METAL CASTING PROCESSES

• Sand Casting

• Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes

• Permanent Mold Casting Processes

• Foundry Practice

• Casting Quality

• Metals for Casting

g

• Product Design Considerations

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Two Categories of Metal Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to
remove p
part after solidification
– Advantage: more complex shapes possible

– Disadvantage:
Disad antage prod
production
ction rates limited b
by time to make
mold rather than casting itself

2 Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal

2.
and can be used to make many castings
– Advantage:
g higher
g p
production rates

– Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold

without destroying it

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Overview of Sand Casting
g

• Most widely used casting process

• Nearly all alloys can be sand cast, including metals

with high
g melting g temperatures,
p such as steel, nickel,
and titanium alloys

• Parts ranging in size from small to very large

• Production quantities from one to millions

• Heat treatment is sometimes required afterwards to

improve metallurgical properties

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11.1 - A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg for an air compressor
frame
(
(courtesy
t Elkhart
Elkh t FFoundry,
d photo
h t bby P
Paragon IInc , Elkh
Elkhart,
t IIndiana)
di )

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Making the Sand Mold
• The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing
sand around a pattern, then separating the mold into
two halves and removing g the p
pattern

• The mold must also contain gating and riser system

• If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be

included in mold

• A new sand mold must be made for each part

produced

Source:
[Link]
[Link]
Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Source: Wikipedia

Figure 11.2 - Steps in the production sequence in sand casting. The steps include not only the
casting operation but also pattern-making and mold-making

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 The Pattern

• A model of the part, with shrinkage and machining

allowances, and draft

• Common pattern materials:

– Wood: common material because it is easy to work, but it warps

– Metal: more expensive to make, but lasts much longer

– Plastic: compromise between wood and metal

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Figure 11.3 - Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Core

• Inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring

• The molten metal flows and solidifies around the core to

form the casting's internal surfaces

• May require supports, called chaplets, to hold it in

position in the mold cavity during pouring

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11.4 - (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets
(b) possible chaplet design
(c) final casting with internal cavity

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Desirable Mold Properties
• Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion

• Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through

voids in sand

• Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with

molten metal

• Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to

shrink without cracking the casting

• Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to

make other molds?

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Foundry Sands
• Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals

• Good refractory properties

• Small grain size yields better surface finish

• Large grain size is more permeable

• Irregular grain shapes tend to strengthen molds due

to interlocking, compared to round grains
– Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Binders Used with Foundry Sands

• Sand is held together by a mixture of water and

bonding clay
– Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay

• Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:

– Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
– Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)

• Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture

t enhance
to h strength
t th and/or
d/ permeability
bilit

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Types of Sand Mold

• Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water;

– “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring
p g

• Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather than clay; and

mold is baked to improve strength. Disadvantages? ?

• Ski
Skin-dried ld - mold
d i d mold ld cavity
it surface
f iis d
dried
i d tto a d
depth
th
of 10 to 25 mm, using torches or heating lamps

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Buoyancy in Sand Casting Operation

• During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal tends to

displace the core

• Core displacement can cause casting to be defective

Source:
[Link]
[Link]

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Other Expendable Mold
Casting
g Processes
• Shell Molding

• Vacuum Molding

• Expanded Polystyrene Process

• Investment Casting

• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Shell Molding
• Mold is a thin shell of sand held together by
thermosettingg resin binder

• Developed
p in Germany
y during
g early
y 1940s

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11.5 - Steps in shell-molding: (1) a match-plate or
cope-and-drag metal pattern is heated and placed over
a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11.5 - Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so that
sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the
mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11.5 - Steps in shell-molding: (3) box is repositioned
so that loose uncured particles drop away

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11.5 - Steps in shell-molding:
(4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete curing
(5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure
g 11.5 - Steps
p in shell-molding:
g
(6) two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand
or metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished
(7) the finished casting with sprue removed

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
off Shell
Sh ll M
Molding
ldi
• Advantages:
– Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten metal
and better surface finish on casting
– Good dimensional accuracy
– Machining often not required
– Mold collapsibility usually avoids cracks in casting
– Can be mechanized for mass production

