing 1 A in
the series circuit. R1 equals 6 Q and R2 equals 2 Q. Therefore, R3
equals (a) 2 Q; (b) 4 Q; (c) 10 Q; (d) 12 Q.
 Review of Chapters 1 to 5 115

10. A 5-V source and 3-V source are connected with series-opposing
polarities. The combined voltage across both sources equals (a) 5 V;
(b) 3 V; (c) 2 V; (d) 8 V.
11. In a circuit with three parallel branches, if one branch opens, the
main-line current will be (a) more; (b) less; (c) the same; (d) infinite.
12. A 10-Q R1 and a 20-Q R2 are in series with a 30-V source. If R1
opens, the voltage drop across R2 will be (a) zero; (b) 20 V; (c) 30 V;
(d) infinite.
13. Vi of 40 Vis connected series-opposing with Vz of 50 V. The total
voltage across both components is: (a) 10 V; (b) 40 V; (c) 50 V;
(d) 90 v.
14. Two series voltage drops Vi and Vz total 100 V for VT. When Vi is
60 V, then Vz must equal: (a) 40 V; (b) 60 V; (c) 100 V; (d) 160 V.
15. Two parallel branch currents I 1 and I2 total 100 mA for IT. When I 1 is
60 mA, then I2 must equal: (a) 40 mA; (b) 60 mA; (c) 100 mA;
(d) 160 mA.

References (Additional references at back of book.)

Cooke, N. M., and H.F. R. Adams: "Basic Mathematics for Electronics,"

4th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
De France, J. J.: "Electrical Fundamentals," Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J.
Grob, B.: "Mathematics Outline and Review Problems for Basic Elec-
tronics," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Mittelstadt, W. S.: "Basic Slide Rule Operation," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
Oppenheimer, S. L., and J. P. Borchers: "Direct and Alternating Cur-
rents," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
"Periodic Chart of the Atoms," Sargent Welch Scientific Co., Skokie, Ill.
60076.
Slater, A L.: "The Slide Rule," Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New
York.
Timbie, W. H.: "Basic Electricity for Communications," John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York.

Laboratory Manuals

Tinnell, R. W.: "Experiments in Electricity," McGraw-Hill Book Company,

New York.
Zbar, P. B.: "Basic Electricity," 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York.
 Vol-.e
Dividers
and
CUrrent
Dividers
Any series circuit is a voltage divider. The IR voltage drops are propor-
tional parts of the applied voltage. Also, any parallel circuit is a current
divider. Each branch current is part of the total line current, but in inverse
proportion to the branch resistance. Special formulas can be used for the
voltage and current division as short cuts in the calculations. The voltage
division formula gives the series voltages even when the current is not
known. Also, the current division formula gives the branch currents even
when the branch voltage is not known. Finally, we consider a series
voltage divider with parallel branches that have load currents. The design
of such a loaded voltage divider can be applied to the important case of
tapped voltages from the power supply in electronic equipment. The
topics here are

6-1 Series Voltage Dividers

6-2 Current Divider with Two Parallel Resistances
6-3 Current Division by Parallel Conductances
64 Series Voltage Divider with Parallel Load Current
6-5 Design of a Loaded Voltage Divider

6-1 voltage than a smaller resistance in the same

SERIES VOLTAGE DIVIDERS series circuit; equal resistances have the same
The current is the same in all the resistances in amount of IR drop. If R1 is double R2 , then Vi
a series circuit. Also, the voltage drops equal will be double \'2.
the product of I times R. Therefore, the IR The series string can be considered as a
voltages are proportional to the series resist- voltage divider. Each resistance provides an IR
ances. A higher resistance has a greater IR drop V equal to its proportional part of the
 Chapter 6
Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers 117

applied voltage. Stated as a formula, ,... +

I/= 2 mA
I R,
so kn v, = 100 v
(6-1)

Example 1. Three 50-kQ resistors R1 , R2 , and R3

are in series across an applied voltage of 180 V. How VT= 200 V
much is the IR voltage drop across each resistor? +

Answer. 60 V. Since R1 , R2 , and R3 are equal,

each has one-third the total resistance of the circuit
and one-third the total applied voltage. Using the
formula,
FIGURE 6-1
R 50 kQ
v = RT x VT = 150 kQ x 180 v Series string as proportional voltage divider.
Each VR is RI RT of Vr-
=ix 180 v

V= 60V With two series voltages it is not necessary

to calculate both. After you find one, subtract
Note that R and RT must be in the same from VT to find the other.
units for the proportion. Then Vis in the same The fact that series voltage drops are pro-
units as VT. portional to the resistances means that a very
The circuit in Fig. 6-1 illustrates another small R has a negligible IR drop in series with a
example of a proportional voltage divider. Let much larger R. An example is shown in Fig.
the problem be to find the voltage across R 3 . We 6-2. Here the 1 kn of RI is in series with the
can either calculate this voltage as IR3 or deter- 999 kn of R2 , with a VT of 1000 V.
mine its proportional part of VT. We arrive at the By the voltage divider formula, VI
same answer both ways. is Ifiooo X 1000 V = 1 V. Also, Vz is 99/i 000
In the proportional method, \,j is 20/i 00 of x 1000 V = 999 V. This value is practically
the applied voltage because R3 is 20 kn and RT the entire applied voltage.
is 100 kn. Therefore, \,j is 2 o/i 00 X 200, or Furthermore, the current 1 mA through
1/s X 200, which is equal to 40 V. RI and R2 is determined almost entirely by
In the same way, Vz can be calculated as the 999 kn of R2 . This I for RT is 1000 VI
3
o/i 00 X 200, or o/io X 200 = 60 V. Also, \.1i is 1000 kn = 1 mA. The 999-kn R2 alone
50
fi 00 , or % X 200 = 100 V. The sum of \.1i, Vz, would allow 1.001 mA for the current.
and \,j is 40 + 60 + 100 = 200 V to equal VT. The advantage of using the divider formula
If we want to solve for the current in is that we can find the proportional voltage
Fig. 6-1, /is VT/RT, or 200 V/100 kn= 2 mA. drops from VT and the series resistances without
The IR drop \,j then is 2 mA x 20 kn = 40 V. knowing /. For odd values of R, calculating I
Also, Vz is 2 mA X 30 kn = 60 V and \.1i is sometimes takes more time than finding the
2 mA X 50 kn = 100 V. These are the same voltages. In many cases we can see the voltage
values calculated by Formula (6-1) for propor- division approximately without any written cal-
tional voltage dividers. culations.
 Chapter 6
118 Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers

proportional to the branch resistance. The de-

nominator is the same in both formulas, equal
to the sum of the two branch resistances.
To calculate the currents in Fig. 6-3, with a
VT= 1000 V 30-A IT, a 2-n R1 , and a 4-n R2 ,

4
I 1 = --x30
2+4
4
-- 6 x3o-1x30
FIGURE 6-2 - 3
Very small R1 in series with large R2 . \.'i is very I1 = 20 A
small compared with \'2.
For the other branch,
Practice Problems 6-1
(answers on page 125) 12 = --x30
2
Refer to Fig. 6-1. 2 +4
How much is RT?
~ ~x
(a)
(b) What fraction of the applied voltage is \.j? = x 30 = 30
I2 = 10 A
6-2
CURRENT DIVIDER WITH TWO With all the resistances in the same units,
PARALLEL RESISTANCES the branch currents are in the units of IT. For
It is often necessary to find the individual instance, kilohms of Rand milliamperes of I can
branch currents in a bank from the resistances be used.
and IT, but without knowing the voltage across
the bank. This problem can be solved by using
the fact that currents divide inversely as the
branch resistances. An example is shown in
Fig. 6-3. The formulas for the two branch cur-
rents are

(6-2)

or

FIGURE 6-3
Notice that the formula for each branch I Current division with two branch resistances.
has the opposite R in the numerator. The rea- Each I is inversely proportional to R. The
son is that each branch current is inversely smaller R has more I.
 Cha ter 6
Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers 119

current of 1000 mA because R1 is so small

+Ir= 1000 mA
I
compared with R2 .
The current divider Formula (6-2) can be
l /1 = 999 mA I used for only two branch resistances. The rea-
+ / = 1 mA+
2
son is the inverse relation between each branch
I and its R. In comparison, the voltage divider
Formula (6-1) can be used for any number of
series resistances because of the direct propor-
tion between each voltage drop V and its R.
For more branches, it is possible to com-
bine the branches in order to work with only two
divided currents at a time. However, a better
FIGURE 6-4 method is to use parallel conductances, be-
Very large R2 in parallel with R1 . 12 is very small cause I and Gare directly proportional, as ex-
compared with 11 . plained in the next section.

Practice Problems 6-2

Actually, it is not necessary to calculate (answers on page 125)
both currents. After one I is calculated, the Refer to Fig. 6-3.
other can be found by subtracting from IT. (a) What is the ratio of R2 to R1 ?
Notice that the division of branch currents (b) What is the ratio of 12 to 11 ?
in a parallel bank is opposite from the voltage
division of resistance in a series string. With 6-3
series resistances, a higher resistance develops CURRENT DIVISION BY
a larger IR voltage proportional to its R; with PARALLEL CONDUCTANCES
parallel branches, a lower resistance takes more Remember that the conductance G is 1 IR.
branch current equal to VI R. Therefore, conductance and current are di-
In Fig. 6-3, the 20-A /1 is double the 10-A rectly proportional. More conductance allows
12 because the 2-Q R1 is one-half the 4-Q R2 . more current, for the same V. With any number
This is an inverse proportion of I to R. of parallel branches, each branch current is
The inverse relation between I and R in a
parallel bank means that a very large R has little
effect with a much smaller R in parallel. As an (6-3)
example, Fig. 6-4 shows a 999-kQ R2 in parallel
with a 1-kQ R1 dividing the IT of 1000 mA. The
branch currents are calculated as follows: where G is the conductance of one branch and
GT is the sum of all the parallel conductances.
999 The unit for G is the siemens (S) or mho.
/1 = lOOO X 1000 mA = 999 mA
Note that Formula (6-3), for dividing
1 branch currents in proportion to G, has the
12 = 1
OOO X 1000 mA = 1 mA same form as Formula (6-1 ), for dividing series
voltages in proportion to R. The reason is that
The 999 mA for /1 is almost the entire line both formulas specify a direct proportion.
 Chapter 6
120 Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers

As an example of using Formula (6-3 ), Gi

we can go back to Fig. 6-3 and find the Il = G x IT
T
branch currents with G instead of R. For the
2-Q R1 , the G is %= 0.5 S, or 0.5 mho. The = ~:~ x 40 mA
4-Q R2 has G of % = 0.25 S. Then GT is
0.5 + 0.25 = 0.75 S. The IR is 30 mA. For I1 = 5 mA
the branch currents
In the same way, I2 is calculated as
% X 40 = 25 mA and I3 is % X 40 = 10 mA.
The sum is 5 + 25 + 10 = 40 mA for IT.
Gi Although three branches are shown here,
Il = G x IT Formula (6-3) can be used for any number of
T

0.50 2 parallel conductances because of the direct

= 0. X 30mA =
75 3 X 30 mA proportion between I and G.
I1 = 20 mA
Practice Problems 6-3
(answers on page 125)
This 20 mA is the same I1 calculated before. Refer to Fig. 6-3.
Also, I2 is 30 - 20 = 10 mA. (a) What is the ratio of G3 to G1 ?
A circuit with three branches is shown in (b) What is the ratio of I3 to I1 ?
Fig. 6-5. Here R1 is10 Q and G1 = 1/i 0 or 0.1 S.
Also, G2 is % = 0.5 S and G3 is 1/s = 0.2 S.
Then GT is 0.1 + 0.5 + 0.2 = 0.8 S. The IT is 6-4
40 mA. To find the I 1 branch current SERIES VOLTAGE DIVIDER
WITH PARALLEL LOAD CURRENT
The voltage dividers shown so far illustrate just
a series string without any branch currents.
Actually, though, a voltage divider is often used
to tap off part of the applied voltage VT for a
+Ir= 40 mA
I

load that needs less voltage than VT. Then the

t
I
I 3 = 25 mA +
I
I 3 = 10 mA
added load is a parallel branch across part of
the divider. Figure 6-6 shows how the loaded
R, = 10 n R2 = 2 n R3 =5 n voltage at the tap is reduced from its potential
G 1 =0.1S G2 =0.5S G3 =0.2S without the branch current.

