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Space Race
The Space Race refers to the 20th-century competition between two
Cold War rivals, the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (US), for
dominance in spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the missile-
based nuclear arms race between the two nations that occurred following
World War II, aided by captured German missile technology and
personnel from the Aggregat program. The technological superiority
required for such dominance was seen as necessary for national security,
and symbolic of ideological superiority. The Space Race spawned
pioneering efforts to launch artificial satellites, uncrewed space probes of
the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human spaceflight in low Earth orbit
The Soviet Union achieved an early
and to the Moon.
lead in the Space Race by launching
The Space Race began on August 2, 1955, when the Soviet Union the first artificial satellite Sputnik 1
(replica shown) in 1957.
responded to the US announcement four days earlier of intent to launch
artificial satellites for the International Geophysical Year, by declaring
they would also launch a satellite "in the near future". The Soviet Union
beat the US to this, with the October 4, 1957 orbiting of Sputnik 1, and
later beat the US to the first human in space, Yuri Gagarin, on April 12,
1961. The "race" peaked with the July 20, 1969 US landing of the first
humans on the Moon with Apollo 11. The USSR tried but failed crewed
lunar missions, and eventually cancelled them and concentrated on
Earth orbital space stations.

A period of détente followed with the April 1972 agreement on a co- The United States led during the
operative Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, resulting in the July 1975 "Moon race" by landing Neil
rendezvous in Earth orbit of a US astronaut crew with a Soviet Armstrong (pictured) and Buzz Aldrin
on the Moon, July 20,1969.
cosmonaut crew. The end of the Space Race is harder to pinpoint than its
beginning, but it was over by the December, 1991 dissolution of the
Soviet Union, after which true spaceflight cooperation between the US
and Russia began.

The Space Race has left a legacy of Earth communications and weather
satellites, and continuing human space presence on the International
Space Station. It has also sparked increases in spending on education
and research and development, which led to beneficial spin-off
technologies.
Astronaut Thomas P. Stafford and
cosmonaut Aleksei Leonov shake
hands in space to ease Cold War
tensions.
Contents
Early rocket development
Germany during World War II
Soviet rocket development
American rocket development
Cold War missile race
The Race begins
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First artificial satellite

US reaction
Uncrewed lunar probes
First human in space
First American in space
Kennedy directs the Race toward the Moon
Completion of Vostok and Mercury programs
Mercury
Vostok
Kennedy proposes a joint US-USSR program
Gemini and Voskhod
Voskhod program
Project Gemini
Soviet crewed Moon programs
Outer space treaty
Disaster strikes both sides
Onward to the Moon
Apollo 11
The Race winds down
Salyuts and Skylab
Apollo–Soyuz Test Project
Legacy
Human spaceflight after Apollo
See also
Notes
References
External links

Early rocket development

Germany during World War II

The origins of the Space Race can be traced to Germany, beginning in the 1930s and continuing during World War II
when Nazi Germany researched and built operational ballistic missiles capable of sub-orbital spaceflight.[1] Starting in
the early 1930s, during the last stages of the Weimar Republic, German aerospace engineers experimented with liquid-
fueled rockets, with the goal that one day they would be capable of reaching high altitudes and traversing long
distances.[2] The head of the German Army's Ballistics and Munitions Branch, Lieutenant Colonel Karl Emil Becker,
gathered a small team of engineers that included Walter Dornberger and Leo Zanssen, to figure out how to use rockets
as long-range artillery in order to get around the Treaty of Versailles' ban on research and development of long-range
cannons.[3] Wernher von Braun, a young engineering prodigy, was recruited by Becker and Dornberger to join their
secret army program at Kummersdorf-West in 1932.[4] Von Braun dreamed of conquering outer space with rockets,
and did not initially see the military value in missile technology.[5]

During the Second World War, General Dornberger was the military head of the army's rocket program, Zanssen
became the commandant of the Peenemünde army rocket center, and von Braun was the technical director of the
ballistic missile program.[6] They led the team that built the Aggregate-4 (A-4) rocket, which became the first vehicle to
reach outer space during its test flight program in 1942 and 1943.[7] By 1943, Germany began mass-producing the A-4

