Laboratory

Gases

PSD 184
Continuing Education from Plumbing Systems & Design

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012

PSDMAGAZINE.ORG
 CONTINUING EDUCATION

This chapter describes the design criteria and central piping determining the amount and location of these cylinders. The
distribution methods for various laboratory-grade specialty final decision to adhere to provisions of this standard depends
gas systems, including pure compressed air used for labora- on the client, the requirements of the client’s insurance car-
tory processes. For the purposes of this chapter, a compressed rier, and the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ).
gas is any gas at a pressure higher than atmospheric pres- The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) pro-
sure. Also included in the discussion are various specialty vides health hazard classifications, fire hazard classifications,
compressed air and gas systems typically used for organic and sudden release of pressure hazard classifications. All of
and inorganic chemistry, physics, and biological laboratories these ratings and the associated precautions are available on
and those used for research, development, and commercial material safety data sheets (MSDS). For instance, gases that
purposes. The gases and their delivery systems used in these fall under the “Reactive Hazard” classification must be kept
types of facilities are characterized by low delivery pressures, separate from each other, typically with walls, nonpermanent
low and intermittent volumes, and high purity requirements. solid separators available from the gas supplier, or gas cabi-
This chapter concentrates on cylinder and dewer supply and nets. The EPA also publishes threshold limit values for the
the local generation of such gases. degree of concentration of any particular gas in ambient air
For a discussion of all phases of standard compressed air, for breathing purposes.
compressor types, compressor accessories, fundamentals,
and definitions not discussed here, refer to Chapter 9 of this PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR
volume. For a discussion of compressed air for healthcare Because purified air is a specialty gas, it is important for the
facilities, refer to Chapter 2. engineer to analyze standard laboratory (free) air to deter-
mine if the end use requires further purifying of the air and
CODES AND STANDARDS how to select equipment to accomplish this.
The building codes and standards impacting the design Free air is a mixture of many elements and compounds.
and installation of the various specialty gas systems have The composition of dry air is listed in Table 12-1. Pure air is
been put in place to protect the safety and health of operat- odorless, tasteless, and free of chemicals unless some foreign
ing personnel and building occupants. The building codes matter is suspended in the mixture in error.
also have requirements concerning fire and the structural The air pressure exerted at the Earth’s surface is due to
consequences of accidents. However, no mandated code re- the weight of the column of air above that point and is mea-
quirements have been written concerning the sizing or purity sured barometrically at a standard pressure of 14.7 pounds
of any of the specialty gases. These requirements are usually per square inch gauge (psig) (101.4 kPa). Because free air is
specific to the type of facility and end use. less dense at higher elevations, a correction factor must be
Minimum purity requirements, called “commodity stan- used for standard air to determine the equivalent volume
dards,” are listed in the Compressed Gas Association (CGA) at the higher elevation. The elevation correction factors are
standards for various gases. Often, the actual on-site purity given in Table 12-2. By multiplying the volume of air at sea
requirement is higher than that listed in the standard and is level by the correction factor, the actual quantity of air at a
determined by the proposed use of the gas and the require- higher elevation can be found.
ments of the user. The CGA also has material, pressure, Temperature is also a consideration. Because an equal
and dimensional standards for pipe connections and ter- volume of any gas at a lower temperature will exert a higher
minations. For standards for gases not covered by the CGA pressure at a higher temperature, a correction factor must be
and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), good used to determine the equivalent volume of air at different
engineering practice is used to adequately locate the tanks, temperatures. The temperature correction factors are given
piping systems, and components. in Table 12-3. By multiplying the volume of air at the lower
The NFPA has codes for the storage of flammable gases temperature by the correction factor, the actual quantity of
both inside and outside a building. NFPA 55: Compressed free air at the higher temperature can be found.
Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Code covers bulk oxygen at Impurities and Contamination
consumer sites and the storage of hydrogen. NFPA 99: Stan-
A knowledge of the various pollutants in the air is necessary
dard for Health Care Facilities lists the requirements for the
when determining the equipment required to effectively re-
storage of flammable and nonflammable gases in cylinders.
duce or remove them, and the air must be tested to achieve
This standard does not actually apply to laboratories outside
this knowledge. When selecting appropriate and specific air
of healthcare facilities, but it often is used for guidance in

Reprinted from Chapter 12, ASPE Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Vol 3 (2011).

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purification components, remember that no single piece of include metal fines, carbon and Teflon particles, pollen, dust,
equipment or device can accomplish the job of removing all rust, and scale.
contaminants.
Particulate contamination must be reduced to a level
The required level of protection from the various con-
taminants depends on the purpose for which the air will be
low enough to minimize end-use machine or tool
used.As well as identifying and quantifying the pollutants, clogging, cause product rejection, or contaminate
the performance criteria for each individual system also must a process. These values must be established by the
be determined prior to selecting any equipment. engineer and client and will vary widely. The general
The four general classes of contaminants are liquids (oil range of particles in a typical system is between 10
and water), vapor (oil, water, and hydrocarbons), gases, and and 0.01 micrometer (μm) in diameter.
particulates.
Water Vapor in Compressed Air
Liquids Water vapor is present in all free air and is the most common
Water enters a system with the intake air, passes through contaminant. In many cases, it will be necessary to remove
the compressor as a vapor, and condenses afterward into any water vapor above that required for air normally used for
liquid droplets. When water settles on or within pipes, general laboratory purposes.
corrosion begins, ultimately ruining machinery and tools,
Saturated Air and Dry Air
causing product rejection and contamination. Water also
allows microorganisms to grow. Saturated air contains the maximum amount of water va-
Most liquid oil contamination originates at the intake por possible based on its temperature and pressure. Dry air
location or in an oil-lubricated compressor. As the droplets contains no water vapor. To determine the moisture content
are swept through the system at velocities approaching 4,000 of saturated air (100 percent relative humidity) based on its
feet per minute (fpm) (1,200 m/min), they gradually erode temperature, refer to Figure 12-1.
obstructions in their path by repeated collisions. At high Relative Humidity
temperatures, oils break down to form acids. In the presence Relative humidity is the amount of water vapor present in air
of particulates, oil forms sludge. Oil also can act like water expressed as a percent of the total amount capable of being
droplets and cause erosion. present when the air is saturated. Relative humidity depends
Liquid chemicals react with water and also corrode sur- on pressure and temperature and is not the preferred method
faces. There is no safe level of liquids in the airstream. They to refer to water vapor in air.
should be removed as completely as practical. Dewpoint
Vapor The dewpoint is that temperature at which water in the air
Water vapor is the most common contaminant to enter the will start to condense on a surface. It is the preferred method
system. Oil, water, and chemical vapors enter the system in used to express the dryness of compressed air since it does
the same manner as liquids and contribute to the corrosion of not depend on temperature. As the dewpoint decreases, the
surfaces in contact with the air. Oil vapor reacts with oxygen air gets dryer. Since the dewpoint of air varies with air pres-
to form varnish buildup on surfaces. Various chemicals also sure, it is referred to as the pressure dewpoint.
cause corrosion and are often toxic. To find the dewpoint of air at various pressures and tem-
The level of acceptable water vapor varies with end-use peratures, refer to the dewpoint conversion chart in Figure
requirements. A dewpoint of -30°F (-34°C) is required to 12-2. To use the chart, first determine the temperature of
minimize corrosion in pipelines. For critical applications, the ambient air. Extend a line horizontally until the ambient
a dewpoint of -100°F (-73°C) may be required. Oil vapor pressure is found, and then extend a line vertically from the
remaining in the air should be reduced to as close to zero intersection down to read the dewpoint at 1 atmosphere.
as practical. Chemical concentrations should be reduced to
zero, where practical. CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIALTY
Gas laboratory GASES
Gases in any quantity that are potentially harmful to the Specialty laboratory gases are prepared to perform specific
system or process requirements should be reduced to zero tasks. Examples include the following:
or to a point that will cause no harm, depending on practi- • Span and calibration gases to calibrate gas chromato-
cal considerations. Condensable hydrocarbons should be graphs
removed as completely as practical. Gases such as carbon • Carrier gases to exclude impurities and sweep a sample
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen compounds react with through a column
heat and water to form acids. • EPA protocol gases to monitor atmospheric discharge
from power plants, chemical plants, and refineries
Particulates • Process gases to promote specific reactions
Particulates enter the system from the air intake, originate • Gases for analysis functions
in the compressor due to mechanical action, or are released Specialty compressed gases are classified into the follow-
from some air-drying systems. These particles erode piping ing general categories:
and valves or cause product contamination. However, the • Oxidizers are nonflammable but support combustion.
most harmful effect is that they clog the orifices or passages No oil or grease is permitted to be used with any de-
of, for example, tools at the end-use points. These particulates
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 CONTINUING EDUCATION: Laboratory Gases