Why the Loaded Voltage Decreases. We can

start with (a) in Fig. 6-6, which shows an R1 R 2
voltage divider alone. R1 and R 2 simply form a
FIGURE 6-5 proportional series divider across the 60-V
Current divider with three branch conduct- source V. R1 is 40 kQ and R2 is 20 ks-2, making
ances G 1 , G2 , and G3 . The S unit is the siemens RT 60 kQ. I is 60 V/60 kQ = 1 mA.
(formerly called the mho). Each branch I is Then \'i across R1 is 4%0 X 60 V = 40 V.
directly proportional to the branch G. Also, \'z is 2%0 X 60 V = 20 V. Note that
 Chapter 6
Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers 121

------E ------E
~dkn } 48 v

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 6-6
Effect of a parallel load on part of a series
voltage divider. (a) R1 and R2 in series without
any branch current. (b) Reduced voltage across
R2 with the parallel RL. ( c) Equivalent circuit of
the loaded voltage divider.

\.1i + Vz is 40 + 20 = 60 V, which is the total returns through R1 in the divider to the positive
applied voltage. side of VT. This current IL goes through R 1 but
However, in (b) the 20-kQ branch of RL not R2 .
changes the equivalent resistance at tap F to
ground. This change in the proportions of R Bleeder Current. In addition, both R1 and R2
changes the voltage division. Now the resist- have their own current from the source. This
ance from F to G is 10 kQ, equal to the 20-kQ current through all the resistances in the divider
R2 and RL in parallel. This equivalent bank is bleeder current IB. The electron flow for IB is
resistance is shown as the 10-kQ RE in (c). from the negative side of VT, through R2 and R1 ,
R 1 is still the same 40 kQ because it has no and back to the positive side of VT.
parallel branch. The new RT for the divider in The bleeder current is a steady drain on
(c) is 40 kQ + 10 kQ = 50 kQ. As a result, VE the source. However, IB has the advantage of
from Fto G is now 1%0 x 60 V = 12 V. There- reducing variations in the total current in the
fore, the voltage across R2 and RL in parallel is voltage source for different values of load cur-
reduced to 12 V. This is the voltage at the tap F rent.
for RL. In summary, then, for the three resistances
Note that \.1i across R1 increases to 48 V in in Fig. 6-6, (a) RL has just its load current IL;
(c). Now \.1i is 4 °/s 0 X 60 V = 48 V. The sum of (b) R2 has only the bleeder current IB; (c) R1 has
\.1i + Vz is 12 + 48 = 60 V, still equal to the both IL and IB.
applied voltage.
Practice Problems 6-4
Path of Current for RL. All the current in the (answers on page 125)
circuit must come from the source VT. Trace the Refer to Fig. 6-6.
electron flow for RL. It starts from the negative (a) What is the proportion of R2 ! RT in (a)?
side of VT, through Rv to the tap at F, and (b) What is the proportion of R/ RT in (c)?
 Chapter 6
122 Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers

6-5 ground. When the 18 Vis supplied by this part

DESIGN OF A LOADED of the divider, a 36-mA branch current will flow
VOLTAGE DIVIDER through the load. Similarly, 40 Vis needed at
These principles can be applied to the design of tap E for 54 mA of IE in load E. Also, 100 V
a practical voltage divider, as shown in Fig. 6-7. is available at D with a load current In of 180
This type of circuit is used for the output of a mA. The total load current here is 36 +
power supply in electronic equipment to supply 54 + 180 = 270 mA.
different voltages at the taps, with different load In addition, the bleeder current IB through
currents. For instance, load D can represent the the entire divider is generally specified at about
collector-emitter circuit for one or more power 10 percent of the load current. For the example
transistors that need + 100 V for the collector here, IB is taken as 30 mA to make a total line
supply. Also, the tap at E can be the 40-V col- current Ir of 270 + 30 = 300 mA from the
lector supply for medium power transistors. source. Remember that the 30-mA IB flows
Finally, the 20-V tap at F can be for base-emitter through RI, R2 , and R3 .
bias current in the power transistors and collec- The design problem in Fig. 6-7 is to find
tor voltage for smaller transistors. the values of RI, R2 , and R3 needed to provide
Note the load specifications in Fig. 6-7. the specified voltages. Each R is calculated as its
Load F needs 18 V from point F to chassis ratio of VI I. However, the question is what are

D 100 V, 180 mA for load D

,,-----
'I~
,---
,.--
~

I,--
+++
I
I
I
I
I
I
Load
D
13 =/B +Ip +IE= 120 mA

40 V, 54 mA for load E

Vr=100V
I= 300 mA 12 = IB +Ip= 66 mA
++
II
Load
E

18 V, 36 mA for load F

/ 1 =/B = 30 mA+
I I I : IT = 300 mA I R,

'''\.:::'i
I \ ' ...
G
__
., IE =54mA+
Ip =36mA+ __,
In=
__,
180 mA+

FIGURE 6-7
Voltage divider for different voltages and load
currents from the source VT. See text for design
calculations to find R1 , R2 , and R3 .
 Chapter 6
Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers 123

the correct values of Vand I to use for each part Calculate the Voltage Across Each R. The
of the divider. voltages at the taps in Fig. 6-7 give the potential
to chassis ground. However, we need the volt-
age across the two ends of each R. For R1 , the
And the Current in Each R. We start with R1
voltage \'1 is the indicated 18 V to ground be-
because its current is only the 30-mA bleeder
cause one end of R1 is grounded. However,
current IB. No load current flows through R1 .
across R 2 the voltage is the difference between
Therefore 11 through R1 equals 30 mA.
the 40-V potential at point E and the 18 Vat F.
The 36-mA current IF for load F returns to
the source through R2 and R3 . Considering just Therefore Vz is 40 - 18 = 22 V. Similarly, \tj is
calculated as 100 Vat point Dminus the 40 Vat
R 2 now, its current is the IF load current and the
E, or, \'3 is 100 - 40 = 60 V. These values for
30-mA bleeder current IB. Therefore, 12 through
R 2 is 36 + 30 = 66 mA.
\'1, Vz, and \'3 are summarized in Table 6-1.
The 54-mA current IE for load E returns to
Calculating Each R. Now we can calculate
the source through R 3 alone. However, R 3 also
the resistance of R1 , R2 , and R3 as each VI I
has the 36-mA IE and the 30-mA IB. Therefore
ratio. For the values listed in Table 6-1,
13 through R3 is 54 + 36 + 30 = 120 mA. The
values for 11 , 12 , and 13 are summarized in R _ \'1 _ 18 V
Table 6-1. 1 - I; - 30 mA = 0.6 kn = 600 n
Note that the load current In for load D at
R = Vz _ 22 V _ _
the top of the diagram does not flow through R 3 z -
66
mA - 0.333 kn - 333 n
or any of the resistors in the divider. However, 12
the In of 180 mA is the main load current R _ \'3 _ 60 V _
through the source of applied voltage. The 3 -
13
-
120
mA - 0.5 kn = 500 n
120 mA of bleeder and load currents plus the
When these values are used for R 1• R2• and R3
180-mA In load add to equal 300 mA for IT in
and connected in a voltage divider across the
the main line of the power supply.
source of 100 V, as in Fig. 6-7, each load will
have the specified voltage at its rated current.
TABLE 6-1. Design Values for Voltage
Divider in Fig. 6-7 Practice Problems 6-5
(answers on page 125)
CURRENT, VOLTAGE, RESISTANCE,
mA v Q Refer to Fig. 6- 7.
(a) How much is the bleeder current JB
RI 30 18 600 through R1 , R 2 , and R 3 ?
R2 66 22 333 (b) How much is the voltage for load Eat tap E
to ground?
R3 120 60 500 (c) How much is Vz across R2 ?

Summary
1. In a series circuit VT is divided into IR voltage drops proportional to
the resistances. Each VR = (RI RT) x VT, for any number of series
resistances. The largest series R has the largest voltage drop.
 Chapter 6
124 Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers

2. In a parallel circuit, IT is divided into branch currents. Each I is

inversely proportional to the branch R. The inverse division of branch
currents is given by Formula (6-2), for two resistances only. The
smaller branch R has the larger branch current.
3. For any number of parallel branches, IT is divided into branch
currents directly proportional to each conductance G. Each
I= (G!GT) x IT.
4. A series voltage divider is often tapped for a parallel load, as in
Fig. 6-6. Then the voltage at the tap is reduced because of the load
current.
5. The design of a loaded voltage divider, as in Fig. 6-7, involves
calculating each R. Find the I and potential difference V for each R.
Then R = VII.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.

1. In a series voltage divider, each IR voltage is proportional to its R.

2. With parallel branches, each branch I is inversely proportional to
its R.
3. With parallel branches, each branch I is directly proportional to its G.
4. Formula (6-2) for parallel current dividers can be used for three or
more resistances.
5. Formula (6-3) for parallel current dividers can be used for five or
more branch conductances.
6. In the series voltage divider of Fig. 6-1, \'i is 2.5 times \'3 because R1
is 2.5 times R3 .
7. In the parallel current divider of Fig. 6-3, I 1 is double I2 because R1 is
one-half R 2 •
8. In the parallel current divider of Fig. 6-5, I3 is five times I 1 because G3
is five times G1 .
9. In Fig. 6-6b, the branch current IL flows through Rv R2 , and R1 .
10. In Fig. 6-7, the bleeder current I3 flows through R1 , R2 , and R3 .

Essay Questions
1. Define a series voltage divider.
2. Define a parallel current divider.
3. Give two differences between a series voltage divider and a parallel
current divider.
 Chapter 6
Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers 125

4. Give three differences between Formula (6-2) for branch resistances

and Formula (6-3) for branch conductances.
5. Define bleeder current.
6. What is the main difference between the circuits in (a) and (b) of
Fig. 6-6?
7. Referring to Fig. 6-1, why is \1i series-aiding with \.'z and \'3 but in
series opposition to VT? Show polarity of each IR drop.
8. Show the algebra for deriving Formula (6-2) for each branch current
in a parallel bank of two resistances. [Hint: The voltage across the
bank is IT X RT and RT is R1R2 1(R1 + R2 ).]

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back

of book.)

1. A 200-Q R1 is in series with a 400-Q R2 and a 2-kQ R3 . The applied

voltage is 52 V. Calculate \'i, \.'z, and \..j.
2. Find R1 and R2 for a voltage divider that takes 10 mA from a 200-V
source, with 50 V across R2 • There are no load-current branches.
3. How much is the bleeder current through R1 and R2 in Fig. 6-6b?
4. IT is 7 mA for two branches. R1 is 20 kQ and R2 is 56 kQ. Find I1 and
I2 in this current-divider circuit.
5. Three parallel branches have G1 = 1000 µS, G2 = 2000 µS,
G3 = 10,000 µS. IT is 39 mA. Find I1 , I2 , and I3 .
6. Referring to Fig. 6-3, find RT for the two branch resistances and
calculate the voltage across the bank as ITRT.
7. For the voltage divider in Fig. 6-7, how much is the equivalent
resistance for load D, load E, and load F?
8. Referring to the voltage divider in Fig. 6-7, calculate the power
dissipated in R1 , R2 , and R3 .
9. Design a voltage divider similar to that in Fig. 6-7 with R1 , R2 , and R3
across a 48-V source and the following loads: 48 Vat 800 mA, 28 V
at 300 mA, and 9 V at 100 mA. Use the bleeder current IB of
120 mA.