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as the Vergeltungswaffe 2 ("Vengeance Weapon" 2, or more commonly, V2), a

ballistic missile with a 320 kilometers (200 mi) range carrying a 1,130 kilograms
(2,490 lb) warhead at 4,000 kilometers per hour (2,500 mph).[8] Its supersonic
speed meant there was no defense against it, and radar detection provided little
warning.[9] Germany used the weapon to bombard southern England and parts of
Allied-liberated western Europe from 1944 until 1945.[10] After the war, the V-2
became the basis of early American and Soviet rocket designs.[11][12]

At war's end, American, British, and Soviet scientific intelligence teams competed
to capture Germany's rocket engineers along with the German rockets themselves
and the designs on which they were based.[13] Each of the Allies captured a share of
the available members of the German rocket team, but the United States benefited Wernher von Braun (1912–
the most with Operation Paperclip, recruiting von Braun and most of his 1977), technical director of
engineering team, who later helped develop the American missile and space Nazi Germany's missile
program, became the
exploration programs. The United States also acquired a large number of complete
United States' lead rocket
V2 rockets.[11] engineer during the 1950s
and 1960s

Soviet rocket development

The German rocket center in Peenemünde was located in the eastern part
of Germany, which became the Soviet zone of occupation. On Stalin's
orders, the Soviet Union sent its best rocket engineers to this region to see
what they could salvage for future weapons systems.[14] The Soviet rocket
engineers were led by Sergei Korolev.[14] He had been involved in space
clubs and early Soviet rocket design in the 1930s, but was arrested in 1938
during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge and imprisoned for six years in
Gulag.[15] After the war, he became the USSR's chief rocket and spacecraft
engineer, essentially the Soviet counterpart to von Braun.[16] His identity "Chief Designer" Sergei Korolev
was kept a state secret throughout the Cold War, and he was identified (left), with the "father of the Soviet
atomic bomb" Igor Kurchatov, and
publicly only as "the Chief Designer."[16] In the West, his name was only
"Chief Theoretician" Mstislav
officially revealed when he died in 1966.[16]
Keldysh in 1956

After almost a year in the area around Peenemünde, Soviet officials

conducted Operation Osoaviakhim and later moved more than 170 of the
top captured German rocket specialists to Gorodomlya Island on Lake Seliger, about 240 kilometers (150 mi)
northwest of Moscow.[17] They were not allowed to participate in final Soviet missile design, but were used as
problem-solving consultants to the Soviet engineers.[18] They helped in the following areas: the creation of a Soviet
version of the A-4; work on "organizational schemes"; research in improving the A-4 main engine; development of a
100-ton engine; assistance in the "layout" of plant production rooms; and preparation of rocket assembly using
German components.[17] With their help, particularly Helmut Gröttrup's group, Korolev reverse-engineered the A-4
and built his own version of the rocket, the R-1, in 1948.[19] Later, he developed his own distinct designs, though many
of these designs were influenced by the Gröttrup Group's G4-R10 design from 1949.[19] The Germans were eventually
repatriated in 1951–53.[19]

American rocket development

The American professor Robert H. Goddard had worked on developing solid-fuel rockets since 1914, and
demonstrated a light battlefield rocket to the US Army Signal Corps only five days before the signing of the armistice
that ended World War I. He also started developing liquid-fueled rockets in 1921; yet he had not been taken seriously
by the public.[20]

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Von Braun and his team were sent to the United States Army's White Sands Proving Ground, located in New Mexico,
in 1945.[21] They set about assembling the captured V2s and began a program of launching them and instructing
American engineers in their operation.[22] These tests led to the first rocket to take photos from outer space, and the
first two-stage rocket, the WAC Corporal-V2 combination, in 1949.[22] The German rocket team was moved from Fort
Bliss to the Army's new Redstone Arsenal, located in Huntsville, Alabama, in 1950.[23] From here, von Braun and his
team developed the Army's first operational medium-range ballistic missile, the Redstone rocket, that in slightly
modified versions, launched both America's first satellite, and the first piloted Mercury space missions.[23] It became
the basis for both the Jupiter and Saturn family of rockets.[23]