Table 12-1 General Composition of Dry Air Table 12-3 Temperature Correction
Factor
Component Percent by Volume Percent by Mass
Temperature Temperature Correction
Nitrogen 78.09 75.51 of Intake, °C of Intake, °F Factor
Oxygen 20.95 23.15 -46 -50 0.773
Argon 0.93 1.28 -40 -40 0.792
Carbon dioxide 0.03 0.046 -34 -30 0.811
Neon 0.0018 0.00125 -28 -20 0.830
Helium 0.00052 0.000072 -23 -10 0.849
Methane 0.00015 0.000094 -18 0 0.867
Krypton 0.0001 0.00029 -9 10 0.886
Carbon monoxide 0.00001 0.00002 -5 20 0.905
Nitrous oxide 0.00005 0.00008 -1 30 0.925
Hydrogen 0.00005 0.0000035 4 40 0.943
Ozone 0.00004 0.000007 10 50 0.962
Xenon 0.000008 0.000036 18 60 0.981
Nitrogen dioxide 0.0000001 0.0000002 22 70 1.000
Iodine 2 x 10-11 1 x 10-10 27 80 1.019
Radon 6 x 10 -18
5 x 10-17
32 90 1.038
38 100 1.057
Table 12-2 Elevation Correction 43 110 1.076
Factor
49 120 1.095
Altitude, ft (meters) Correction Factor
0 (0) 1.00 sources. The flammability limits and specific gravities of
1,600 (480) 1.05 common gases are given in Table 12-4
• Corrosive gases will attack the surface of certain sub-
3,300 (990) 1.11
stances and also damage human tissue upon contact.
5,000 (1,500) 1.17 • Toxic and poisonous gases will harm human tissue by
6,600 (1,980) 1.24 contact or ingestion. Protective clothing and equipment
8,200 (2,460) 1.31 must be used.
9,900 (2,970) 1.39
• Pyrophoric gases will spontaneously ignite upon contact
with air under normal conditions.
vice associated with the use of this type of gas, and • Cryogenic gases are stored as extremely cold liquids un-
combustibles shall not be stored near these gases. Oxygen der moderate pressure and vaporized when used. If the
is an example. liquid is spilled, bare skin will suffer severe burns, and
• Inert gases, such as helium, do not react with other ma- splashing into the eyes will cause blindness.
terials. If released into a confined space, they will reduce
the oxygen level to a point that asphyxiation could occur.
GRADES OF SPECIALTY laboratory
Rooms where these gases are stored should be provided GASES
with oxygen monitors and should be well ventilated. Many grades of pure and mixed gases are available. Due to
• Flammable gases are those that when combined with the lack of an industry-recognized standard grade designation
air or oxidizers will form a mixture that will burn or for purity, each supplier has its own individual designations.
possibly explode if ignited. Flammable mixtures have It is possible for the same gas used for different purposes or
a range of concentration below which they are too lean provided by a different supplier to have different designations
to be ignited and above which they are too rich to burn. for the same purity. The instrument manufacturer and the
The most often used figure is the lower explosive level end user must be consulted to learn the maximum accept-
(LEL), which is the minimum percent, by volume, that able levels for the various impurities based on the type of
will form a flammable mixture at normal temperatures instrument used and the analytical work to be performed.
and pressures. The high level for alarms is generally one- The supplier then must be informed of these requirements
half of the LEL, with warnings issued at one-tenth of the to determine what grade of gas to supply to meet or exceeds
LEL. The area where flammable gases are stored must the levels of the various impurities.
be well ventilated, use approved electrical devices suit- The following list, although not complete, covers some
able for explosive atmospheres, and restrict all ignition manufacturers’ designations for different grades of gases.

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 Cylinders do not have a standard capacity from one
supplier to another. If the actual capacity of any gas
must be determined, it can be found using the following
formula:
Equation 12-1
CP
VC = × CV
14.7
where:
VC = Volume of gas in the proposed cylinder at
pressure, cubic feet (m3)
CP = Actual proposed cylinder pressure, psi (kPa)
CV = Actual cylinder volume, cubic feet (m3)
Cylinders are available in many sizes and pressure
ratings. Figure 12-4 illustrates the typical sizes. The
cylinders themselves are available in four general catego-
ries. The first is the plain carbon steel tank. The second
is called the ultra-clean tank, which is made of a slightly
different alloy steel and has been completely cleaned, pre-
pared, and dried to reduce contaminants in the cylinder.
The third classification is aluminum tanks, in which the
Figure 12-1 Moisture Content of Saturated Air tank interior has been specially prepared and the walls
treated to maintain stability and reduce particulates.
Aluminum is used for cleanliness and for gases that will
Specific instruments have additional grades, such as “Hall” react with steel. In many cases, the exterior also is treated
grades of gases. to be easily cleaned, such as required for clean room installa-
• Research grade tions. The fourth type of cylinder is made of stainless steel,
• Carrier grade which is often used for ultra-pure gases.
• Zero gas Following are the general recommendations for the instal-
• Ultra zero lation and storage of cylinders:
• Ultra-high purity plus • The room or area in which the cylinders are placed shall
• Ultra-high purity have adequate ventilation and be free from combustible
• Purified material and separated from sources of ignition.
• USP • Consideration should be given for the storage of ad-
ditional full and empty cylinders in the same room for
Storage and Generation of Gases convenience.
Cylinder Storage • Enough room should be allowed for the easy changing of
It is convenient and inexpensive to store compressed gases in cylinders. They are brought in on a hand truck or cart,
cylinders. Cylinders are available in various pressure ratings, and room, usually 3 feet (0.91 m), should be allowed for
with the nomenclature differing among the manufacturers. their maneuvering.
High-pressure cylinders store gas at pressures ranging up to • Gas cylinders in active use shall be secured against fall-
6,000 psig (41,368.5 kPa), with the most common pressures ing by means of floor stands, wall brackets, or bench
between 2,000 and 2,500 psig (13,789.5 and 17,236.9 kPa). brackets. These brackets use straps to attach the cylinder
Low-pressure cylinders or dewers store gases at pressures to the bracket. Also available are floor racks and stands
up to 480 psig (3,309.5 kPa). that can be provided for the installation and support of
When more than one cylinder is used to supply a system, cylinders that cannot be located near walls.
the multiple arrangement is referred to as a bank of cyl- • Empty cylinders also shall be secured against falling.
inders. Cylinder banks generally are classified as primary, Dewers
secondary, and reserve based on end-use requirements. They When a larger amount of gas storage is desired, dewers typi-
are connected by a header and controlled by a manifold as- cally are used. Typical dewers are illustrated in Figure 12-5.
sembly. The arrangement of the cylinders is determined by Dewers should be placed at least 3 inches (1.5 cm) apart for
the space available for the installation and the relative ease easy changing.
desired for changing the cylinders. They can be placed in
Gas Cabinet
a single row, double row, or staggered. The space typically
required for various arrangements is shown in Figure 12-3. When toxic or reactive gases are used, the cylinders should
Any additional space between banks of cylinders required be placed in a vented gas cabinet. The basic purpose of the
for specialized devices such as manifold controls, purging cabinet is to isolate the cylinders and to contain the gases
devices, filters, and purifiers should be added to the cylinder in the event of a leak. Escaped gases shall be directed away
bank dimensions. from the immediate vicinity of the cylinder and cylinder