Answers to Practice Problems

6-1 (a) RT= 100 kQ 6-4 (a) h
1

(b) \'3 = (2/i 0 ) X VT (b) Ys

6-2 (a) 2 to 1 6-5 (a) IB = 30 mA
(b) 1 to 2 (b) VEG= 40 v
6-3 (a) 2 to 1 (c) \.'z = 22 V
(b) 2 to 1
 Direct~
current
Meters
Voltage, current, and resistance measurements are generally made with a
combination volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) like the one in Fig. 7-1. To Chapter
measure voltage, connect the voltmeter test leads across the two points of
potential difference, as in (a). Similarly, when using the ohmmeter,
connect the two leads across the resistance to be measured, as in (b), but
turn the power off. No power is needed in the circuit being tested because
the ohmmeter has its own internal battery. To measure current, the meter
is connected as a series component in the circuit. A combination meter
7
with all three functions is generally used as a multitester to check V, I, and
R when troubleshooting electronic circuits. The details of these meter
measurements are explained in the following topics:

7-1 Moving-Coil Meter

7 -2 Measurement of Current
7-3 Meter Shunts
7-4 The Ayrton or Universal Shunt
7-5 Voltmeters
7 -6 Loading Effect of a Voltmeter
7 ·7 Ohmmeters
7-8 l\1ultimeters
7 ·9 Digital Meters
7 -10 Meter Applications
7 -11 Checking Continuity with the Ohmmeter

7.1 force turns the drum with its pointer. The

MOVING-COIL METER amount of deflection indicates the amount of
This type of meter movement, shown in Fig. current in the coil. Correct polarity allows the
7-2, is generally used in a VOM. The con- pointer to read up-scale, to the right; the oppo-
struction consists essentially of a coil of fine wire site polarity forces the pointer off-scale, to the
on a drum mounted between the poles of a left. ·
permanent magnet. When direct current flows The pointer deflection is directly propor-
in the coil, the magnetic field of the current tional to the amount of current in the coil. If
reacts with the field of the magnet. The resultant 100 µA is the current needed for full-scale de-
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 127

(a)

(b)
FIGURE 7-1
Using a VOM for voltage and resistance mea-
surements. (a) To read voltage, connect the
voltmeter test leads across the potential differ-
ence being measured. Observe polarity for
voltage. ( b) To read resistance, connect the
ohmmeter test leads across R, but with the
power off. Polarity of meter leads does not
matter for resistance.
 Chapter 7
128 Direct-Current Meters

printed scale. Typical values of IM are from

about 10 µA to 30 mA for Weston movements.
Smaller currents require more wire in the mov-
ing coil, so that the magnetic field of the current
can be strong enough to react with the perma-
nent magnet to move the pointer. Fine wire
must be used to reduce the weight of the mov-
ing coil. For the opposite case, higher currents
require thicker wire, which can make the coil
too heavy. However, the current range of the
movement can be increased to almost any value
by using meter shunts, as explained in Sec. 7-3.
As an example, IM is 50 µA for the micro-
ammeter shown in Fig. 7 -3. Notice the mirror
along the scale to eliminate parallax. You read
the meter where the pointer and its mirror re-
FIGURE 7-2
Construction of moving-coil meter. (Weston
Electrical Instrument Corp.)

flection, 50 µA in the coil will produce a half-

scale deflection. The accuracy of the moving-
coil meter mechanism is 0 .1 to 2 percent.
The moving-coil principle is applied in
several meter types which have different names.
A galvanometer is an extremely sensitive instru-
ment for measuring very small values of cur-
rent. Laboratory-type galvanometers, which in-
clude a suspended moving coil with an optical
system to magnify small deflection, can meas-
ure a small fraction of one microampere. A
ballistic galvanometer is used for reading the
value of a small momentary current, to measure
electric charge. The suspended moving-coil ar- (a)
rangement of a galvanometer is often called a
D'Arsonval movement, after its inventor, who
patented this meter movement in 1881. The
practical, commercial moving-coil meter in (b)
Fig. 7 -2 is a Weston movement. FIGURE 7-3
Microammeter with mirror on scale to min-
Values of IM. The full-scale deflection current imize parallax error. (a) Photo of meter. ( b)
IM is the amount needed to deflect the pointer Schematic symbol. (Weston Electrical Instru-
all the way to the right to the last mark on the ment Corp.)
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 129

flection are one. This eliminates the optical (b) Is a milliammeter connected in parallel or
error of parallax when you look at the meter series?
from the side. The schematic symbol for a cur-
rent meter is a circle, as in (b). 7-2
MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT
Values of rM· This is the internal resistance of
Whether we are measuring amperes, milli-
the wire of the moving coil. Typical values range
amperes, or microamperes, two important facts
from 1.2 Q for a 30-mA movement to 2000 Q
to remember are:
for a 50-µA movement. A movement with a
smaller IM has a higher rM because many turns
1. The current meter must be in series in the
of fine wire are needed. An average value of rM
circuit where the current is to be meas-
for a 1-mA movement is about 120 Q.
ured. The amount of deflection depends
on the current through the meter. In a
Taut-band Meters. The meter movement can
series circuit, the current is the same
be constructed with the moving coil and pointer
through all series components. Therefore,
suspended by a metal band, instead of the pivot
the current to be measured must be made
and jewel design with a restoring spring. Both
to flow through the meter as a series com-
types of movements have similar operating
ponent in the circuit.
characteristics. However, taut-band meters
2. A de meter must be connected in the cor-
generally have lower values of rM because a
rect polarity for the meter to read up-scale.
smaller coil can be used to force the pointer
Reversed polarity makes the meter read
up-scale.
down -scale, forcing the pointer against the
stop at the left, which can bend the pointer.
Practice Problems 7-1
(answers on page 158)
(a) Is a voltmeter connected in parallel or se- How to Connect a Current Meter in Series.
ries? As illustrated in Fig. 7-4, the circuit must be

R, I= 100 mA
a 500 n b

,-+
: /= 100 mA

Rz
500.Q

d d

f e f e f e
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 7-4
Inserting a current meter in series. (a) Circuit
without meter. (b) Circuit opened between
points b and c for meter. ( c) Meter connected
between R1 and R2 in series with the circuit.
 Chapter 7
130 Direct-Current Meters

opened at one point in order to insert the cur- terminal of the meter is joined to R2 because
rent meter in series in the circuit. Since R1 , R2 , this path with R1 connects to the negative ter-
R3 , and the meter are all in series, the current is minal of the battery. The positive meter terminal
the same in each and the meter reads the cur- is connected to R3 . Electrons in the circuit will
rent in any part of the series circuit. If VT is flow through R1 and R2 into the negative side of
150 V with a total series resistance of 1500 Q, the meter, through the movement, and out from
the current is 0 .1 A, or 100 mA. This value is the meter and return through R3 to the positive
the current in R1 , R2 , R3 , and the battery, as battery terminal.
shown in (a). Note that in (b), the circuit is
opened at the junction of R1 and R2 for inser- A Current Meter Should Have Very Low Re-
tion of the meter. In (c), the meter completes sistance. Referring back to Fig. 7-4, the milli-
the series circuit to read the current of 100 mA. ammeter in (c) reads 100 mA because its resist-
The meter inserted in series at any point in the ance is negligible compared with the total series
circuit would read the same current. R of 1500 Q. Then I is the same with or without
the meter.
How to Connect a DC Meter in the Correct In general, a current meter should have
Polarity. A de meter has its terminals marked very low R compared with the circuit where the
for polarity, either with + and - signs or red current is being measured. We take an arbitrary
for plus and black for minus. Electrons must figure of 1/i 00 . For the circuit in Fig. 7-4, then,
flow into the negative side through the move- the meter resistance should be less than
150 DJi
ment and out from the positive side for the 00 = 15 0. Actually, a meter for 100 mA
meter to read up-scale. would have an internal R of about 1 Q or less
To have the meter polarity correct, always because of its internal shunt resistor. The higher
connect its negative terminal to the point in the the current range of the meter, the smaller its
circuit that has a path back to the negative side resistance.
of the voltage source, without going through the An extreme case of a current meter with
meter. Similarly, the positive terminal of the too much R is shown in Fig. 7 -6. Here the series
meter returns to the positive terminal of the RT is doubled when the meter is inserted in the
voltage source (Fig. 7 -5). Here the negative circuit. The result is one-half the actual I in the
circuit without the meter.

Practice Problems 7-2

,----------- ...\ (answers on page 158)
: + (a) In Fig. 7-4, how much will the milliamme-
ter read when inserted at point a?
Vr T-+ + : _mA (b) In Fig. 7-5, which R is connected to the
positive side of the meter to make it read
'-.... _________ _,,, + I
up-scale?
~-~~~'\/V'v~~~~. (c) Should a current meter have very low or
very high resistance?
FIGURE 7-5 (d) Should a voltmeter have very high or very
Correct polarity for a de meter. low resistance?
 Cha ter 7
Direct-Current Meters 131

--+
I= 50 µA
Re= : I=
2 kr2 t 25 µA
V= 0.1 V V= 0.1 V

1
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7-6
Example of a current meter having too high a
resistance. (a) Circuit without the meter has an
I of 50 µA ( b) Meter resistance reduces I to
25µA

7-3 equally between the shunt and the meter move-

METER SHUNTS ment. At the opposite meter terminal, these two
A meter shunt is a precision resistor connected branch currents combine to provide the 50 mA
across the meter movement for the purpose of equal to the circuit current.
shunting, or bypassing, a specific fraction of the Inside the meter, the current is 25 mA
circuit's current around the meter movement. through the shunt and 25 mA through the
The combination then provides a current meter moving coil. Since it is a 25-mA movement, this
with an extended range. The shunts are usually current produces full-scale deflection. The scale
inside the meter case. In addition, the schematic is doubled, however, reading 50 mA, to ac-
symbol for the current meter usually does not count for the additional 25 mA through the
show the shunt. shunt. Therefore, the scale reading indicates
In current measurements, the parallel bank total current at the meter terminals, not just coil
of the movement with its shunt is still connected current. The movement with its shunt, then, is a
as a current meter in series in the circuit 50-mA meter. Its internal resistance is
(Fig. 7-7). It should be noted that a meter with 1.2 x % = 0.6 Q.
an internal shunt has the scale calibrated to take Another example is shown in Fig. 7 -8. In
into account the current through the shunt and general, the shunt resistance for any range can
the meter movement. Therefore, the scale be calculated with Ohm's law from the formula
reads total circuit current.

Resistance of the Meter Shunt. In Fig. 7 -7 b, (7-1)

the 25-mA movement has a resistance of 1.2 Q,
which is the resistance of the moving coil rM· To
double the range, the shunt resistance Rs is Rs is the resistance of the shunt and Is is the
made equal to the 1.2 Q of the movement. current through it.
When the meter is connected in series in a VM is equal to IM X rM. This is the voltage
circuit where the current is 50 mA, this total across both the shunt and the meter movement,
current into one terminal of the meter divides which are in parallel.
 Chapter 7
132 Direct-Current Meters

Mi Iii ammeter :1T = 50 mA

,..... +
I/= 50 mA
I

v v

\Meter case

(a) (b)

,-+
I I= 50 mA
I
v

(c)
FIGURE 7-7
Effect of a shunt in bypassing current around
the meter movement to extend its range from
25 to 50 mA. (a) Wiring diagram. (b) Sche-
matic showing effect of shunt Rs. With Rs = rM
the current range is doubled. ( c) Circuit with
50-mA meter.

,--
•ls= 40 mA
R = o.os v = 2 n Rs
s 0.04 A

FIGURE 7-8
Calculating the resistance of a meter shunt
Rs= VM!ls.
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 133

Calculating ls. This current through the shunt Example 2. A 50-µ,A meter movement has rM of
alone is the difference between the total current 1000 Q. What Rs is needed to extend the range to
IT through the meter and the divided current IM 500 µ,A?
through the movement. Or
Answer. The shunt current Is is 500 - 50, or
450 µ,A Then
(7-2)
R - VM
s - Is
Use the values of current for full-scale deflec-
tion, as these are known. In Fig. 7 -8, 50 x 10-6 A x 10 3 Q 50,000 1000
Is = 50 - 10 = 40 mA, or 0.04 A. = 450 x 10-6 A = ~ = -9-