• Disadvantages:
– More expensive metal pattern
– Difficult to justify for small quantities
Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Vacuum Molding

• Uses sand mold held together by vacuum pressure

rather than byy a chemical binder

• The term "vacuum" refers to mold making rather than

casting operation itself

• Developed in Japan around 1970

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Vacuum Molding

• Advantages:
– Easy recovery of the sand
sand, since binders not used

– Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning normally done

when binders are used

– Moisture-related defects are absent

• Disadvantages:
– Slow
Slo process

– Not readily adaptable to mechanization

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene
foam p
pattern,, which vaporizes
p when molten metal is
poured into mold

• Other names: lost-foam pprocess, lost p

pattern
process, evaporative-foam process, and full-mold
process

• Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers,

gating system, and internal cores (if needed)

• Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag

sections – no draft needed

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11.7 - Expanded polystyrene casting process:
(1) pattern of polystyrene is coated with refractory compound

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11
11.7
7 - Expanded polystyrene casting process:
(2) foam pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is
compacted around the pattern

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11.7 - Expanded polystyrene casting process:
(3) molten metal is poured into the portion of the pattern that forms
the pouring cup and sprue. As the metal enters the mold, the
polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid,
g the resulting
thus allowing g mold cavity
y to be filled.

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Expanded
p Polystyrene
y y Process
• Advantages:
– Pattern need not be removed from the mold: no draft needed
– Simplifies and expedites mold-making, since two mold halves
(cope and drag) are not required

• Disadvantages:
– A new pattern is needed for every casting
– Economic justification of the process is dependent on cost of
producing
d i patterns
tt

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

• A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory

material to make mold,, after which wax is melted
away prior to pouring molten metal

• "Investment" comes from one of the less familiar

definitions of "invest" - "to cover completely," which
refers to coating of refractory material around wax
p
pattern

• It is a precision casting process - capable of high

accuracyy and intricate detail

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11.8 - Steps in investment casting:
(1) wax patterns are produced
(2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11.8 - Steps in investment casting:
(3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material
(4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with sufficient
refractory material to make it rigid

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11.8 - Steps in investment casting:
(5) the mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the
wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Figure 11.8 - Steps in investment
casting:
(6) the mold is preheated to a
high temperature, which
ens res that all contaminants
ensures
are eliminated from the mold;
it also permits the liquid metal
to flow more easily into the
detailed cavity; the molten
metal is poured; it solidifies

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11
11.8
8 - Steps in investment casting:
(7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting -
parts are separated from the sprue

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Investment Casting

• Advantages:
– Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
– Close dimensional control and good surface finish
– Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
– Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net
shape process

• Disadvantages
– Many processing steps are required
– Relatively expensive process

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 11. 9 - A one-piece compressor stator with 108 separate
airfoils made by investment casting (courtesy Howmet Corp )

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Plaster Mold Casting

• Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster of

Paris (gy
(gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O))

• Wet plaster is poured over pattern and allowed to set

– Wood patterns not generally used due to extended contact with
water

• Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern, capturing its

fine details and good surface finish

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Plaster Mold Casting
g

• Advantages:
– Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
– Capability to make thin cross-sections in casting

• Disadvantages:
– Moisture in plaster mold causes problems:
• Mold must be baked to remove moisture

• Mold strength is lost when is over-baked, yet moisture content can

cause defects in product

– Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so limited to

lower melting point alloys

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Ceramic Mold Casting
• Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is
made of refractoryy ceramic materials that can
withstand higher temperatures than plaster

• Ceramic molding can be used to cast steels, cast

irons, and other high-temperature alloys

• Applications similar to those of plaster mold casting

except for the metals cast

• Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also similar

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes

• In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many

times

• The processes include:

– Basic permanent mold casting

– Die casting

– Centrifugal casting

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
The Basic Permanent Mold Casting Process

• Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed

for easy,
y precise opening
g and closing
g

• Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are

commonly made of steel or cast iron

• Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory

material, due to the very high pouring temperatures

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Advantages and Limitations of
Permanent Mold Casting g
• Advantages:
– Good dimensional control and surface finish