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 CONTINUING EDUCATION: Laboratory Gases
Specialty Gas Generators
In some cases, it is more desirable for
a small facility to generate their own
high-purity specialty gases rather than
having them supplied in cylinders. A
limited number of gases is available for
which the anticipated volume allows
this choice in laboratory or research
facilities. Among them are nitrogen,
hydrogen, helium, and compressed air.
The generating units have their own
filters and purifiers that can create
gases of ultra-high purity. In particular,
the use of these units for the genera-
tion of hydrogen eliminates flammable
cylinders in the laboratory or separate
storage areas and keeps the actual
amount of gas stored below that needed
for explosion to take place. These units
may need to be supplied with utilities
such as electrical power, compressed air,
or deionized water.

Distribution system
components
The components that distribute high-
purity gas are different than those that
distribute standard laboratory gases.
Following is a discussion of only those
accessories and considerations that are
necessary to accomplish higher purity.
Manifolds
A manifold is an assembly used to con-
nect multiple cylinders. This assembly
also could contain regulators, shutoff
Figure 12-2 Dewpoint Conversion Chart valves, gauges, etc. A header with in-
Source: Hankison Corp.
dividual shutoff valves and connecting
storage area to a point outside the building where they can pigtail is used to physically connect
be diluted with the outside air. several cylinders to a changeover manifold. Manifolds can
The typical cabinet construction is 11-gauge painted steel be specified with manual or automatic changeover, and they
or thicker to provide a one-half hour fire rating. The cabinet can be constructed of high-purity and other special materials
can contain panel-mounted manifolds, purging equipment, compatible with any specific gas being used. The most often
and other devices to allow some degree of control of oper- used materials for the header, manifold, interconnecting pipe,
ating parameters. They also can be provided with vertical and fittings are brass and stainless steel, with stainless steel
and horizontal adjustable cylinder brackets. The following flexible connections connecting the cylinders to the header.
options also are available with the cylinder cabinet: When use is intermittent and the demand is low, a manual
• Automatic shutoff of gas in the event of a catastrophic single-cylinder (station) supply is appropriate. The cylinder
failure (flow limit) must be changed when the pressure becomes marginally low,
• Purging of gas lines after cylinder changes which will require an interruption in the supply. The same
• Mechanical cabinet exhaust (typically 13 air changes per system also could be used for greater demand where a bank of
minute with the access window open) cylinders is used. When an uninterrupted supply is required,
• A sprinkler head for flammable gases, typically rated some method of automatic changeover must be used.
at 135°F (57.2°C) with a minimum water pressure of 25 The simplest and least costly of the automatic types is the
psig (172.4 kPa) semiautomatic or differential type of changeover manifold.
• For toxic and reactive gases, a small access window could For this type of installation, the regulators for each bank of
be provided to operate the valves without opening the cylinders are manually set at different pressures. Usually, the
main door and compromising the exhaust system. A fixed secondary bank is set 5 psig lower than the primary bank.
access window is acceptable for inert gases. When the pressure of the primary bank falls below the lower