Cold War missile race

The Cold War (1947–1991) developed between two former allies, the
The cold war would become the great
Soviet Union and the United States, soon after the end of the Second
engine, the supreme catalyst, that sent
World War. It involved a continuing state of political conflict, rockets and their cargoes far above
military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition, primarily Earth and worlds away. If Tsiolkovsky,
between the Soviet Union and its satellite states (often referred to as
Oberth, Goddard, and others were the
fathers of rocketry, the competition
the Eastern Bloc), and the powers of the Western world, particularly between capitalism and communism
the United States.[24] The primary participants' military forces never was its midwife.
clashed directly, but expressed this conflict through military William E. Burrows,
This New Ocean, "The Other World
coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, extensive aid to Series", p. 147
states deemed vulnerable, proxy wars, espionage, propaganda, a
nuclear arms race, and economic and technological competitions,
such as the Space Race.[24]

In simple terms, the Cold War could be viewed as an expression of the ideological struggle between communism and
capitalism.[25] The United States faced a new uncertainty beginning in September 1949, when it lost its monopoly on
the atomic bomb.[25] American intelligence agencies discovered that the Soviet Union had exploded its first atomic
bomb, with the consequence that the United States potentially could face a future nuclear war that, for the first time,
might devastate its cities.[25] Given this new danger, the United States participated in an arms race with the Soviet
Union that included development of the hydrogen bomb, as well as intercontinental strategic bombers and
intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) capable of delivering nuclear weapons.[25] A new fear of communism and
its sympathizers swept the United States during the 1950s, which devolved into paranoid McCarthyism.[25] With
communism spreading in China, Korea, and Eastern Europe, Americans came to feel so threatened that popular and
political culture condoned extensive "witch-hunts" to expose communist spies.[25] Part of the American reaction to the
Soviet atomic and hydrogen bomb tests included maintaining a large Air Force, under the control of the Strategic Air
Command (SAC). SAC employed intercontinental strategic bombers, as well as medium-bombers based close to Soviet
airspace (in western Europe and in Turkey) that were capable of delivering nuclear payloads.[26]

For its part, the Soviet Union harbored fears of invasion. Having suffered at least 27 million casualties during World
War II after being invaded by Nazi Germany in 1941,[27] the Soviet Union was wary of its former ally, the United
States, which until late 1949 was the sole possessor of atomic weapons. The United States had used these weapons
operationally during World War II, and it could use them again against the Soviet Union, laying waste its cities and
military centers.[27] Since the Americans had a much larger air force than the Soviet Union, and the United States
maintained advance air bases near Soviet territory, in 1947 Stalin ordered the development of intercontinental ballistic
missiles (ICBMs) in order to counter the perceived American threat.[18]

In 1953, Korolev was given the go-ahead to develop the R-7 Semyorka rocket, which represented a major advance from
the German design. Although some of its components (notably boosters) still resembled the German G-4, the new
rocket incorporated staged design, a completely new control system, and a new fuel. It was successfully tested on
August 21, 1957 and became the world's first fully operational ICBM the following month.[28] It was later used to
launch the first satellite into space, and derivatives launched all piloted Soviet spacecraft.[29]
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The United States had multiple rocket programs divided among the
different branches of the American armed services, which meant that each
force developed its own ICBM program. The Air Force initiated ICBM
research in 1945 with the MX-774.[30] However, its funding was cancelled
and only three partially successful launches were conducted in 1947.[30] In
1950, von Braun began testing the Air Force PGM-11 Redstone rocket
family at Cape Canaveral.[31] In 1951, the Air Force began a new ICBM
program called MX-1593, and by 1955 this program was receiving top-
priority funding.[30] The MX-1593 program evolved to become the Atlas-A,
with its maiden launch occurring June 11, 1957, becoming the first
Soviet R-7 ICBM, and its derivative
successful American ICBM.[30] Its upgraded version, the Atlas-D rocket, launch vehicles for Sputnik, Vostok,
later served as a nuclear ICBM and as the orbital launch vehicle for Project Voskhod, and Soyuz
Mercury and the remote-controlled Agena Target Vehicle used in Project
Gemini.[30]