– More rapid solidification results in a finer grain structure, so

stronger castings are produced

• Limitations:
– Generally
G limited to metals off lower melting point

– Simple part geometries compared to sand casting because

of the need to open the mold without destroying it or the part

– High cost of mold

– More complicated handling; mold must be opened

immediately after solidification – why?
Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Applications of Permanent Mold Casting

• Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high

volume production and can be automated accordingly gy

• Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and

certain castings for aircraft and missiles

• Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,

copper-base alloys, and cast iron

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Variations of Permanent Mold Casting

• Slush casting: Used for making hollow parts; the mold is

inverted after partial solidification to drain out inner
molten fluid

• Low-pressure casting: Cleaner molten metal from below

the surface is supplied to mold cavity using low air
pressure (~
( 0.1
0 1 MPa)
MPa). Yields parts with improved
mechanical properties

• Vacuum permanent-mold casting: Similar to above,

except vaccum/suction from mold side is used to draw
clean sub
clean, sub-surface
surface molten metal into cavity

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Die Casting
• A permanent mold casting process in which molten
metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure

• Pressure (7 – 350 MPa) is maintained during

solidification then mold is opened and part is
solidification,
removed

• Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence

the name die casting

• Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is

what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Die Casting Machines

• Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves

and keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into
cavity

• Two main types:

1. Hot-chamber machine
2 Cold-chamber
2. Cold chamber machine

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

• Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects

liquid metal under high pressure into the die

• High production rates - 500 parts per hour not

uncommon

• Applications limited to low melting-point

melting point metals that
do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components

• Casting metals: Zn, Sn, Pb, and Mg

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting
• Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from
external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity

• High
g pproduction but not usually
y as fast as
hot-chamber machines because of pouring step

• Casting metals: Al, Brass, and Mg alloys

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Molds for Die Casting
• Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging
steel

• W and Mo (good refractory qualities) used to die cast

steel and cast iron

• Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it

opens

• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent

sticking

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Advantages and Limitations of
Die Casting
g
• Advantages:
– Economical for large production quantities

– Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

– Thin sections are possible (down to 0

0.5
5 mm)

– Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to

casting
g

• Disadvantages:
– Generally limited to metals with low metal points

– Part geometry must allow removal from die cavity

– Flash?
Fl h?

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Centrifugal Casting

• A group of casting processes in which the mold is rotated

at high
g speed so centrifugal
g force distributes molten
metal to outer regions of die cavity

• The g
group
p includes:
– True centrifugal casting

– Semicentrifugal casting

– Centrifuge casting

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 True Centrifugal Casting
• Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce
a tubular part

• In some operations, mold rotation commences after

pouring rather than before

• Parts: p
pipes,
p tubes, bushings,
g and rings
g

• Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,

h
hexagonal, l etc
t ,b
butt iinside
id shape
h iis (th
(theoretically)
ti ll )
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Figure 11.15 - Setup for true centrifugal casting

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Semicentrifugal Casting

• Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather

than tubular parts
• Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed
metal
• Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
• Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion where
quality is lowest
• Examples: wheels and pulleys

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Semicentrifugal Casting - 2

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Centrifuge Casting

• Mold is designed with part cavities located away from

axis of rotation, so that molten metal poured into mold is
distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force

• Used for smaller parts

• Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other

centrifugal casting methods

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Centrifuge Casting

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Ladles
• Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold is
sometimes done using crucibles

• More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

Figure 11.21
11 21 - Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle
ladle, and (b) two-man ladle

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Additional Steps After Solidification

• Trimming

• Removing the core

• Surface cleaning

• Inspection

• Repair, if required

• Heat treatment

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Trimming
• Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash,
fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal from the cast
partt
• For brittle casting alloys and when cross-sections are
relatively small
small, appendages can be broken off
• Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing,
band-sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various torch
cutting methods are used

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Removing the Core
• If cores have been used, they must be removed

• Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of

casting
g as the binder deteriorates

• Can be removed by shaking casting – manually or

mechanically
h i ll

• In rare cases
cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent

• Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Surface Cleaning

• Tumbling, air-blasting with coarse sand grit or metal

shot, wire brushing,
g buffing,
g and chemical pickling
g

• Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting,

whereas in many permanent mold processes, this step
can be avoided

• Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is needed

to detect their presence

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Heat Treatment

• Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties

• Reasons for heat treating a casting:

– For subsequent
q p
processing
g operations
p such as machining
g
– To bring out the desired properties for the application of the part
in service

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Casting Quality

• There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong

in a casting
g operation

• Casting defects can be classified as follows:

– Defects common to all casting processes
– Defects related to sand casting process

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold
cavity

Figure
g 11.22 - Some common defects in castings:
g ((a)) misrun

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of
fusion due to premature freezing

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form
and become entrapped in casting

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
g
molten metal available in last region to freeze

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Sand Blow
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold
gases during pouring

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate
into sand mold or sand core, causing casting surface
to consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal

Figure 11
11.23
23 - Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise
relative displacement of cope and drag

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Foundry Inspection Methods

• Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as

misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws

• Dimensional measurements to insure that tolerances

have been met

• Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests

concerned with quality of cast metal

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Metals for Casting

• Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather than

pure metals
– Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties of product are
better

• Casting alloys can be classified as:

– Ferrous
F

– Nonferrous

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron
• Most important of all casting alloys

• Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of

all other metals combined

• Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3)
white cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast
irons

• Typical pouring temperatures ∼ 1400°C, depending

on composition
iti

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel
• The mechanical properties of steel make it an attractive
engineering material

• The capability to create complex geometries makes

casting an attractive shaping process

• Difficulties faced by the foundry working with steel:

– P
Pouring
i ttemperature
t off steel
t l is
i higher
hi h ththan ffor mostt other
th casting
ti
metals ∼ 1650°C

– At these temperatures
temperatures, steel readily oxidizes
oxidizes, so molten metal
must be isolated from air

– Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum

• Generally considered to be very castable

• Pouring temperatures relatively lower – melting

temperature of aluminum Tm = 660°C

• Properties:
– Light
g weight
g

– Range of strength properties by heat treatment

– Ease
E off machining
hi i

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper Alloys

• Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze

• Properties:
– Corrosion resistance

– Attractive appearance

– Good bearing qualities

• Limitation: high cost of copper

• Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades, pump

components, ornamental jewelry

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys

• Highly castable, commonly used in die casting

• Low melting point – melting point of zinc Tm = 419°C

• Good fluidity for ease of casting

• Properties:
– Low creep strength, so castings cannot be subjected to
prolonged high stresses

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Product Design Considerations: Geometric Simplicity

• Although casting can be used to produce complex part

geometries, simplifying
g y g the part design
g will improve
castability

• Avoiding
g unnecessary
y complexities:
p
– Simplifies mold-making

– Reduces the need for cores

– Improves the strength of the casting

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Product Design Considerations:
Corners
• Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, since they
are sources of stress concentrations and mayy cause hot
tearing and cracks

• Generous fillets should be designed on inside corners

and sharp edges should be blended

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Product Design Considerations:
Draft Guidelines
• In expendable mold casting, purpose of draft is to
facilitate removal of pattern from mold ((1° for sand
casting)

• In p
permanent mold casting,g, p
purpose
p is to aid in removal
of the part from the mold (2° to 3° for permanent mold
processes)

• Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are used

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 • Minor changes in part design can reduce need for
coring

Figure 11.25 – Design change to eliminate the need for using a core:
(a) original design, and (b) redesign

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Product Design Considerations:
Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish

Significant
Si ifi t diff
differences in
i di
dimensional
i l accuracies
i andd
finishes can be achieved in castings, depending on
p
process:

• Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for sand

casting

• Good dimensional accuracies and finish for die

casting and investment casting

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Product Design Considerations: Machining Allowances

• Almost all sand castings must be machined to achieve

the required dimensions and part features

• Additional material, called the machining allowance,

must be left on the casting
g in those surfaces where
machining is necessary

• Typical machining allowances for sand castings are

around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.