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 Table 12-4 Flammability Limits and Specific Gravity The fully automatic changeover manifold uses pressure
for Common Gases switches or transducers to sense changes in line and supply
Specific Flammability in air, % pressures. This in turn sends an electric signal to a relay that
Gas turns off or on appropriate valves that accomplish the change-
Gravity Low High
over with no variation in system delivery pressure. It also
Acetylene 0.906 25 100
changes the secondary operating bank indicator to primary.
Air 1.00 In addition, an alarm is sent when the cylinders need to be
Ammonia 0.560 15 28 changed. For critical applications, connection of the power
supply to optional standby power should be considered.
Argon 1.38
A typical manifold assembly is illustrated in Figure 12-6.
Arsine 2.69 5.1 78 Exact manifold dimensions vary and need to be obtained
Butane 0.600 1.8 8.4 from the specific manufacturer.
Carbon dioxide 1.52 Regulators
Carbon monoxide 0.967 12.5 74 A regulator is a device used to reduce a variable high inlet
Chlorine 2.49 pressure to a constant lower outlet pressure. The two broad
categories of regulators are cylinder and line. Cylinder
Cyclopropane 0.720 2.4 10.4
pressure regulators are mounted directly on high-pressure
Ethane 1.05 3.0 12.4 cylinders to reduce high-pressure gases, generally in the
Ethylene 0.570 2.7 36 range of 2,000 to 6,000 psig (13,789.5 to 41,368.5 kPa), to a
lower pressure, generally around 150 psig (1,034.2 kPa). Line
Ethyl chloride 2.22 3.8 15.4
regulators are inline devices used to reduce a higher pressure
Fluorine 1.31 to a lower working pressure of 55 psig (379.2 kPa) and also are
Helium 0.138 used on cryogenic tanks to reduce the pressure of the vapor
Hydrogen 0.069 4.0 75 above the vaporized liquid, generally in the range of 150 to
250 psig (1,034.2 to 1,723.7 kPa). The regulator is the first
Hydrogen sulfide 1.18 4.0 44 device installed in the distribution system. Depending on the
Isobutane 2.01 1.8 9.6 purity of the gas, an integral inlet filter should be considered
Isopentane 2.48 to keep particulates from entering the regulator.
Regulators are available in two types: single and double
Krypton 2.89 stage. The single stage is less costly and less accurate. This
Methan 0.415 5.0 15 type should be chosen if maintenance of exact pressure is not
Methyl chloride 1.74 10.7 17.4 a major factor in system operation. The double stage is more
costly and more accurate and able to achieve a constant outlet
Natural gas 0.600
pressure within a narrow operating range. When selecting a
Neon 0.674 regulator for specific accuracy requirements, obtain the accu-
Nitrogen 0.966 racy envelope diagrams from the manufacturer to check the
Nitrous oxide 1.53 device’s parameters using actual anticipated system design
pressures and flow rates. Typical single- and double-stage
Oxygen 1.10 regulators are illustrated in Figure 12-7.
Phosgene 1.39 The single-stage regulator reduces pressure in one step.
Propane 1.580 2.1 9.5 Typical differences in outlet pressure could vary as much as
7 psig (48.2 kPa) from low to high flow rates. The double-
Silane 1.11 1.5 98
stage regulator reduces the pressure in two steps. Typical
Sulphur dioxide 2.26 differences in outlet pressure could vary as much as 3 psig
Xenon 4.53 (20.7 kPa) from low to high flow rates.
Another parameter that may be important in some instal-
setting of the reserve bank, the secondary bank automatically
lations is regulator creep. This is the rise in delivery pressure
becomes the primary supply by default, since it has a higher
due to differences in motion of the internal mechanical
pressure than the primary bank. A low-pressure alarm or
components caused by aging. Creep is also caused by foreign
low-pressure gauge reading will indicate that the changeover
material interfering with the mechanical operation of the
has taken place. To change the cylinders, the empty bank
unit. This is the most common cause of unit failure.
first must be manually isolated. Then, the pressures on the
The following should be considered when selecting a
respective primary and secondary regulators must be reset
regulator:
to new settings to reflect the 5-psig difference between the
• The regulator should have a positive gas vent.
former reserve supply, which is now the primary supply, and
• The regulator must be rated for the highest possible
vice versa. In other types of semiautomatic manifolds, the
working pressure.
changeover is fully automatic, but a switch must be manu-
• The delivery pressure range must be adequate.
ally turned from the reserve position to the primary position
• The operating temperature must be compatible with the
when changing cylinders.
environment in which the valve is located.
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 CONTINUING EDUCATION: Laboratory Gases
• The valve body and internal materials should be selected • To remove hydrogen, palladium filters are used.
for the specific purity of the desired gas, such as being • Ceramic, fiberglass, sintered metal, and other adsorbent
machine welded or having diffusion-resistant materials materials are used to remove oil, moisture, and other
and packing, low particulate metals, and flexible dia- trace contaminants to make the main gas as pure as
phragms. High-purity regulators shall have little dead possible. For some filter mediums, colored materials
space internally and diaphragm seals that are consistent can be added to indicate when it is time to replace the
with the required purity. filter medium.
• The pressure range of the gauges must be compatible • The molecular sieve filter is a synthetically produced
with the pressures expected. As an ideal, the working crystalline metal powder that has been activated for
pressure should be one-half of the maximum outlet adsorption by removing the water of hydration. This
gauge reading. material is manufactured with precise and uniform sizes
One feature that should be considered when only gas is to and dimensions. The size determines what can be filtered.
be used from a bulk liquid supply is an internal tank piping Sieves are available as powder, pellets, beads, and mesh,
arrangement called an economizer. Provided as an integral although mesh is not used in laboratories.
part of the tank, this allows use of the gas available in the The requirements of the end user will dictate the filter
vapor space above the liquid in the tank before the liquid medium and type. A filter shall be placed before any flow
itself has to be vaporized. A special type of pressure regula- meter and any other type of equipment where required.
tor shall be provided that will switch from the economizer The housing must be compatible with the gas being fil-
to the liquid line when the pressure in the vapor space falls tered and the pressure involved. No filter should be subject
below a preset level. to pressures more than the 60 psig (413.7 kPa) normally used
Filters and Purifiers in most laboratories unless specified for a higher pressure.
Pressure drop through the filter medium is a critical factor
Filters and purifiers are necessary to reduce or eliminate
in the selection of the material used. For large installations,
unwanted contaminants and particulates in the gas stream.
pressure gauges on each side of the filters are used to monitor
The most common purifiers are those used to remove oxygen,
their effectiveness. Usually, a 5-psig (34.5-kPa) drop means
water vapor, hydrocarbons, and particulates. For delivery of
that replacement is required.
sterile gases, a 0.2-µ filter is used to remove any organisms
It is not possible to improve the purity of a gas with the
suspended in the air stream. Filters also are used to eliminate
use of purifiers. If a gas of a certain purity is required, a gas
other unwanted trace elements.
of that grade must be used from the outset.
Many different types of filters are available.
Refer to Figure 12-8 for a typical system purifier arrange-
• The most often used filter removes particulates 0.2 μm
ment. Components shall be eliminated as required.
and larger.
Gauges
Gauges (other than those integral to regu-
lators) for pressures up to 10 psig (68.9
kPa) are usually the diaphragm sensing-
element type. For pressures more than
10 psig (68.9 kPa), use the bourdon style.
They should be cleaned for oxygen service,
and the materials must be compatible with
the intended gas. For single gauges, pro-
vide a small gas cock of the needle valve
type between the pipeline and the gauge
to shut off the flow and allow the gauge
to be replaced without shutting down the
system.
Flash Arresters
Flash arresters (see Figure 12-9) are
required when the gas being used is
flammable, particularly hydrogen and
acetylene. They are mounted inline to
prevent any flame from going back into the
tank in the event that gas in the delivery
piping system has ignited. It is standard
procedure for a check valve to be made an
integral part of a flash arrester, although
Figure 12-3 Typical Arrangements and Dimensions of Cylinder this is not true in all cases.
Installations (9-in. diameter)

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 Table 12-5 Sizing for Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Air Table 12-6 Factors
for the Sizing of
Copper Tube Type L, 55 psi, Specific Gravity = 1 Any Gas, Based on
scfm acfm ½ in. ¾ in. 1 in. 1¼ in. 1½ in. 2 in. 2½ in. 3 in. 4 in. Specific Gravity
psi per 100 feet of pipe
Specific
5 1.1 0.15 0.04 0.01 Factor
Gravity
10 2.2 0.51 0.13 0.04 0.01
.05 4.50
15 3.3 1.04 0.27 0.09 0.02 0.01
.10 3.16
20 4.3 0.45 0.14 0.04 0.02
.15 2.58
25 5.4 0.67 0.21 0.06 0.03 0.01
.20 2.20
30 6.5 0.93 0.29 0.08 0.04 0.01
35 7.6 1.18 0.39 0.10 0.05 0.02 0.01 .25 2.00
40 8.7 0.49 0.13 0.06 0.02 0.01 .30 1.79
45 9.8 0.60 0.16 0.08 0.02 0.01 .35 1.68
50 10.9 0.73 0.20 0.09 0.03 0.01 .40 1.57
60 13.0 1.01 0.27 0.13 0.04 0.02 0.01 .45 1.49
70 15.2 1.28 0.36 0.17 0.05 0.02 0.01 .50 1.41
80 17.4 0.45 0.22 0.07 0.03 0.01 .55 1.33
90 19.5 0.56 0.27 0.08 0.03 0.01 .60 1.28
100 21.7 0.68 0.32 0.10 0.04 0.02 0.00 .65 1.23
110 23.9 0.81 0.38 0.12 0.05 0.02 0.01 .70 1.19
120 26.0 0.94 0.45 0.14 0.06 0.02 0.01 .75 1.15
130 28.2 1.09 0.52 0.16 0.07 0.02 0.01 .80 1.12
140 30.4 1.22 0.59 0.18 0.08 0.03 0.01 .85 1.07
150 32.6 0.67 0.20 0.09 0.03 0.01 .90 1.05
175 38.0 0.89 0.27 0.11 0.04 0.01 .95 1.02
200 43.4 1.13 0.34 0.14 0.05 0.01 1.00 1.00
225 48.8 1.28 0.42 0.18 0.06 0.02
1.10 .95
250 54.3 0.51 0.22 0.08 0.02
1.20 .91
275 59.7 0.60 0.26 0.09 0.02
1.30 .87
300 65.1 0.71 0.30 0.11 0.03
1.40 .85
325 70.5 0.82 0.35 0.12 0.03
1.50 .81
350 76.0 0.94 0.40 0.14 0.04
1.60 .78
375 81.4 1.06 0.45 0.16 0.04
1.70 .76
400 86.8 1.18 0.51 0.18 0.05
1.80 .74
450 97.7 0.63 0.22 0.06
500 108.5 0.76 0.27 0.07 1.90 .72
550 119.4 0.90 0.32 0.09 2.00 .70
600 130.2 1.06 0.37 0.10 2.10 .69
650 141.1 1.21 0.43 0.12 2.20 .67
700 151.9 0.49 0.13 2.30 .65
750 162.8 0.56 0.15 2.40 .63
800 173.6 0.63 0.17 2.50 .62
850 184.5 0.70 0.19 2.60 .61
900 195.3 0.78 0.21 2.70 .60
950 206.2 0.89 0.23 3.00 .56
1,000 217.0 0.25 4.50 .25
1,100 238.7 0.30 Note: Multiply factor by scfm in
1,200 260.4 0.35 Table 12-8. Calculate adjusted
scfm. Use adjusted scfm to
1,300 282.1 0.41 obtain friction loss.
1,400 303.8 0.47
1,500 325.5 0.53
Note: Values in table are for flow velocities not exceeding 4,000 fpm.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012   Plumbing Systems & Design  9