Rs = 111.1 Q
Calculating Rs. The complete procedure for
using the formula Rs = VM! Is can be as follows: The shunts usually are prec1s1on wire-
wound resistors. For very low values, a short
1. Find VM. Calculate this for full-scale deflec- wire of precise size can be used.
tion as IM X rM. In Fig. 7-8, with a 10-mA
full-scale current through the 8-Q move-
Practice Problems 7-3
ment, VM is 0.01 X 8 = 0.08 V.
(answers on page 158)
2. Find Is. For the values in Fig. 7 -8,
A 50-µA movement with a 900-Q rM has a
Is = 50 - 10 = 40 mA = 0.04 A.
shunt Rs for a range of 500 µA
3. Divide VM by Is to find Rs. Here,
(a) How much is Is?
Rs = 0.0810.04 = 2 Q.
(b) How much is VM?
This shunt enables the 10-mA movement
to be used for the extended range of 0 to 7-4
50 mA. THE AYRTON OR
Note that Rs and rM are inversely propor- UNIVERSAL SHUNT
tional to their full-scale currents. The 2 Q for Rs In Fig. 7-9, R1 , R2 , and R3 are used in series-
equals one-fourth the 8 Q of rM because the parallel combinations with the meter move-
shunt current of 40 mA is four times the 10 mA ments for different current ranges. The circuit is
through the movement for full-scale deflection. called an Ayrton shunt or universal shunt. This
method is generally used for multiple current
Example 1. A shunt extends the range of a 50-µ,A ranges in a VOM because the series-parallel
meter movement to 1 mA. How much is the current circuit provides a safe method of switching be-
through the shunt at full-scale deflection? tween current ranges without danger of exces-
Answer. All the currents must be in the same sive current through the meter movement.
units for Formula (7-2). To avoid fractions, use The wide contact on the switch arm in (a)
1000 µ,A for the 1-mA IT. Then indicates it makes the next connection before
breaking the old contact. This short-circuiting
Is = IT - IM type switch protects the meter movement by
= 1000 µ,A - 50 µ,A providing a shunt at all times during the switch-
Is= 950 µ,A ing to change ranges.
 Chapter 7
134 Direct-Current Meters

rM = 50 .Q rM = 50 .Q

1 mA + 1 mA
- +
+11 mA
R,= R2
g,n
= R3= I
R, R3
40.Q b c 1.n b R2 c
a d a d

--·
1 mA
'
+12mA
I
y
RsT = 50 n

+
(a) {b)

rM = 50 .Q rM = 50 .Q
a a
1 mA + 1 mA
+
R,=
40.Q

R,=
40.Q
R2
g,n
=
+pmA +: 1 mA R3
R2 c R3 1.n
b d c d
--+' y --+
99mA
9 mA R 2 +R 3 =10.Q

+: 10mA +: 100 mA
+ +
(c) (d)
FIGURE 7-9
Universal or Ayrton shunt for three current
ranges. I values shown for full-scale deflection.
(a) Actual circuit with switch S to choose differ-
ent ranges. (b) Circuit for 2-mA range; (c)
10-mA range; (d) 100-mA range.

The universal shunt consists of R1 , R2 , and and (d), part of Rsr is connected in series with
R 3 in Fig. 7 -9. How they are connected as a rM while the remainder of Rsr is in parallel as a
shunt is determined by the switch S for the shunt path.
different current ranges. Their total resistance The values in Fig. 7 -9 are calculated as
(R8 r) is 40 + 9 + 1 = 50 Q. This resistance is follows: Since the 2-mA range in (b) is double
used as a shunt in parallel with rM for the 2-mA the 1-mA current rating of the meter move-
range in (b). For the higher current ranges in (c) ment, the shunt resistance must equal the rM of
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 135

50 Q so that 1 mA can flow in each of the two If (R 2 + R) is 10 n, then R3 must be

parallel paths. Therefore, RsT is equal to the (10 - R2 ). Substituting (10 - R2 ) for R3 , the
50 Q of rM. equation then becomes:
For the 10-mA range in (c), 9 mA must
flow through the shunt path and 1 mA through 40 + R2 + 50 = 99 x (10 - R2 )
the meter path. Now rM has R1 in series with it, R2 + 90 = 990 - 99 R2
in the path bad. The shunt now includes R2 in 100R2 = 900
series with R3 , in the path bed. Remember that R2 = 9Q
the voltage is the same across the two parallel
paths bad and bed. The current is 1 mA in one Finally, R3 must be 1 n.
path and 9 mA in the other path. To calculate The total of R1 + R2 + R3 equals 40 +
R1 we can equate the voltage across the two 9 + 1, which equals the 50 n of RsT·
paths: As a proof of the resistance values, note
that in (b), 1 mA in each 50-Q branch produces
50 mV across both parallel branches. In (c),
1 mA in the 90-Q branch with the meter pro-
We know rM is 50 n. We also know RST is 50 n. duces 90 mV from b to d, while 9 mA through
We do not know R1 , R2 , or R3 , but (R2 + R3 ) the 10 n of R1 + R2 produces the same 90 mV.
must be 50 n minus R 1 . Therefore, In (d), 99 mA through the 1-Q R3 produces
99 mV, while 1 mA through the 99 Q in path
1 mA x (R1 + 50) = 9 mA x (50 - R 1 ) cbad produces the same 99 mV.

Solving for R 1 ,
Practice Problems 7-4
(answers on page 158)
R1 + 50 = 450 - 9R1
Refer to Fig. 7-9 and give the full-scale I
10R1 = 400
th rough the meter movement on
R1 = 40 Q
(a) 2-mA range.
(b) 100-mA range.
Not only do we know now that R1 is 40 n,
but we also know that (R 2 + R3 ) must be 10 n,
as they all must add up to 50 n. This value of 7-5
10 n for (R2 + R3 ) is used for the next step in VOLTMETERS
the calculations. Although a meter movement responds only to
For the 100-mA range in (d), 1 mA flows current in the moving coil, it is commonly used
through R 1 , R2 , and rM in the path cbad, and for measuring voltage by the addition of a high
99 mA through R3 in the path ed. The voltage is resistance in series with the movement (Fig.
the same across both paths. To calculate R2 , 7-10). The series resistance must be much
higher than the coil resistance in order to limit
the current through the coil. The combination
of the meter movement with its added series
We know R1 is 40 n. Then resistance then forms a voltmeter. The series
resistor, called a multiplier, is usually connected
40 + R2 + 50 = 99 R3 inside the voltmeter case.
 Chapter 7
136 Direct-Current Meters

Voltmeter 10 V for full scale

R1
9950 n r-----------..,
I
I R1
I 9950 n.
I multiplier

10V = 10
V 1 mA movement mA
rM = 50 Q
I
I
I 1 mA movement
+ + I rM = 50 n
Voltmeter leads I
+ connect across I
circuit L ___________ J
(a) (b)

4 6

(c)
FIGURE 7-10
A multiplier resistor added in series with the
meter movement forms a voltmeter. (a) The
multiplier R1 allows full-scale meter deflection
with 10 V applied. (b) The voltmeter leads can
be connected across a circuit to measure 0 to
10 V (c) 10-V scale and the corresponding
1-mA scale.

Since a voltmeter has high resistance, it ments apply the same way to either an IR drop
must be connected in parallel to measure the or a generated emf.
potential difference across two points in a cir- The correct polarity must be observed in
cuit. Otherwise, the high-resistance multiplier using a de voltmeter. Connect the negative volt-
would add so much series resistance that the meter lead to the negative side of the potential
current in the circuit would be reduced to a very difference being measured and the positive lead
low value. Connected in parallel, though, the to the positive side.
high resistance of the voltmeter is an advantage.
The higher the voltmeter resistance, the smaller Multiplier Resistance. Figure 7 -10 illustrates
the effect of its parallel connection on the circuit how the meter movement and its multiplier R1
being tested. form a voltmeter. With 10 V applied by the
The circuit is not opened to connect the battery in (a), there must be 10,000 n of resist-
voltmeter in parallel. Because of this conven- ance to limit the current to 1 mA for full-scale
ience, it is common practice to make voltmeter deflection of the meter movement. Since the
tests in troubleshooting. The voltage measure- movement has a 50-Q resistance, 9950 n is
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 137

added in series, resulting in a 10,000-Q total We can take another example for the same 10-V
resistance. Then I is 10 V/10 kQ = 1 mA. scale but with a 50-µA meter movement, which
With 1 mA in the movement, the full-scale is commonly used. Now the multiplier resist-
deflection can be calibrated as 10 V on the ance is much higher, though, because less I is
meter scale, as long as the 9950-Q multiplier is needed for full-scale deflection. Let the resist-
included in series with the movement. The mul- ance of the 50-µA movement be 2000 Q. Then
tiplier can be connected on either side of the
movement. R 10 V - 2000 Q
If the battery is taken away, as in (b), the mult = 0.000 050 A
movement with its multiplier forms a voltmeter = 200,000 - 2000
that can indicate a potential difference of 0 to
Rmult = 198,QQQ Q
10 V applied across its terminals. When the
voltmeter leads are connected across a poten-
tial difference of 10 Vin a de circuit, the result- Multiple Voltmeter Ranges. Voltmeters often
ing 1-mA current through the meter movement have several multipliers which are used with
produces full-scale deflection and the reading is one meter movement. A range switch selects
10 V In (c) the 10-V scale is shown corre- one multiplier for the required scale. The higher
sponding to the 1-mA range of the movement. the voltage range is, the higher the multiplier
If the voltmeter is connected across a 5-V resistance, in essentially the same proportion as
potential difference, the current in the move- the ranges.
ment is Yz mA, the deflection is one-half of full Figure 7-11 illustrates two ranges. When
scale, and the reading is 5 V Zero voltage the switch is on the 10-V range, multiplier RI is
across the terminals means no current in the connected in series with the 1-mA movement.
movement, and the voltmeter reads zero. In Then you read the 10-V scale on the meter face.
summary, then, any potential difference up to With the range switch on 25 V, R2 is then the
10 V, whether an IR voltage drop or generated multiplier, and the measured voltage is read on ·
emf, can be applied across the meter terminals. the 25-V scale.
The meter will indicate less than 10 V in the Several examples of using these two scales
same ratio that the meter current is less than are listed in Table 7 -1. Note that voltages less
1 mA. than 10 V can be read on either scale. ·It is
The resistance of a multiplier can be calcu- preferable, however, to have the pointer read
lated from the formula on the middle third of the scale. That is why the
scales are usually multiples of 10 and 2.5 or 3.
R _ full-scale V _ r (7-3)
mult - full-scale I M

Range Switch. With multiple ranges, the set-

Applying this formula to the example of RI in ting of the selector switch is the voltage that
Fig. 7 -10 gives produces full-scale deflection (Fig. 7-12). One
scale is generally used for ranges that are multi-
R IO V - 50 Q ples of 10. If the range switch is set for 250 Vin
mult = 0.001 A
Fig. 7-12, read the top scale as is. With the
= 10,000 - 50 range switch at 25 V, however, the readings on
Rmult = 9950 Q the 250-V scale are divided by 10.
 Chapter 7
138 Direct-Current Meters

Dual-range voltmeter
r-------------------,
10 v
10 15

range
Range
switch

~--
R = 24 950 S1
25 V 2
range '

1 mA movement
rM = 50 S1
L __

Voltmeter terminals-

(a) (b)
FIGURE 7-11
Voltmeter with a range of either 10 or 25 V. (a)
Range switch selects scale by connecting either
R1 or R2 as the series multiplier. (b) Both volt-
age ranges on the face of the meter.

Similarly, the 100-V scale is used for the needed for the higher ranges, the switch adds
100-V range and the 10-V range. In Fig. 7-12 the required series resistors.
the pointer indicates 30 V when the switch is on The meter in Fig. 7 -13 requires 50 µA for
the 100-V range; this reading on the 10-V range full-scale deflection. For the 2.5-V range, a se-
is 3 V. ries resistance of 2.5/(50 X 10-6 ), or 50,000 Q,
is needed. Since rMis 2000 Q, the value of R1 is
'Typical Multiple Voltmeter Circuit. Another 50,000 - 2000, which equals 48,000 Q or
example of multiple voltage ranges is shown in 48 kQ.
Fig. 7-13, with a typical switching arrangement. For the 10-V range, a series resistance of
R1 is the series multiplier for the lowest voltage 10/(50 x 10-6 ), or 200,000 Q, is needed.
range of 2 .5 V. When higher resistance is Since R1 + rM provide 50,000 Q, R2 is made

TABLE 7-1. Multiple Voltage-Scale Readings for Fig. 7-11

10-V SCALE, Rv* = 10,000 Q 25-V SCALE, Rv * = 25,000 Q

SCALE SCALE
METER, READING, METER, READING,
mA DEFLECTION v mA DEFLECTION v
0 0 0 0 0 0
0.5 % 5 0.2 z/io 5
1.0 Full scale 10 0.4 4/io 10
0.5 % 12.5
1.0 Full scale 25
* Rv is total voltmeter resistance of multiplier and meter movement.
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 139

on the highest range for 5000 V. This method of

adding series multipliers for higher voltage
ranges is the circuit generally used in commer-
cial multimeters.