 CONTINUING EDUCATION: Laboratory Gases
Valves
Valves are an often overlooked component
of any system, but the selection of valve
type and material is important to efficiency
and operating life. The valves used should
have been designed for the type of service
for which they will be used. Be careful to
examine valve specifications for airway
ports or openings smaller than the nomi-
nal size indicated or expected. The most
often used shutoff valves are ball valves.
Three-piece valves are the most desired
because the body can be separated from
the end connections when being installed
and serviced.
For exacting control and modulating
purposes, needle valves are used because
of the precise level of control permitted.
The materials of the valve and seals must
be compatible with the gas used.
For specialty applications, diffusion-
resistant valves reduce or eliminate
unwanted gases from entering the system
through the packing. Where purity is a
major consideration, packless and bellows-
sealed diaphragm valves are available.
The following should be considered
when selecting valves:
• The most important valve feature is
minimum flow restriction (pressure
drop) when the valve is open full. Ball,
gate, and plug valves have the lowest
pressure drop, so it is extremely rare
to use these types for flow restriction.
Where this feature is important, the
needle type of valve is used.
• The pressure rating should be suitable
for the maximum pressure possible.
• The valve body and seat materials
must be compatible with the expected Figure 12-4 Typical Cylinder Dimensions
trace gases and contaminants. Source: Liquid Carbonic

• There must be positive shutoff.

Relief Valves
• There should be minimum or no leakage through the
Relief valves (see Figure 12-10) are used to protect a system
valve stem.
from overpressure. A relief valve must be provided between
Flow Limit Shutoff Valve the regulator and the first shutoff valve in the system, with
A flow limit shutoff valve (see Figure 12-9) automatically the discharge independently piped outdoors. The discharges
shuts off the flow from a cylinder if the flow rate exceeds from a single gas service manifold or regulator may be
a predetermined limit, which is usually about 10 times the connected, but no connection from any source to a relief
highest expected flow rate. This valve must be manually discharge may be made from any other system. The discharge
reset after operation. pipe should be a minimum of ¾ inch in diameter.
Check Valves The relief valve shall be located at the first point in the
Check valves (see Figure 12-9) are used to prevent the re- system that could be subject to full cylinder pressure if the
verse flow of gas in the delivery piping system. If one gas at regulator failed. No valve should be located between the relief
a higher pressure possibly may force its way into another valve and the regulator. The relief valve release point should
piping system or if system failure is a possibility, a check be set to 50 percent over working pressure.
valve shall be installed. When two-stage regulators are used, a preset first-stage
(or interstage) relief valve is sometimes required to protect
the second stage from overpressure. Additionally, it is good

10  Plumbing Systems & Design  JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012  WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG

 the storage room is large enough and well
ventilated, it could discharge into the room
since the purge volume used is generally
quite small. The regulator often requires
special purging techniques recommended
by the manufacturer. Purge gas shall be
taken from a dedicated source used only
for this purpose and as illustrated in Figure
12-11.
Flow Measurement
Flow meters can be either of two types: elec-
tric or mechanical. The mechanical kind is
called a variable-area type and uses a small
ball as an indicator in a variable-area verti-
cal tube. The type of mechanical meter most
often used has an accuracy of 10 percent full
scale. This means that if the flow range is
from 1 to 10 scfm, the accuracy is ±1 acfm.
However, more accurate variable-area flow
meters are available.
Mass flow meters are electronically oper-
ated, using the difference in temperature
that gas creates when flowing over a heated
element. The mass flow meter is quite ac-
curate and expensive.
Gas Warmers
On occasion, the gas in cylinders is with-
drawn so fast that the regulator could freeze
because of the change in temperature.
If this occurs, an electrically heated gas
warmer is available to be installed inline,
and this warmer heats the gas out of the
cylinder before it reaches the regulator.
The rule of thumb is to consider a warmer
if the use of gas exceeds 35 acfm. The actual
figure should be based on the specific type
of gas being used, so consult with the sup-
plier. Carbon dioxide, for example, presents
a particular problem.
On occasion, the temperature of the
Figure 12-5 Cryogenic Containers delivered gas is a critical factor. If a low
Source: Mathison
temperature could harm instruments or
practice to install an adjustable relief valve on the second interfere with the procedures being con-
stage to protect the system and instruments from damage due ducted, a low-temperature cutoff should be installed with a
to excessive pressure. For outdoor installations involving in- solenoid valve to stop the flow of gas. If this happens often,
ert gases, the relief valve can exhaust directly to atmosphere. a gas warmer might be required.
For indoor installations or any installation involving toxic or Alarms
flammable gases, the relief valve exhaust should be captured Alarms are necessary to alert the user to immediate or po-
and vented to a safe location outside. tential trouble. They could be visible and/or audible. The
Manifold and Regulator Purge Devices typical alarms are high system pressure, low system pres-
The replacement of cylinders introduces unwanted room sure, and reserve in use. In some installations, a normal
air into the piping manifold assembly and the connecting light is also requested. If a single cylinder is the sole source
cylinder pigtails. When maintaining a high purity level of the of supply, an alarm might be installed when the pressure in
gas is necessary, purge valves are installed to run system gas the tank reaches 400 psig (2,757.9 kPa). Other alarms could
through the contaminated parts of the system to replace all be provided that will indicate high pressure loss at filters,
such air. The purge valve outlet should be vented outside the low gas temperature, purifiers at limit of capacity, and flow
building. If the gas is suitable and low enough in volume and limit valve operation.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012   Plumbing Systems & Design  11

 CONTINUING EDUCATION: Laboratory Gases

Figure 12-6 Typical Manifold Assembly

Source: Scott

These alarms are usually installed in an alarm panel,

which can be mounted in the room where the gases are stored,
in a constantly occupied location such as a maintenance shop
or receptionist area, or in the laboratory itself, depending on
the availability and level of maintenance. Often, multiple
locations are desirable if a continued supply of gas is criti-
cal. Various devices must be placed in the system for these
alarms to function, such as pressure switches, transducers, Figure 12-7 Typical Single- and Double-stage
and auxiliary contacts in a manifold assembly to transmit Regulators
Source: Scott
the alarm signal to the alarm panel.
Toxic and Flammable Gas Monitors Distribution Network
If a toxic and/or flammable gas might accumulate in an en- System Pressure
closed area or room, a gas monitor must be installed to signal Unless otherwise instructed, it is generally accepted prac-
an alarm if the gas percentage rises above a predetermined tice to use a pressure of 50–55 psig (344.7–379.2 kPa) in
limit that is considered harmful or dangerous. This should the normal centralized piping distribution system, with a
be 50 percent of either the lower flammability limit (LFL) nominal 5-psig (34.5-kPa) loss in the system. High-pressure
or the level of concentration that may cause ill effects or systems, if specifically requested by the end user or required
breathing problems. The oxygen concentration of ambient by the laboratory equipment manufacturer, use a different
air should never be allowed to fall below 19.5 percent. In ad- pressure. Accepted practice limits the allowable friction loss
dition, much lower levels should also be alarmed to indicate in the piping system to 10 percent of initial pressure. These
that a problem exists well before the evacuation of an area figures are not set in stone and should be adjusted for spe-
is required because of a leak. Refer back to Table 12-4 for cific conditions or special systems when necessary. The most
the flammability limits of some of the more common gases. important consideration is the actual pressure required by
Request the MSDS for gases not listed. the equipment being used. The maximum pressure set by
Gas Mixers a regulator should be 10 psi (69 kPa) above the minimum
For certain applications, gas mixers are available to accu- recommended by the manufacturer or end user.
rately mix different gases to produce various proportions. Pipe Material Selection
The accuracy of the mixture, flow rates of the various gases, Consider the following when selecting the pipe material and
and the compatibility of the piping materials and the gases type for a specialty gas system:
are considerations in the selection of the mixer. • Compatibility with the specific gas used
Vibration Isolation • Capability of delivering the desired gas purity for the
Vibration isolation is achieved by the proper selection of anticipated usage
resilient devices between the pump base and the building • Pressure rating of the pipe and joining methods
structure. This isolation is accomplished by placing isolators • Temperature rating and the ability to be cleaned or
between the pump and the floor, flexible connections on all sterilized in place
piping from the compressor, and spring-type hangers on the • Joining method
piping around the compressor. If all elements are equal, the least expensive piping shall
be selected

12  Plumbing Systems & Design  JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012  WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG

 alloy 6061, T4 or T6 temper. This pipe is commonly
joined by patented flare joints.
The pipe pressure rating is selected to resist the
highest system design pressure, which is usually
in the range of 50–55 psig (344.7–379.2 kPa). Cop-
per tubing type L is used for pressures up to 200
psig (1,379 kPa), and type K is used for pressures
up to 300 psig (2,068.4 kPa). The pressures are
lowered internally at the equipment if the supplied
pressure is too great. Based on experience, the al-
lowable pressure range is usually between 30 and
75 psig (206.8 and 517.1 kPa). Higher pressures in
the 300 psig (2,068.4 kPa) range for special uses
Figure 12-8 Typical Purifier Arrangement are well within the limits of piping with flared,
orbital welded, and brazed joints. The allowable
pressure ratings for the various piping materials
Refer to the manufacturer or supplier of the gas for pipe at ambient temperatures based on wall thickness
compatibility. The pipe most often used to maintain the values are calculated from equations appearing in ASME
highest purity is grade 304L or 316L stainless steel tubing B31.3: Process Piping Design.
conforming to ASTM A270: Standard Specification for Seam- The piping system also shall be capable of being cleaned
less and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Sanitary Tubing. and sterilized in place, often, if required. Cleaned in place
The interior should be electro-polished, and the exterior could (CIP) uses chemicals, so the pipe must be able to resist cor-
be mill finished in concealed spaces. In exposed locations rosion. Refer to the manufacturer’s literature to establish
and where the pipe exterior will be sterilized or cleaned, the compatibility. Steam in place (SIP) raises the distribution
pipe exterior should have a No. 4 finish. Stainless steel pipe system to a high temperature that kills microbes. A drain
is capable of withstanding repeated sterilization by steam for the system is often required. The piping system materi-
and a variety of chemicals. The pipe is joined by orbital als need to be steam compatible for the temperatures that
welding, so the tube should have a minimum wall thickness may be experienced.
of 0.65 inch to be welded. When welding is not required, a Another consideration in maintaining a high-purity gas
tube wall thickness of 0.28 inch is commonly used, but the is outgasing. This is a phenomenon in which a gas under
wall thickness must be able to handle the working pressure pressure is absorbed into any porous material. This occurs
of the system. The total installed cost often is less than that primarily in elastomers used as gaskets or seals and to some
of copper tube. lesser extent into metallic and plastic pipe and tubing ma-
When hard pipe is not desired or used from a cylinder terials. When the pressure is reduced or eliminated, such as
or system to a movable instrument, it is common practice when changing cylinder banks or during maintenance, the
to use ⅛-inch (6-mm) polyethylene (PE), stainless steel, or absorbed gases are spontaneously given off, adding impuri-
copper tubing of sufficient pressure rating and compatibility ties into the gas piping system.
with the specific gas, with no joints between the cylinder Experience has shown that reaming the ends of pipe or
and instrument. tubing to obtain a smooth interior has left pieces of shaved
In many laboratory applications, maintaining ultra-high metal in the pipe. If this is a cause for concern, reaming meth-
purity of a gas from the storage tank to the outlet is not an ods and tools are available that eliminate this problem.
absolute requirement. For this type of service, copper tube Joints
and fittings that have been cleaned for oxygen service and The joining method may be a criteria in the selection of pipe
joined by brazing and properly purged often are inexpensive wall thickness or pipe material composition. The temper of
and the material of choice. The following grades of copper the pipe may have to be carefully selected to use proprietary
pipe have been used: fittings.
• ASTM B88: Standard Specification for Seamless Copper The most often used joints for copper tubing are brazed.
Water Tube No flux is permitted, so only cast or wrought copper fittings
• ASTM B819: Standard Specification for Seamless Copper should be used. The interior of the joint shall be purged
Tube for Medical Gas Systems with an inert gas, such as nitrogen type NF or argon. The
• ASTM B280: Standard Specification for Seamless Cop- reason for making up a joint in this manner is to eliminate
per Tube for Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Field any residue that may be produced as a by-product by the
Service brazing process.
• ASTM B75: Standard Specification for Seamless Copper For stainless steel pipe, orbital welding leaves the
Tube smoothest interior surface, but it should be used only on
Another type of material for non-critical applications is tubing with a wall thickness of 0.65 inch or thicker. Another
aluminum tubing ASTM B210: Standard Specification for type of joint that can be used is the patented flared joint,
Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Drawn Seamless Tubes, which is preferable to solder or brazed joints that often
leave a residue that contributes particulates into the gas
JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012   Plumbing Systems & Design  13
 CONTINUING EDUCATION: Laboratory Gases
stream. In addition, the flared joint is popular because it
can be made up using only a saw and some wrenches. When
copper tubing is used with flared joints, the pipe shall not
have embossed identification stamped into the pipe because
doing so causes leaks at the joint. There is no ASTM designa-
tion for patented flare joints, but they are acceptable for all
applications as long as the allowable joint pressure ratings
are not exceeded.