Voltmeter Resistance. The high resistance of

a voltmeter with a multiplier is essentially the
value of the multiplier resistance. Since the
multiplier is changed for each range, the volt-
meter resistance changes.
Table 7-2 shows how the voltmeter resist-
'\(.)"' ance increases for the higher ranges. The mid-
/
__..i'-J
~'J dle column lists the total internal resistance Rv,
--1oov including Rmult and rM, for the voltmeter circuit
-........ in Fig. 7-13. With a 50-µA movement, Rv in-
<so v creases from 50 kQ on the 2.5-V range to
FIGURE 7-12 20 MQ on the 1000-V range. It should be noted
The range switch selects the voltage that can that Rv has these values on each range whether
produce full-scale deflection. The reading you read full-scale or not.
shown here is 30 Von the 100-V range.
Ohms-per-Volt Rating. To indicate the volt-
150,000 Q for a total of 200,000 Q series resist- meter's resistance independently of the range,
ance on the 10-V range. Similarly, additional voltmeters are generally rated in ohms of resist-
resistors are switched in to increase the multi- ance needed for 1 V of deflection. This value is
plier resistance for the higher voltage ranges. the ohms-per-volt rating of the voltmeter. As an
Note the separate jack and extra multiplier R6 example, see the last column in Table 7-2. The·

rM = 2000 Q

50 v

2.5 v

5000 v
FIGURE 7-13 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Typical voltmeter circuit for multiple ranges.

(Simpson VOM Model 260)
 Cha ter 7
140 Direct-Current Meters

TABLE 7-2. Characteristics of a Voltmeter Using a 50-µ,A Movement

FULL-SCALE VOLTAGE (Vp) Rv = Rmuit + rM OHMS PER VOLT = Rv!Vp
2.5 50 kQ 20,000 Q/V
10 200 kQ 20,000 Q/V
50 1 MQ 20,000 Q/V
250 5 MQ 20,000 Q/V
1000 20 MQ 20,000 Q/V

values in the top row show that this meter needs meters, but 20,000 Q/V with a 50-µA move-
50,000 Q Rv for 2.5 V of full-scale deflection. ment is generally used now. Higher sensitivity is
The resistance per 1 V of deflection then is an advantage, not only for less voltmeter load-
50,000!2.5, which equals 20,000 Q/V. ing, but lower voltage ranges and higher ohm-
The ohms-per-volt value is the same for all meter ranges can be obtained.
ranges. The reason is that this characteristic is
determined by the full-scale current IM of the Practice Problems 7-5
meter movement. To calculate the ohms-per- (answers on page 158)
volt rating, take the reciprocal of IM in ampere Refer to Fig. 7-13 to calculate the voltme-
units. For example, a 1-mA movement results in ter resistance Rv on
1 /0.001 or 1000 Q/V; a 50-µA movement (a) 2.5-V range.
allows 20,000 Q/V, and 20 µA allows (b) 50-V range.
50,000 Q/V. The ohms-per-volt rating is also
called the sensitivity of the voltmeter.
7-6
A high value of ohms per volt means a high LOADING EFFECT OF A
voltmeter resistance Rv. In fact Rv can be calcu - VOLTMETER
lated as the product of the ohms-per-volt rating When the voltmeter resistance is not high
and the full-scale voltage of each range. For enough, connecting it across a circuit can re-
instance across the second row in Table 7-2, on duce the measured voltage, compared with the
the 10-V range with a 20,000 Q/V rating, voltage present without the voltmeter. This
effect is called loading down the circuit, since
R = 10 V x 20,000 Q the measured voltage decreases because of the
v volts additional load current for the meter.
Rv = 200,000 Q
Loading Effect. This loading effect can be
These values are for de volts only. The sensitiv- appreciable in high-resistance circuits, as shown
ity for ac voltage is made lower, generally, to in Fig. 7-14. In (a), without the voltmeter, R1
prevent erratic meter deflection produced by and R2 form a voltage divider across the applied
stray magnetic fields before the meter leads are voltage of 120 V. The two equal resistances of
connected into the circuit. Usually the ohms- 100 kQ each divide the applied voltage equally,
per-volt rating of a voltmeter is printed on the with 60 V across each.
meter face. When the voltmeter in (b) is connected
The sensitivity of 1000 Q/V with a 1-mA across R2 to measure its potential difference,
movement used to be common for de volt- however, the voltage division changes. The
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 141

R, R, R,
100 k.Q 100 k.Q 100 k.Q

VT= 120 V
+
I
60 v VT= 100 V
+
Rv
100 k.Q -

v VT= 100 V
I
40V

l
+

l +

2 2 2
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 7-14
Loading effect of a voltmeter. (a) High-resist-
ance series circuit. ( b) Voltmeter across one of
the series resistances. (c) Reduced resistance
and voltage between points 1 and 2 caused by
the voltmeter resistance as a parallel branch.

voltmeter resistance Rv of 100 kQ is the value the voltage division in the circuit. The 11 MQ of
for a 1000 ohms-per-volt meter on the 100-V the meter in parallel with the 100 ,000 Q for R2
range. Now the voltmeter in parallel with R2 results in an equivalent resistance practically
draws additional current and the equivalent equal to 100,000 Q.
resistance between the measured points 1 and 2 With multiple ranges on a VOM, the volt-
is reduced from 100,000 to 50,000 Q. This meter resistance changes with the range se-
resistance ·is one-third the total circuit resist- lected. Higher ranges require more multiplier.
ance, and the measured voltage across points 1 resistance, increasing the voltmeter resistance
and 2 drops to 40 V, as shown in (c). for less loading. As examples, a 20,000 ohms-
As additional current drawn by the voltme- per-volt meter on the 250-V range has an inter-
ter flows through the other series resistance R1 , nal resistance Rv of 20,000 X 250, or 5 MQ.
this voltage goes up to 80 V. However, on the 2.5-V range the same meter
Similarly, if the voltmeter were connected has an Rv of 20,000 X 2.5, which is only
across R1 , this voltage would go down to 40 V, 50,000 Q.
with the voltage across R2 rising to 80 V. When On any one range, though, the voltmeter
the voltmeter is disconnected, the circuit returns resistance is constant whether you read full-
to the condition in (a) with 60 V across both R1 scale or less than full-scale deflection. The rea-
and R2 • son is that the multiplier resistance set by the
The loading effect is minimized by using a range switch is the same for any reading on
voltmeter having a resistance much greater than that range.
the resistance across which the voltage is meas-
ured. As shown in Fig. 7 -15, with a voltmeter
resistance of 11 MQ, its loading effect is negligi- Correction for Loading Effect. The following
ble. Because Rv is so high, it does not change formula can be used:
 Chapter 7
142 Direct-Current Meters

R, R,
100 kn 100 kn

VT= 120 V
+
R2
100 kn
I
60 v VT= 120 V
+
60 v V
Rv=
11 Mn

2
1 2

(a) (b)
FIGURE 7-15
Negligible loading with a high-resistance volt-
meter. (a) High-resistance series circuit. ( b)
Same voltages in circuit with voltmeter con-
nected.

Actual reading + Correction trate the general problem of trying to make any
l RI R2 \!,
l measurement without changing the circuit being
measured.
V=VM+ ( )M (7-4)
Rv RI + Rz
Practice Problems 7-6
Vis the corrected reading the voltmeter would (answers on page 158)
show if it had infinitely high resistance. VM is the With the voltmeter across R 2 in Fig. 7-14,
actual voltage reading. RI and R2 are the volt- what are the values for
age-dividing resistances in the circuit, without (a) \'i
the voltmeter resistance Rv. As an example, in (b) Vz
Fig. 7-14,
7-7
100 kQ x 100 kQ OHMMETERS
v = 40 v + 100 kQ x (200 kQ) x 40 v Basically, an ohmmeter consists of an internal
=4o+n)x4o battery, the meter movement, and a current-
limiting resistance, as illustrated in Fig. 7-16.
= 40 + 20 For measuring resistance, the ohmmeter leads
V= 60V are connected across an external resistance to
be measured, with power off in the circuit being
The loading effect of a voltmeter reading tested. Then only the ohmmeter battery pro-
too low because Rv is too low as a parallel duces current for deflecting the meter move-
resistance corresponds to the case of a current ment. Since the amount of current through the
meter reading too low because rM is too high as meter depends on the external resistance, the
a series resistance. Both of these effects illus- scale can be calibrated in ohms.
 Cha ter 7
Direct-Current Meters 143

Ohmmeter
r------------1
R1 = 1450 S1 R 1 = 1450 S1

Ohmmeter
leads

L ___________ .J
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7-16
Ohmmeter circuit. (a) Equivalent closed circuit
when ohmmeter leads are short-circuited for
zero ohms of external resistance. (b) Circuit
with ohmmeter leads open.

The amount of deflection on the ohms and infinite ohms at the left for no deflection.
scale indicates directly the measured resistance. In-between values of resistance result in less
The ohmmeter reads up-scale regardless of the than 1 mA through the meter movement. The
polarity of the leads because the polarity of the corresponding deflection on the ohms scale
internal battery determines the direction of cur- indicates how much resistance is across the
rent through the meter movement. ohmmeter terminals.

Series-Ohmmeter Circuit. In Fig. 7-16a, the Back-off Ohmmeter Scale. Table 7 -3 and
circuit has 1500 Q for (R1 + rM). Then the 1.5-V Fig. 7 -1 7 illustrate the calibration of an ohm-
cell produces 1 mA, deflecting the moving coil meter scale in terms of meter current. The cur-
full scale. When these components are enclosed rent equals VI RT. Vis the fixed applied voltage
in a case, as in (b), the series circuit forms an of 1.5 V supplied by the internal battery. RT is
ohmmeter. the total resistance of Rx and the ohmmeter's
If the leads are short-circuited together or internal resistance. Note that Rx is the external
connected across a short circuit, 1 mA flows. resistance to be measured.
The meter movement is deflected full scale to The ohmmeter's internal resistance Ri is
the right. This ohmmeter reading is 0 Q. constant at 50 + 1450, or 1500 Q here. If Rx
With the ohmmeter leads open, not touch- also equals 1500 Q, for example, RT equals
ing each other, the current is zero. The ohm- 3000 Q. The current then is 1.5 V/3000 Q, or
meter indicates infinitely high resistance or an 0.5 mA, resulting in half-scale deflection for the
open circuit across its terminals. 1-mA movement. Therefore, the center of d1e
Therefore, the meter face can be marked ohms scale is marked for 1500 Q. Similarly, the
zero ohms at the right for full-scale deflection amount of current and meter deflection can be
 Chapter 7
144 Direct-Current Meters

TABLE 7-3. Calibration of Ohmmeter in Fig. 7-17

EXTERNAL INTERNAL
Rx, Rt= R1 + rM, RT= Rx+ Ri, I= V!Rr, SCALE
Q Q Q mA DEFLECTION READING, £2
0 1500 1500 1 Full scale 0
750 1500 2250 % = 0.67 %scale 750
1500 1500 3000 llz :::: 0.5 1
/ 2 scale 1500
3000 1500 4500 %= 0.33 %scale 3000
150,000 1500 151,500 0.01 1
/i. 00 scale 150,000
500,000 1500 501,500 0 None 00

calculated for any value of the external resist- resents the graph of a hyperbolic curve for the
ance Rx. reciprocal function y = 1 Ix.
Note that the ohms scale increases from The highest resistance that can be indi-
right to left. This arrangement is called a back- cated by the ohmmeter is about 100 times its
off scale, with ohms values increasing to the left total internal resistance. Therefore, the infinity
as the current backs off from full-scale deflec- mark on the ohms scale, or the "lazy eight"
tion. The back-off scale is a characteristic of any symbol oo for infinity, is only relative. It just
ohmmeter where the internal battery is in series means that the measured resistance is infinitely
with the meter movement. Then more ex- greater than the ohmmeter resistance.
ternal Rx decreases the meter current. For instance, if a 500,000-Q resistor in
A back-off ohmmeter scale is expanded at good condition were measured with the ohm-
the right near zero ohms and crowded at the left meter in Fig. 7 -1 7, it would indicate infinite
near infinite ohms. This nonlinear scale results resistance because this ohmmeter cannot
from the relation of I = VI R with V constant at measure as high as 500,000 Q. To read higher
1.5 V. Specifically, the back-off ohms scale rep- values of resistance, the battery voltage can be