Pipe Sizing AND Layout

Before laying out the piping system, the following informa-
tion must be known:
• All air- or gas-consuming devices
• Minimum and maximum pressure requirements for
each device
• Actual volume of air or gas used by each device
• Suggested duty cycle and diversity factor for equip-
ment
• Special individual air or gas purification requirements
System Sizing Procedure
Following is a recommended system sizing procedure. It is
not intended for compressed air in common laboratories.
Refer to Chapter 9 for that information.
1. Locate the gas storage area and lay out the cylinders,
manifolds, and so on.
2. Establish a general layout of the system from the
Figure 12-9 Typical Single-cylinder Installation Detail storage area to the farthest outlet or use point. Measure
the actual distance along the run of pipe to the most
remote outlet. Next, add a fitting allowance. For ease
of calculations, the addition of 50 percent of the actual
measured run will give a conservative approximation
of the entire system. Adding the measured length to
the fitting allowance will result in the equivalent run of
pipe.
3. Choose all of the filters, purifiers, and accessories
necessary for system purity. This will establish a
combined allowable pressure drop through each of them
and the assembly as a whole.
4. Establish the actual pressure required at the farthest
outlet.
5. Calculate the allowable total system friction loss.
a. It is accepted practice for general use to have a mini-
mum system pressure of 45 to 55 psig (310.3 to 379.2
kPa) and to allow 5 psig (34.5 kPa) as a pressure loss
in the pipe. For high-pressure systems serving spe-
cific equipment or tools, start with the high end of
the range for the actual pressure required. Accepted
practice is to allow 10 percent of the proposed sys-
tem pressure for pipe friction loss. So, for a 125-psig
(861.8-kPa) system, a ±12-psig (82.7-kPa) friction
loss will be allowed. This figure is variable. To that
figure add the pressure required to overcome the
drop through the filter-purifier-manifold assembly
and other accessories.
b. Divide the total equivalent run of pipe (in hundreds
Figure 12-10 Typical Relief Venting
of feet) by the allowable friction loss to calculate the
allowable friction loss in psig per 100 feet of pipe. This
calculation is necessary to allow the use of the sizing
14  Plumbing Systems & Design  JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012  WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG
 chart provided in this chapter. If other methods are compressed air flow rate to obtain the new flow rate
used to indicate friction loss in the piping system, for the gas in question.
calculate the loss in that specific method. c. For pressures other than 55 psig (379.2 kPa), use the
6. Calculate the connected flow rate for the piping to be following formula:
sized. For general use, a figure of 1 scfm (30 nLpm) for Equation 12-2
each outlet unless the end user indicates otherwise.
Calculate the scfm (nLpm) of gas through each branch, P1 + 14.7
PD = × PD
from the farthest outlet back to the source (or main). P2 + 14.7 r

For specific equipment, use the flow rate recommended For the flow of any compressed gas at temperatures other
by the manufacturer. than 60°F (15.6°C), use the following formula to calculate a
7. Calculate the expected flow rate for all points using factor that, when multiplied by the flow rate, will give the
the appropriate diversity factor for all parts of the flow rate at the new temperature:
system. For specific equipment, the diversity factor Equation 12-3
must be obtained from the end user. The diversity
(or simultaneous use) factor, which determines the 460 + t
f=
maximum number of outlets in use at any one time, has 520
a major influence on the sizing of the piping system. where:
Specialty gas systems have no exact calculation method, PD = New pressure drop, psig (kPa)
so consultation with the end user is the best method P1 = 55 (referenced table pressure), psig (kPa)
and is strongly suggested. P2 = Actual service pressure, psig (kPa)
8. The sizing chart, Table 12-5, has been calculated for a PDr = Referenced pressure drop found in Table 12-5,
gas with a specific gravity of 1 (which is air), using type psi/100 feet (kPa/30m)
L copper pipe, and a pressure of 55 psig (379.2 kPa). t = Temperature under consideration, °F (°C)
This table also can be used for gases with a specific f = Factor
gravity ranging from 1.90 to 1.10. Slight differences
Having calculated the scfm (nLpm) and the allowable
are well within accepted accuracy. To find the specific
friction loss in each section of the piping being sized,
gravity of many common gases, refer back to Table
now size the piping using the charts for system
12-4.
pressure. Since all pipe sizing charts are formulated on
With all the above information available, the pipe can the loss of pressure per some length of piping (usually
now be sized. Starting from the most remote point on 100 feet [30 m]), it will be necessary to arrive at the
the branch and then proceeding to the main, calculate required value for the chart being used. A maximum
the actual flow rate using the appropriate diversity velocity of 4,000 fpm (1,200 m/min) is recommended.
factor. Enter Table 12-5 with the actual flow rate and
the allowable friction loss. Find the flow rate, and then Another method, applicable only to branch lines
read across to find a friction loss figure that is equal with small numbers of laboratory outlets used for aver-
to or less than the allowable friction loss. Read up the age purposes, is to use a prepared chart based on the
column to find the size. In some cases, the diversity number of outlets with the actual flow of gas not consid-
factor for the next highest range
Table 12-7 Typical Laboratory Branch Sizing Chart
of outlets may result in a smaller-
size pipe than the range calculated. Pipe Diameter, in.
No. of
If this occurs, do not reduce the Connections Cold water, Air
size of the pipe; keep the larger Gas Vacuum Oxygen D.W. Nitrogen
hot water
size previously determined. For 1 ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½
½
equipment using capillary piping
and tubing, refer to Figure 12-12 for 2 ¾ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½ ½
nominal ⅛-inch pipe. 3 ¾ ½ ½ ¾ ½ ½ ½
a. To calculate the specific gravity of 4 ¾ ½ ½ ¾ ½ ½ ½
any gas not covered in Table 12-4,
5 ¾ ½ ¾ ¾ ½ ¾ ½
divide the molecular weight of that
gas by 29, which is the composite 6 ¾ ½ ¾ 1 ½ ¾ ½
molecular weight of air. 7 1 ½ ¾ 1 ½ ¾ ½
b. When any gas with a specific 8 1 ½ ¾ 1 ½ 1 ½
gravity other than 1 is used, an 9 1 ½ ¾ 1 1 ½
½
adjustment factor is provided in
Table 12-6 that will convert scfm 10 1 ½ ¾ 1 ½ 1 ½
to the equivalent of any other 11–20 1¼ ¾ 1 1¼ ¾ 1 ¾
gas or combination of gases for 21 and over 1½ 1 1¼ 1½ 1 (21–30) 1 1
use in Table 12-5. Multiply the 1¼ (31–50)
factor found in the table by the 1½ (51 and over)
Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012   Plumbing Systems & Design  15

 CONTINUING EDUCATION: Laboratory Gases

Table 12-8 Recommended Air Compressor remove all loose debris, then tested, and finally purged with
Inlet Pipe Size the intended system gas to ensure purity.
An accepted flushing method is to allow a volume of two
Maximum scfm Free
Minimum Size, in. to five times the expected flow through each respective part
Air Capacity
of the system. This is done by connecting the flushing gas
50 2½
under pressure to the piping system and then opening and
110 3 closing all outlets and valves starting from the closest and
210 4 working to the most remote.
400 5 To test for particulates, flow the gas into a clean white
cloth at a minimum rate of 15 cfm (100 L/min) and inspect
800 6
the cloth for contamination.
Note: 1 cfm = 0.03 m3/min
Source: James Church
Finally, the system must be capable of providing the de-
sired purity when actually placed in operation. Since flushing
and testing may leave the piping system filled with inert or
ered. The flow rate and diversity of use are taken into other gases, they must be removed, or purged. This is accom-
consideration in the sizing chart, which assumes that suf- plished by allowing the system gas to flow through all parts of
ficient system pressure is available. With a small number of the piping system, opening all of the valves, and testing the
outlets on a branch, this method provides a sufficient degree gas purity at various points of the system until the desired
of accuracy and speed of calculation. Table 12-7 is such a chart purity level is reached. For high-purity gases, a laboratory
for various systems found in a typical laboratory. specializing in testing for the purity level required shall be
used unless the facility is capable of performing the test.
Compressor Inlet Piping It is often best to use the system gas for testing pur-
Since air compressor performance depends on inlet condi- poses.
tions, this system deserves special care. The air intake should
provide a supply of air to the compressor that is as clean, cool,
and dry as possible. The proposed location should be studied
for the presence of any type of airborne contamination and
positioned to avoid the probability of a contaminated intake.
Intake piping is discussed in Chapter 9. For sizing intake
piping, refer to Table 12-8.

Tests
Bulk storage tanks and dewers are required to be ASME
rated and therefore are tested at the factory before ship-
ment. They are not tested after installation. Cylinders are
not tested for the same reason. This means that only the
distribution system, from the cylinder valve to the outlets,
must be subject to pressure tests.
Testing is done by pressurizing the system to the test
pressure with an inert, oil-free, and dry gas. Nitrogen is often
used because of its low cost and availability. The system test
pressure for low-pressure systems is 150 percent over the
working pressure. For systems with a working pressure up
to 200 psig (1,379 kPa), the entire piping system, including
the cylinder manifold, is tested to 300 psig (2,068.4 kPa) for
one hour with no leakage permitted. If a working pressure
higher than 200 psig (1,379 kPa) is required, the system is
tested at 150 percent of the system pressure.
The pressure testing should be done in increments of 100
psig (689.5 kPa), starting with 100 psig. This is done to avoid
damage due to a catastrophic failure. Leaks are repaired after
each increment. After final testing, it is recommended that
the piping be left pressurized at the system working pressure
with system gas if practical.
Figure 12-11 Typical Purging Arrangement
Flushing, Testing, and Purging
the Distribution System
After the system is completely installed and before it is
placed in service, the piping system first must be flushed to

16  Plumbing Systems & Design  JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012  WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG

Figure 12-12 1/8-in. OD Tubing

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012   Plumbing Systems & Design  17

 CONTINUING EDUCATION: Laboratory Gases

Continuing Education from Plumbing Systems & Design

Do you find it difficult to obtain continuing education units (CEUs)?
Through this special section in every issue of PS&D, ASPE can help you
accumulate the CEUs required for maintaining your Certified in Plumb-
ing Design (CPD) status.
About This Issue’s Article
The January/February 2012 continuing education article
is “Laboratory Gases.”
Now Online! This chapter describes the design criteria and central
piping distribution methods for various laboratory-grade
The technical article you must read to complete the exam is located at
www.psdmagazine.org. Just click on “Continuing Education” at the top specialty gas systems, including pure compressed air used
of the page. The following exam and application form also may be down- for laboratory processes. Also included in the discussion
loaded from the website. Reading the article and completing the form will are various specialty compressed air and gas systems typi-
allow you to apply to ASPE for CEU credit. If you earn a grade of 90 percent cally used for organic and inorganic chemistry, physics,
or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have logged 0.1
and biological laboratories and those used for research,
CEU, which can be applied toward CPD renewal or numerous regulatory-
development, and commercial purposes. This chapter
agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine
concentrates on cylinder and dewer supply and the local
generation of such gases.
the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept
You may locate this article at psdmagazine.org. Read
on file at the ASPE office for three years.
the article, complete the following exam, and submit your
Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material pre-
answer sheet to the ASPE office to potentially receive 0.1
sented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using information from
CEU.
other materials may result in a wrong answer.

SD 184
CE Questions — “Laboratory Gases” (PSD 184)
1. Dry air is composed of ________ percent carbon monoxide by 7. ________ can be used to remove moisture to make the main gas
volume. as pure as possible.
a. 0.0001 a. fiberglass
b. 0.00001 b. ceramic
c. 0.0003 c. sintered metal
d. 0.003 d. all of the above
2. Which of the following is considered a contaminant of air? 8. Bourdon gauges are used when pressures are more than
a. water ________.
b. hydrocarbons a. 10 psig
c. rust b. 100 psig
d. all of the above c. 68.9 kPa
d. both a and c
3. ________ gases will spontaneously ignite upon contact with air
under normal conditions. 9. What type of valve is used to protect the system from
a. flammable overpressure?
b. oxidizer a. flow-limit shutoff
c. pyrophoric b. relief
d. corrosive c. check
d. needle
4. ________ typically are used when a large amount of gas storage
is desired. 10. The recommended pipe diameter of a branch line with five
a. cabinets connections for a vacuum system is ________.
b. dewers a. ¼ inch
c. cylinders b. ½ inch
d. manifolds c. ¾ inch
d. 1 inch
5. A ________ is an assembly used to connect multiple gas
cylinders. 11. To maintain the highest purity, ________ pipe is the most often
a. header used.
b. bank a. polyethylene
c. manifold b. copper
d. connector c. 304L or 316L stainless steel
d. glass
6. A ________ is used to reduce a variable high inlet pressure to a
constant lower outlet pressure. 12. Allow ________ of the proposed system pressure for pipe friction
a. regulator loss.
b. pressure gauge a. 5 percent
c. filter b. 10 percent
d. shutoff valve c. 12 percent
d. none of the above

18  Plumbing Systems & Design  JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012 WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG

Plumbing Systems & Design Continuing Education Application Form
This form is valid up to one year from date of publication. The PS&D Continuing Education program is approved by ASPE for up to one
contact hour (0.1 CEU) of credit per article. Participants who earn a passing score (90 percent) on the CE questions will receive a letter or
certification within 30 days of ASPE’s receipt of the application form. (No special certificates will be issued.) Participants who fail and wish
to retake the test should resubmit the form along with an additional fee (if required).
1.  Photocopy this form or download it from www.psdmagazine.org.
2.  Print or type your name and address. Be sure to place your ASPE membership number in the appropriate space.
3.  Answer the multiple-choice continuing education (CE) questions based on the corresponding article found on
www.psdmagazine.org and the appraisal questions on this form.
4.  Submit this form with payment ($35 for nonmembers of ASPE) if required by check or money order made payable to ASPE or credit
card via mail (ASPE Education Credit, 2980 S. River Road, Des Plaines, IL 60018), fax (847-296-2963), or email [email protected].

Please print or type; this information will be used to process your credits.
Name_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Title __________________________________________________ ASPE Membership No._____________________________________
Organization___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Billing Address_ ________________________________________________________________________________________________
City_ _________________________________________ State/Province_________________________ Zip_______________________
Country_______________________________________________ E-mail_ _________________________________________________
Daytime telephone_ ____________________________________ Fax_____________________________________________________
PE State _ _____________________________________________ PE No._ _________________________________________________
Notice for North Carolina Professional Engineers: State regulations for registered PEs in North Carolina now require you to complete ASPE’s
online CEU validation form to be eligible for continuing education credits. After successfully completing this quiz, just visit ASPE’s CEU Validation
Center at aspe.org/CEUValidationCenter.

I am applying for the following continuing education credits: ❏ ASPE Member ❏ Nonmember
Each examination: $25 Each examination: $35
I certify that I have read the article indicated above. Limited Time: No Cost to ASPE Member
Payment: ❏ Personal Check (payable to ASPE) $
❏ Business or government check $
Signature ❏ DiscoverCard ❏ VISA ❏ MasterCard ❏ AMEX $
Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given If rebilling of a credit card charge is necessary, a $25 processing fee will be charged.
for this examination through February 28, 2013. ASPE is hereby authorized to charge my CE examination fee to my
Applications received after that date will not be processed. credit card

PS&D Continuing Education Answer Sheet Account Number Expiration date

Laboratory Gases (PSD 184)
Questions appear on page 18. Circle the answer to each question.
Q 1. A B C D Signature Cardholder’s name (Please print)
Q 2. A B C D
Q 3. A B C D Appraisal Questions
Q 4. A B C D Laboratory Gases (PSD 184)
Q 5. A B C D 1. Was the material new information for you?  ❏ Yes ❏ No
Q 6. A B C D
Q 7. A B C D
2. Was the material presented clearly?  ❏ Yes ❏ No
Q 8. A B C D 3. Was the material adequately covered?  ❏ Yes ❏ No
Q 9. A B C D
4. Did the content help you achieve the stated objectives?  ❏ Yes ❏ No
Q 10. A B C D
Q 11. A B C D 5. Did the CE questions help you identify specific ways to use ideas presented in
Q 12. A B C D the article?  ❏ Yes ❏ No
6. How much time did you need to complete the CE offering (i.e., to read the
article and answer the post-test questions)?

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012  Plumbing Systems & Design  19