External ohms of Rx
R 1 =1450 S1
1500
3000
1 mA movement 6000
rM = 50 S1 Meter 9000
12,000
leads 150,02,0
0

open

2
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7-17
Back-off ohmmeter. (a) Series ohmmeter cir-
cuit with an external resistor Rx. ( b) Ohms scale
reads higher resistances from right to left, as
more Rx decreases IM (see Table 7-3).
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 145

increased to provide more current, or a more tiply the scale reading by the R X factor. On
sensitive meter movement is necessary to pro- voltage ranges, you may have to multiply or
vide deflection with less current. divide the scale reading to match the full-scale
voltage with the value on the range switch.
Multiple Ohmmeter Ranges. Commercial
multimeters provide for resistance measure- Typical Ohmmeter Circuit. For high-ohms
ments from less than 1 Q up to many megohms, ranges a sensitive meter is necessary to read the
in several ranges. The range switch in Fig. 7-18 low values of I with the high values of Rx. For
shows the multiplying factors for the ohms the case of low ohms, however, less sensitivity is
scale. On the R X 1 range, for low-resistance needed for the higher currents. These opposite
measurements, read the ohms scale directly. In requirements are solved by using a meter shunt
the example here, the pointer indicates 12 Q. across the meter movement and changing the
When the range switch is on RX 100, multiply shunt resistance for the multiple ohmmeter
the scale reading by 100; this reading would ranges. In Fig. 7-19, Rs is the meter shunt.
then be 12 X 100 or 1200 Q. On the To analyze the ohmmeter circuit in Fig.
RX 10,000 range, the pointer would indicate 7 -19, three conditions are shown. All are for the
120,000 Q. R X 1 range with 12-Q Rs. Figure 7-19a shows
A multiplying factor is given, instead of the internal circuit, before the ohmmeter is ad-
full-scale resistance, for each ohms range be- justed for zero ohms. In (b) the test leads are
cause the highest resistance is infinite on all the short-circuited. Then there are two paths for
ohms ranges. This method for ohms should not branch current produced by the battery V One
be confused with the full-scale values for voltage branch is Rs. The other branch includes Rb, RA,
ranges. For the ohmmeter ranges, always mul- and the meter movement. The 1.5 V is across
both branches.
To allow 50 µA through the meter, RA is
Ohms adjusted to 5000 Q. Then the total resistance in
12 this branch is 23 kQ + 5 kQ + 2 kQ, which
equals 30 kQ. With 30 kQ across 1.5 V, IM equals
50 µA. Therefore, RA is adjusted for full-scale
deflection to read zero ohms with the test leads
short-circuited.
0 In (c), assume a resistance Rx being meas-
ured is 12 Q, equal to Rs. Then the meter cur-
rent is practically 25 µA for half-scale deflec-
tion. The center ohms reading on the R X 1
scale, therefore, is 12 Q. For higher values of
Rx, the meter current decreases to indicate
higher resistances on the back-off ohms scale.
For higher ohms ranges, the resistance of
RX 10,000 the Rs branch is increased. The half-scale ohms
FIGURE 7-18 reading on each range is equal to the resistance
Multiple ohmmeter ranges. Multiply reading by of the Rs branch. A higher battery voltage can
the factor set on range switch. also be used for the highest ohms range.
 Chapter 7
146 Direct-Current Meters

Rs IM= 50 µA
+I
12 n.

Is ·--
=a1 A
1.5V

(a)
Test leads shorted
------------------
(b)
l

IM =25µA t
I

·--
ls=~ A -
1.5V
Rx

--------~~J\--------
(c)
l
+

FIGURE 7-19
Typical ohmmeter circuit for R X 1 range. (a)
Circuit before zero-ohms adjustment. (b) Test
leads short-circuited to adjust for zero ohms.
( c) Measuring external resistance Rx. The value
of 12 Q for Rx results in half-scale deflection, as
shown on the ohms scale in Fig. 7-18.

On any range, RA is adjusted for full-scale ages, an ohmmeter includes a variable resistor
deflection to read zero ohms with the test leads such as RA in Fig. 7 -19, to calibrate the ohms
short-circuited. This variable resistor is the scale. A back-off ohmmeter is always adjusted
ohms adjust or zero-ohms adjustment. for zero ohms. With the test leads short-cir-
cuited, vary the ZERO OHMS control on the front
Zero-Ohms Adjustment. To compensate for panel of the meter until the pointer is exactly on
lower voltage output as the internal battery zero at the right edge of the ohms scale. Then
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 147

the ohms readings are correct for the entire

scale.
This type of ohmmeter must be zeroed
again every time you change the range. The
reason is that the internal circuit is changed.
When the adjustment cannot deflect the
pointer all the way to zero at the right edge, it
usually means the battery voltage is too low and
the internal dry cells must be replaced. Usually,
this trouble shows up first on the R X 1 range,
which takes the most current from the battery.
The ohmmeter battery in a typical VOM can be
seen in Fig. 7-20.

Shunt-Ohmmeter Circuit. In this circuit, the

internal battery, meter movement, and external
Rx are in three parallel paths. The main advan-
tage is a low-ohms scale that reads from left to
right. However, the shunt ohmmeter circuit is
seldom used because of constant current drain
on the internal battery.

Characteristics of the Series Ohmmeter. FIGURE 7-20

The main features are:
Typical VOM with back cover off to show
shunts, multipliers, and batteries for ohmmeter.
1. The circuit includes an internal battery and Separate 7.5-V cell is for high-ohms ranges.
a variable ohms-adjust control RA in series (Triplett Model 630)
with the meter movement.
2. The back-off scale has zero ohms at the
right edge, corresponding to a full-scale IM, Practice Problems 7-7
and infinite ohms at the left, corresponding (answers on page 158)
to a zero IM. (a) The ohmmeter reads 40 Q on the R X 10
3. Short-circuit the ohmmeter leads and ad- range. How much is Rx?
just RA for zero ohms. This zero adjust- (b) A voltmeter reads 40 Von the 300-V scale,
ment must be changed for each ohmmeter but with the range switch on 30 V. How
range, as the value of RA required for the much is the measured voltage?
full-scale IM is different.
4. Lower ohms ranges are obtained by de- 7-8
creasing the meter sensitivity with a shunt. MULTIMETERS
Higher ohms ranges are obtained by in- The main types are the volt-ohm-milliammeter
creasing the meter sensitivity and using a (VOM) in Fig. 7-21, vacuum-tube voltmeter
higher battery voltage. (VTVM) in Fig. 7-22, and the digital multimeter
 Chapter 7
148 Direct-Current Meters

FIGURE 7-22
Typical VTVM. Height is 7 in. Range switch is at
FIGURE 7-21 left and selector switch at right. Zero-adjust
Front view of typical VOM. Height is 7 in. Note control at left is for voltmeter; ohms-adjust
switch positions at left side for clamp-on am- control is at right. (RCA Model WV-98 C)
meter and at top for low-power ohms. (Simp-
son Model 260)
voltage ranges. In transistor circuits, though, the
resistances to be measured are usually in the ks-2
(DMM) in Fig. 7-23. Table 7-4 compares the range or less. The V1VM also has very high
features of the VOM and VIVM, while more ohms ranges, since the voltmeter circuit is used
details of the DMM are described in the next with an internal battery for the ohmmeter func-
section. Actually, the use of a digital meter is tion. The V1VM cannot be used as a current
similar to a VIVM, but the digital display is meter because of its high input resistance.
much easier to read without mistakes.
The VOM is probably the most common
multimeter. It is simple, compact, and portable
because the only power it uses is the battery for
the ohmmeter.
The VIVM needs an internal power supply
because the meter movement is in a bridge
circuit with an amplifier. Transistors can be used
instead of tubes, but the unit must be plugged
into the ac power line for operation or a battery
must be used for the power supply.
The main advantage of the V1VM is its FIGURE 7-23
high input resistance, usually 11 Mn on all de Digital volt-ohmmeter. (Hewlett Packard)
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 149

TABLE 7-4. Comparison of VOM and VTVM low-ohms ranges of R X 1 and R X 10. The
VOM VTVM high-ohms ranges need more battery voltage.
De voltmeter Rv Very high de voltme-
changes with range. ter Rv of 11 MQ Decibel Scale. Most multimeters have an ac
Rv = Q!V X full- or more, the same voltage scale calibrated in decibels (dB), for
scale voltage on all ranges measuring ac signals. The decibel is a unit for
Measures ac volts Measures ac volts
comparisons of power levels or voltage levels.
Measures direct cur- Does not measure di-
rect current
The mark of 0 dB on the scale indicates the
rent
Does not measure al- Does not measure al- reference level, which is usually 0. 775 V for
ternating current ternating current 1 mW across 600 n. Positive dB values above
Ohms ranges are usu- Ohms ranges are usu- the zero mark indicate ac voltages more than
ally up to ally up to 0.775 V; negative dB values are less than
Rx 10,000 Q Rx 1 MQ the reference level.
Zero-ohms adjustment Ohms adjustment is
must be changed the same for all
for each range ranges Amp-Clamp Probe. The problem of opening
Portable; black lead Usually plugged into a circuit to measure I can be eliminated by using
need not be con- the power line; a probe with a clamp that fits around the cur-
nected to chassis black lead must be rent-carrying wire. Its magnetic field is used to
ground at chassis ground indicate the current. The clamp in Fig. 7 -24 is
an accessory probe for the VOM in Fig. 7-21.

The VOM measures direct current but not

alternating current. In general, measuring alter-
nating current requires an ac meter movement
or a clamp-on accessory probe.
All the multimeters measure ac voltage
easily. The reason is that the ac voltage to be
measured is rectified to provide de voltage for
the meter.
For either a VOM or VIVM it is important
to have a low-voltage scale of 1 V or less, full-
scale deflection. This range is needed for meas-
uring de bias voltages of 0.2 to 0.6 Vin transis-
tor circuits.

Low-Power Ohms. Another good feature for

transistor circuits is an ohmmeter that does not
have enough battery voltage to bias a semicon-
ductor junction into the ON or conducting con-
dition. The limit is 0.2 V or less. For the VOM in FIGURE 7-24
Fig. 7-21, the open-circuit voltage is 0.1 V on Amp-clamp accessory for VOM in Fig. 7-21.
the low-power ohms ranges. These are also (Simpson Electric Company)
 Chapter 7
150 Direct-Current Meters

This probe measures just ac amperes, generally Input

for the 60-Hz power line.

High-Voltage Probe. The accessory probe in V conditioner

Fig. 7-25 can be used with a multimeter to and
S1-to-V converter
measure de voltages up to 30 kV One applica-
tion is measuring the anode voltage of 20 to
30 kV for the picture tube in a television re-
ceiver. The probe basically is just an external Analog-digital
multiplier resistance for the voltmeter. The re- converter
quired R for a 30-kV probe is 580 Mn with a
20-kn!V meter on the 1000-V range.

Practice Problems 7-8

Digital display
(answers on page 158)
(a) Which type of multimeter is simple, porta-
ble and has the lowest cost? FIGURE 7-26
(b) Ho~ much is the typical input R of a VIVM Basic functions in a digital multimeter for volts
on all de voltage ranges? and ohms.

unit, but most digital meters are larger than

7-9
analog meters.
DIGITAL METERS
The functional blocks in a digital VOM are
These have become popular because the digital
shown in Fig. 7 -26. First the input must be put
readout is displayed automatically with decimal
into a form that fits the needs of the analog-
point, polarity, and units (Fig. 7-23). The con-
digital (A-D) converter. As an example, the de
ventional meter with a pointer is an analog
voltage range of 0 to 1 V may be required for
meter; that is, the deflection corresponds di-
the digital conversion circuit. When the input is
rectly to the measured quantity. Digital meters
ac voltage, it is converted to de voltage. For
are much easier to use, mainly because they
measuring resistance, a direct current is sup-
reduce the human error that often occurs in
plied that converts R to an IR voltage.
reading the different scales on an analog meter.
When the de voltage is too high, it is di-
The digital VOM in Fig. 7-23 is a small, portable
vided down for 0 to 1 V When the de voltage is
too low, it is increased by a de amplifier. This
control voltage can then be compared with a
fixed reference voltage in the meter. The input
resistance for the de voltage range is 10 Mn.
Examples of the digital readout are -4.92
or +4.92 V for de voltage, 250.0-V ac for ac
voltage, and 397 n for the ohmmeter. How
FIGURE 7-25 many "9s" can be displayed specifies the num-
High-voltage probe accessory for VOM. (Trip- ber of digits for the DVM. The display generally
lett Corp.) uses light-emitting diodes (LED).
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 151

The A-D converter has a clock generator

which produces timing pulses and a circuit
which counts the pulses. A special digital logic
IC chip is the heart of the instrument. The IC
input includes timing pulses from the clock and
voltage from a circuit comparing the meter
input with the reference voltage. The output of
the IC chip drives the digital display unit.

Practice Problems 7-9

(answers on page 158)
Answer true or false.
(a} In the digital VOM and analog VIVM, R is
converted to IR voltage for ohms meas- FIGURE 7-27
urements. Inserting a current meter in a series-parallel
(b) An A-D converter has a clock circuit to circuit. At a, b, or c, meter reads IT; at d or e,
generate timing pulses. meter reads 12 ; at for g, meter reads 13 •

the meter. The mistake of connecting a voltme-

7-10 ter in series does not damage the meter, but the
METER APPLICATIONS reading is wrong.
Table 7-5 summarizes the main points to re- If the ohmmeter is connected to a circuit
member in using a voltmeter, ohmmeter, or where power is on, the meter can be damaged,
milliammeter. These rules apply whether the besides giving the wrong reading. An ohmmeter
meter is a single unit or one function on a has its own internal battery, and the power must
multimeter. Also, the voltage and current tests be off in the circuit being tested.
apply to either de or ac circuits.
To avoid excessive current through the Connecting a Current Meter in the Circuit.
meter, it is good practice to start on a high In a series-parallel circuit, the .current meter
range when measuring an unknown value of must be inserted in a branch to read branch
voltage or current. It is very important not to current. In the main line, the meter reads the
make the mistake of connecting a current meter total current. These different connections are
in parallel, because usually this mistake ruins illustrated in Fig. 7-27. The meters are shown

TABLE 7-5. Direct-Current Meters

MILLIAMMETER
VOLTMETER OR AMMETER OHMMETER

Power on in circuit Power on in circuit Power off in circuit

Connect in parallel Connect in series Connect in parallel
High internal R Low internal R Has internal battery
Has internal series Has internal shunts; lower Higher battery voltage and
multipliers; higher R resistance for higher more sensitive meter for
for higher ranges current ranges higher ohms ranges
 Chapter 7
152 Direct-Current Meters

by dashed lines to illustrate the different con- Furthermore, if necessary, we can insert a
nections where one could be connected to read known resistance Rs in series in the circuit,
the respective currents. temporarily, just to measure Vs. Then I is calcu-
If the circuit is opened at point a to insert lated as Vs! Rs. The resistance of Rs, however,
the meter in series in the main line here, it will must be small enough to have little effect on RT
read total line current IT through RI. A meter at and I in the series circuit.
b or c will read the same line current. This technique is often used with oscillo-
In order to read the branch current scopes to produce a voltage waveform of IR
through R2 , this R must be disconnected which has the same waveform as the current in
from its junction with the main line at either a resistor. The oscilloscope must be connected
end. A meter inserted at d or e, therefore, will as a voltmeter because of its high input resist-
read the R2 branch current I2 • Similarly, a meter ance.
at f or g will read the R3 branch current I3 .
Checking Fuses. Turn the power off or re-
Calculating I from Measured Voltage. The move the fuse from the circuit to check with an
inconvenience of opening the circuit to measure ohmmeter. A good fuse reads 0 n. A blown fuse
current can often be eliminated by the use of is open, which reads infinity on the ohmmeter.
Ohm's law. The voltage and resistance can be A fuse can also be checked with the power
measured without opening the circuit and the on in the circuit by using a voltmeter. Connect
current calculated as V/ R. In the example in the voltmeter across the two terminals of the
Fig. 7 -28, when the voltage across R2 is 15 V fuse. A good fuse reads 0 V because there is
and its resistance is 15 Q, the current through practically no IR drop. With an open fuse,
R2 must be 1 A. When values are checked dur- though, the voltmeter reading is equal to the full
ing troubleshooting, if the voltage and resist- value of the applied voltage. Having the full
ance are normal, so is the current. applied voltage seems to be a good idea, but it
This technique can also be convenient for should not be across the fuse.
determining I in low-resistance circuits where
the resistance of a microammeter may be too Voltage Tests for an Open Circuit. Figure
high. Instead of measuring I, measure V and R 7 -29 shows four equal resistors in series with a
to calculate I as VI R. 100-V source. A ground return is shown here
because voltage measurements are usually
made to chassis ground. Normally, each resis-
tor would have an IR drop of 25 V. Then, at
point B the voltmeter to ground should read
100 - 25 = 75 V. Also, the voltage at C should
= 20V be 50 V, with 25 V at D.
However, the circuit is shown with an open
in R3 , toward the end of the series string of
voltages to ground. Now, when you measure at
B, the reading is 100 V, equal to the applied
FIGURE 7-28 voltage. This full voltage at B shows the series
With 15 V measured across 15 S1, the current I circuit is open without any IR drop across RI.
is V!R = 1 A The question is, however, which R has the
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 153

100 v ov
c D
x
R3, R4
open 10 n
v

T
100

FIGURE 7-29
1
Voltage tests to localize an open circuit. R3 is
G

normally 10 Q. Reading of 0 Vat point D shows

R3 is open.

open? Continue the voltage measurements to between any two points along the conductor
ground until you find 0 V In this example, the tests continuity. A break in the conducting path
open is in R3 , between the 100 V at C and 0 V is evident from a reading of infinite resistance,
at D. showing an open circuit.
The points that read the full applied volt- As another application of checking conti-
age have a path back to the source of voltage. nuity, suppose there is a cable of wires har-
The first point that reads 0 V has no path back nessed together as illustrated in Fig. 7-30,
to the high side of the source. Therefore, the where the individual wires cannot be seen, but it
open circuit must be between points C and D in is desired to find the conductor that connects to
Fig. 7-29. terminal A. This is done by checking continuity
for each conductor to point A. The wire that has
Practice Problems 7-10 zero ohms to A is the one connected to this
(answers on page 158) terminal. Often the individual wires are color-
(a) Which type of meter requires an internal coded, but it may be necessary to check the
battery? continuity of each lead.
(b) How much is the normal voltage across a
good fuse?

7-11
CHECKING CONTINUITY WITH
3
THE OHMMETER
A wire conductor that is continuous without a
break has practically zero ohms of resistance.
Therefore, the ohmmeter can be useful in test-
ing for continuity. This test should be done on
the lowest ohms range. There are many appli-
Ohmmeter
cations. A wire conductor can have an internal reads zero
break, which is not visible because of the insu- FIGURE 7-30
lated cover, or the wire can have a bad connec- Continuity from A to 3 shows this wire is con-
tion at the terminal. Checking for zero ohms nected to terminal A.
 Chapter 7
154 Direct-Current Meters

An additional technique that can be helpful ance means that the wire element is open.
is illustrated in Fig. 7-31. Here it is desired to Similarly, a good fuse has practically zero re-
check the continuity of the two-wire line, but its sistance; a burned-out fuse has infinite resist-
ends are too far apart for the ohmmeter leads to ance, meaning it is open. Also, any coil for
reach. The two conductors are temporarily transformers, solenoids, and motors will have
short-circuited at one end, however, so that the infinite resistance if the winding is open.
continuity of both wires can be checked at the
other end.
In summary, then, the ohmmeter is helpful Practice Problems 7-11
in checking the continuity of any wire conduc- (answers on page 158)
tor. This check includes resistance-wire heating (a) On a back-off ohmmeter, is zero ohms at
elements, li)5e the wires in a toaster or the fila- the left or right edge?
ment of an incandescent bulb. Their cold resist- (b) What is the ohmmeter reading for an open
ance is normally just a few ohms. lnfinit~ resist- circuit?

2-wire cable

Ohmmeter
reads zero
FIGURE 7-31
Temporary short circuit at one end of a long
two-wire line to check continuity from oppo-
site end.

Summary

1. Direct current in a moving-coil meter deflects the coil in proportion to

the amount of current.
2. A current meter is a low-resistance meter connected in series to read
the amount of current in the circuit.
3. A meter shunt Rs in parallel with the meter movement extends the
range of a current meter [see Formula (7 -1)].
4. A voltmeter consists of the meter movement in series with a high-
resistance multiplier. The voltmeter with its multiplier is connected
across two points to measure their potential difference in volts. The
multiplier R can be calculated from Formula (7 -3 ).
5. The ohms-per-volt rating of a voltmeter with series multipliers spec-
ifies the sensitivity on all voltage ranges. It equals the reciprocal of the
full-scale deflection current of the meter. A typical value is
20,000 0,/V for a voltmeter using a 50-µA movement. The higher the
ohms-per-volt rating, the better.
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 155

6. Voltmeter resistance Rv is higher for higher ranges because of

higher-resistance multipliers. Multiply the ohms-per-volt rating by the
voltage range to calculate Rv.
7. An ohmmeter consists of an internal battery in series with the meter
movement. Power must be off in the circuit being checked with an
ohmmeter. The series ohmmeter has a back-off scale with zero ohms
at the right edge and infinity at the left. Adjust for zero ohms with the
leads short-circuited each time the ohms range is changed.
8. The VOM (Fig. 7-21) is a portable multimeter to measure volts,
ohms, and milliamperes.
9. The VIVM (Fig. 7-22) is a multimeter with a high R of 11 MQ for all
de voltage ranges, resulting in practically no loading effect. Also, its R
ranges allow readings up to 1000 MQ.
10. The digital VOM (Fig. 7-25) generally has an input resistance of
10 MQ on all de voltage ranges.
11. In checking wire conductors, the ohmmeter reads 0 Q or very low R
for normal continuity and infinite ohms for an open.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. To connect a current meter in series: (a) open the circuit at one point
and use the meter to complete the circuit; (b) open the circuit at the
positive and negative terminals of the voltage source; (c) short-circuit
the resistance to be checked and connect the meter across it;
(d) open the circuit at one point and connect the meter to one end.
2. To connect a voltmeter in parallel to read an IR drop: (a) open the
circuit at one end and use the meter to complete the circuit; (b) open
the circuit at two points and connect the meter across both points;
(c) allow the circuit to remain as is and connect the meter across the
resistance; (d) allow the circuit to remain closed but disconnect the
voltage source.
3. A shunt for a milliammeter (a) extends the range and reduces the
meter resistance; (b) extends the range and increases the meter
resistance; (c) decreases the range and the meter resistance;
(d) decreases the range but increases the meter resistance.
4. For a 50-µA movement with 2000-Q rM, its voltage VM at full-scale
deflection is (a) 0.1 V; (b) 0.2 V; (c) 0.5 V; (d) 250 µV.
5. A voltmeter using a 20-µA meter movement has a sensitivity of
(a) 1000 Q/V; (b) 20,000 Q/V; (c) 50,000 Q/V; (d) 11 MQ/V.
 Chapter 7
156 Direct-Current Meters

6. When using an ohmmeter, disconnect the applied voltage from the

circuit being checked because: (a) the voltage source will increase the
resistance; (b) the current will decrease the resistance; (c) the ohm-
meter has its own internal battery; (d) no current is needed for the
meter movement.
7. A multiplier for a voltmeter is (a) a high resistance in series with the
meter movement; (b) a high resistance in parallel with the meter
movement; (c) usually less than 1 n in series with the meter move-
ment; (d) usually less than 1 n in parallel with the meter movement.
8. To double the current range of a 50-µA2000-n meter movement, the
shunt resistance is (a) 40 n; (b) 50 n; (c) 2000 n; (d) 18,000 n.
9. With a 50-µA movement, a VOM has an input resistance of 6 Mn on
the de voltage range of (a) 3; (b) 12; (c) 60; (d) 300.
10. For a 1-V range, a 50-µA movement with an internal R of 2000 n
needs a multiplier resistance of (a) 1 kn; (b) 3 kn; (c) 18 kn;
(d) 50 kn.

Essay Questions
1. (a) Why is a milliammeter connected in series in a circuit? (b) Why
should the milliammeter have low resistance?
2. (a) Why is a voltmeter connected in parallel in a circuit? (b) Why
should the voltmeter have high resistance?
3. A circuit has a battery across two resistances in series. (a) Draw a
diagram showing how to connect a milliammeter in the correct
polarity to read current through the junction of the two resistances.
(b) Draw a diagram showing how to connect a voltmeter in the
correct polarity to read the voltage across one resistance.
4. Explain briefly why a meter shunt equal to the resistance of the
moving coil doubles the current range.
5. Describe how to adjust the ZERO OHMS control on a back-off ohmme-
ter.
6. Describe how to set the ZERO voLTs and OHMS ADJUST controls on a
VIVM.
7. Give two advantages of the digital VOM in Fig. 7 -23 compared with
the conventional VOM in Fig. 7 -21.
8. What is the function of the ZERO OHMS control in the circuit of a
back-off ohmmeter?
9. State two precautions to be observed when you use a milliammeter.
10. State two precautions to be observed when you use an ohmmeter.
11. The resistance of a voltmeter Rv is 300 kn on the 300-V range when
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 157

measuring 300 V. Why is Rv still 300 kQ when measuring 250 V on

the same range?
12. Redraw the schematic diagram in Fig. 5-lb, in Chap. 5, showing a
milliammeter to read line current through RI and R2 , a meter for R3
branch current, and a meter for R4 branch current. Label polarities
on each meter.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back

of book.)

1. Calculate the shunt resistance needed to extend the range of a 50-Q

1-mA movement to (a) 2 mA; (b) 10 mA; (c) 100 mA; (d) In each
case, how much current is indicated by half-scale deflection?
2. With a 50-Q 1-mA movement, calculate the multiplier resistances
needed for ranges of (a) 10 V; (b) 30 V; (c) 100 V; (d) 300 V. How
much voltage is indicated by half-scale deflection for each range?
3. A voltmeter reads 30 Vacross a 100-Q resistance. (a) How much is
the current in the resistor? (b) If the current through the same
resistance were doubled, how much would its IR voltage be?
4. A voltmeter has a sensitivity of 10,000 Q/V on all ranges. (a) How
much is the total voltmeter resistance on the 5-V range? (b) On the
50-V range? (c) On the 500-V range? (d) How much is the voltmeter
resistance for a reading of 225 Von the 500-V range?
5. A 50-µA meter movement has an internal resistance of 1000 Q.
(a) Calculate the multiplier resistance needed for voltmeter ranges of
10, 30, and 500 V. (b) How much is the ohms-per-volt sensitivity
rating on all ranges? (c) How much is the voltmeter resistance on the
500-V range?
6. For the same meter movement as in Prob. 5, calculate the shunt
resistances needed for current ranges of 10, 30, and 500 mA. How
much is the resistance of the meter with its shunt on each range?
(Note: 1mA=1000 µA.)
7. Referring to the universal shunt in Fig. 7-9, calculate the required
values of RI, R2 , and R3 for a 50-µA, 2000-Q movement to provide
current ranges of 1.2, 12, and 120 mA.
8. Referring to the voltmeter loading problem in Fig. 7-14, exactly how
much voltage would be indicated by a 20,000 ohms-per-volt meter
on its 100-V range?
9. Refer to the ohmmeter in Fig. 7-17. Assume that the movement is
shunted to become a 10-mA meter. (a) Calculate the value of RI that
would be required for full-scale deflection with the ohmmeter leads
 Chapter 7
158 Direct-Current Meters

short-circuited. (b) How much would the half-scale reading be on the

ohms scale?
10. Refer to Fig. 7-13. (a) How much is the total voltmeter resistance
using the 5000-V jack with the range switch on the 1000-V position?
(b) How much is the ohms-per-volt sensitivity? (c) Why must the
range switch be on the 1000-V position?
11. In Fig. 7-14, if the voltmeter is connected across R1 instead of R2 ,
what will the values be for \1i and \'z?

Answers to Practice Problems

7-1 (a) Parallel 7-6 (a) \1i = 80 V
(b) Series (b) \'z = 40 v
7-2 (a) I= 100 mA 7-7 (a) Rx= 400 n
(b) R3 (b) V=4V
(c) Low 7-8 (a) VOM
(d) High (b) 11 Mn
7-3 (a) I8 = 450 µA 7-9 (a) True
(b) VM = 0.045 v (b) True
7-4 (a) IM= 1 mA 7-10 (a) Ohmmeter
(b) IM= 1 mA (b) 0v
7-5 (a) Rv = 50 kn 7-11 (a) Right edge
(b) Rv = 1 Mn (b) oo ohms
 Review of
Cbapt•s
eand7

Summary
1. In a series voltage divider the IR drop across each resistance is
proportional to its R. A larger R has a larger voltage drop. Each
V = (RI RT) x Vr In this way, the series voltage drops can be
calculated from VT without I.
2. In a parallel current divider, each branch current is inversely
proportional to its R. A smaller R has more branch current. For
only two resistances, we can use the inverse relation
I1 = [R2 1(R1 + R2 )] X Ir· In this way, the parallel branch currents
can be calculated from IT without V.
3. In a parallel current divider, each branch current is directly propor·
tional to its conductance G. A larger G has more branch current. For
any number of parallel resistances, each branch I = (QI GT) X IT.
4. A milliammetet or ammeteris a low·resistance meter connecrted in
series in a circuit to measure current.
5. Different current ranges are obtained by meter shunts in paraHel with
the·meter.
6. Avoltmeteris a high-resistance meter connected across the voltage
to be· measured. ·
7. Different voltage ranges are obtained by multipliers in series with the
meter.
8. An ohmmeter has an internalbattery to indicate the resistance of~
component across its two terminals, with external power off.
9. In making resistance tests, remember R = 0 Sl for continuity or a
short circuit, but the resistance .of an open circuit is infinite.
160 Review of Chapters 6 and 7

Review Self-Examination (Answers at back of

book.)

Answer true or false.

1. The internal R of a milliammeter must be low to have minimum effect

on I in the circuit.
2. The internal R of a voltmeter must be high to have minimum current
through the meter.
3. Power must be off when checking resistance in a circuit because the
ohmmeter has its own internal battery.
4. In the series voltage divider in Fig. 7-29, the normal voltage from
point B to ground is 75 V.
5. In Fig. 7 -29, the normal voltage across R1 , between A and B, is 75 V.
6. The highest ohms range is best for checking continuity with an
ohmmeter.
7. With four equal resistors in a series voltage divider with VT of 44.4 V,
each IR drop is 11.1 V.
8. With four equal resistors in parallel with IT of 44.4 mA, each branch
current is 11.1 mA.
9. Series voltage drops divide VT in direct proportion to each series R.
10. Parallel currents divide IT in direct proportion to each branch R.

References (Additional references at back of book.)

Herrick, C. N.: "Instruments and Measurements for Electronics,"

McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Prensky, S. D.: "Electronic Instrumentation," Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J.
Zbar, P. B.: "Basic Electricity," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
 Klrcbboff's
Laws
Many types of circuits have components that are not in series, in parallel,
or in series-parallel. One example is a circuit with two voltages applied in Cbapl

8
different branches, as in Fig. 8-3. Another example is an unbalanced
bridge circuit. Where the rules of series and parallel circuits cannot be
applied, more general methods of analysis become necessary. These
methods include the application of Kirchhoff's laws, as described here,
and the network theorems explained in Chap. 9. Any circuit can be solved
by Kirchhoff's laws because they do not depend on series or parallel
connections. Stated in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav R. Kirchhoff,
the two basic rules for voltage and current are:
1. The algebraic sum of the voltage sources and IR voltage drops must
total zero around any closed path.
2. At any point in a circuit the algebraic sum of the currents directed in
and out must total zero.
Specific methods for applying these basic rules are explained in the
following topics:

8-1 Kirchhoff's Current Law

8-2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
8-3 Method of Branch Currents
8-4 NodeNoltage Analysis
8-5 Method of Mesh Currents

8-1 tions that determine the algebraic signs for cur-

KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW rent and voltage terms; A convenient system for
The algebraic sum of the currents entering and currents is: Consider all currents into a branch
leaving any point in a circuit must equal zero. point as positive and all currents directed away
Or stated another way: The algebraic sum of the from that point as negative.
currents into any point of the circuit must equal As an example, in Fig. 8-1 we can write the
the algebraic sum of the currents out of that currents as:
point. Otherwise, charge would accumulate at
the point, instead of having a conducting path.
or
Algebraic Signs. In using Kirchhoff's laws to
solve circuits it is necessary to adopt conven- 5A+3A-8A=0
 Chapter 8
162 Kirchhoff's Laws

6A-2A-4A=0
For the opposite directions, refer to point d
at the bottom of Fig. 8-2. Here the branch cur-
rents into d combine to equal the main-line
current IT returning to the voltage source. Now
IT is directed out from d, with 13 and 14 _5 directed
in. The algebraic equation is

- IT + l3 + !4_5 = 0
Current 10 out from P equals 5 A + 3 A into P -6A+2A+4A=0

IA and IB are positive terms because these cur- The Iin = lout· Note that at either point c or
rents flow into P, but 10 directed out is negative. point din Fig. 8-2, the sum of the 2-A and 4-A
branch currents must equal the 6-A total line
Current Equations. For a circuit application, current. Therefore, Kirchhoff's current law can
refer to point c at the top of the diagram in be stated more briefly as: 4n = lout· In Fig. 8-2,
Fig. 8-2. The 6-A IT into point c divides into the the equations of current can be written:
2-A 13 and 4-A 14 _5 , both directed out. Note that At point c: 6A=2A+4A
14 _5 is the current through R4 and R5 . The alge- At point d: 2A+4A=6A
braic equation is
Kirchhoff's current law is really the basis for the
practical rule in parallel circuits that the total
line current must equal the sum of the branch
Substituting the values for these currents, currents.

v 1 = 30 v v4 = 40 v
a R 1 =5.Q c R 4 =10.Q e
---~~~ v-+~~~--~~--'~J ,~.,......+~~--
--+ --+
I 4 _5 = 4 A
IT= 6A I 3 = 2 A:
+
R3 = V3 = Rs= Vs=
VT= 240 V
60.Q 120 v 20 n so v
+ + +
I3 = 2 A l
IT= 6A
+--
+ I 4 _5 = 4 A
+--
b d f

FIGURE 8-2
Series-parallel circuit to illustrate Kirchhoff's
laws. See text for current and voltage equa-
tions.
 Chapter 8
Kirchhoff's Laws 163

Practice Problems 8-1 The inside loop acdba includes \'i, \'3, Vz,
(answers on page 174) and VT. The other inside loop, cefdc with \'4, \fs,
(a) With a 1-A 11 , 2-A 12 , and 3-A 13 into a and \'3, does not include the voltage source.
point, how much is I out? Consider the voltage equation for the in-
(b) 11 into a point is 3 A. I out is 7 A. How side loop with VT. In the clockwise direction,
much is 12 in? starting from point a, the algebraic sum of the
voltages is
8-2
KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW
The algebraic sum of the voltages around any
or
closed path is zero. If you start from any point at
one potential and come back to the same point
and the same potential, the difference of poten-
-30 v- 120 v - 90 v + 240 v = 0
tial must be zero.
\'i, \'3, and Vz have the negative sign, because
for each of these voltages the negative terminal
Algebraic Signs. In determining the algebraic is reached first. However, the source VT is a
signs for voltage terms, first mark the polarity of positive term because its plus terminal is
each voltage, as shown in Fig. 8-2. A conven- reached first, going in the same direction.
ient system then is: Go around any closed path For the opposite direction, going counter-
and consider any voltage whose plus terminal is clockwise, in the same loop from point b at the
reached first as positive, and vice versa. This bottom, Vz, \'3, and Vi have positive values and
method applies to voltage drops and voltage VT is negative. Then
sources. Also, the direction can be clockwise or
counterclockwise. In any case, if you come back
to the starting point, the algebraic sum of all the
voltage terms must be zero. or
If you do not come back to the start, then
the algebraic sum is the voltage between the 90 v + 120 v + 30 v - 240 v= 0
start and finish points.
You can follow any closed path. The rea- When we transpose the negative term of
son is that the net voltage between any two -240 V, the equation becomes
points in a circuit is the same regardless of the
path used in determining the potential differ- 90 v + 120 v + 30 v = 240 v
ence.
This equation states that the sum of the voltage
Loop Equations. Any closed path is called a drops equals the applied voltage.
loop. A loop equation specifies the voltages
around the loop. l:V = VT. The Greek letter :L means "sum of."
Figure 8-2 has three loops. The outside In either direction, for any loop, the sum of the
loop, starting from point a at the top, through IR voltage drops V must equal the applied volt-
cefdb, and back to a, includes the voltage drops age VT. In Fig. 8-2, for the inside loop with the
\'i, \'4, \fs, and Vz, and the source VT. source VT,
 Chapter 8
164 Kirchhoff's Laws

Counterclockwise from b: terminal is reached first by going clockwise from

90V + 120V + 30V = 240V d to c in this loop.

This system does not contradict the rule for Practice Problems 8-2
algebraic signs. If 24