With the Cold War as an engine for change in the ideological competition between the United States and the Soviet
Union, a coherent space policy began to take shape in the United States during the late 1950s.[32] Korolev took
inspiration from the competition as well, achieving many firsts to counter the possibility that the United States might
prevail.[33]

The Race begins

First artificial satellite

In 1955, with both the United States and the Soviet Union building ballistic missiles that could be utilized to launch
objects into space, the "starting line" was drawn for the Space Race.[34] In separate announcements four days apart,
both nations publicly announced that they would launch artificial Earth satellites by 1957 or 1958.[34] On July 29, 1955,
James C. Hagerty, president Dwight D. Eisenhower's press secretary, announced that the United States intended to
launch "small Earth circling satellites" between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958, as part of their contribution to
the International Geophysical Year (IGY).[34] Four days later, at the Sixth Congress of International Astronautical
Federation in Copenhagen, scientist Leonid I. Sedov spoke to international reporters at the Soviet embassy, and
announced his country's intention to launch a satellite as well, in the "near future".[34] On August 30, 1955, Korolev
managed to get the Soviet Academy of Sciences to create a commission whose purpose was to beat the Americans into
Earth orbit: this was the de facto start date for the Space Race.[34] The Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union began a
policy of treating development of its space program as a classified state secret.

Initially, President Eisenhower was worried that a satellite passing above a nation at over 100 kilometers (62 mi),
might be construed as violating that nation's sovereign airspace.[35] He was concerned that the Soviet Union would
accuse the Americans of an illegal overflight, thereby scoring a propaganda victory at his expense.[36] Eisenhower and
his advisors believed that a nation's airspace sovereignty did not extend into outer space, acknowledged as the Kármán
line, and he used the 1957–58 International Geophysical Year launches to establish this principle in international
law.[35] Eisenhower also feared that he might cause an international incident and be called a "warmonger" if he were to
use military missiles as launchers. Therefore, he selected the untried Naval Research Laboratory's Vanguard rocket,
which was a research-only booster.[37] This meant that von Braun's team was not allowed to put a satellite into orbit
with their Jupiter-C rocket, because of its intended use as a future military vehicle.[37] On September 20, 1956, von
Braun and his team did launch a Jupiter-C that was capable of putting a satellite into orbit, but the launch was used
only as a suborbital test of nose cone reentry technology.[37]

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Korolev received word about von Braun's 1956 Jupiter-C test, but thinking it was a satellite mission that failed, he
expedited plans to get his own satellite in orbit. Since his R-7 was substantially more powerful than any of the
American boosters, he made sure to take full advantage of this capability by designing Object D as his primary
satellite.[38] It was given the designation 'D', to distinguish it from other R-7 payload designations 'A', 'B', 'V', and 'G'
which were nuclear weapon payloads.[39] Object D dwarfed the proposed American satellites, by having a weight of
1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb), of which 300 kilograms (660 lb) would be composed of scientific instruments that would
photograph the Earth, take readings on radiation levels, and check on the planet's magnetic field.[39] However, things
were not going along well with the design and manufacturing of the satellite, so in February 1957, Korolev sought and
received permission from the Council of Ministers to create a prosteishy sputnik (PS-1), or simple satellite.[38] The
Council also decreed that Object D be postponed until April 1958.[40] The new sputnik was a shiny sphere that would
be a much lighter craft, weighing 83.8 kilograms (185 lb) and having a 58-centimeter (23 in) diameter.[41] The satellite
would not contain the complex instrumentation that Object D had, but had two radio transmitters operating on
different short wave radio frequencies, the ability to detect if a meteoroid were to penetrate its pressure hull, and the
ability to detect the density of the Earth's thermosphere.[42]

Korolev was buoyed by the first successful launches of his R-7

Beep ... beep ... beep
rocket in August and September, which paved the way for him
0:00 MENU
to launch his sputnik.[43] Word came that the Americans were
The signals of Sputnik 1 continued
planning to announce a major breakthrough at an for 22 days
International Geophysical Year conference at the National
Academy of Sciences in Washington D.C., with a paper Problems playing this file? See media help.
entitled "Satellite Over the Planet", on October 6, 1957.[44]
Korolev anticipated that von Braun might launch a Jupiter-C with a satellite payload on or around October 4 or 5, in
conjunction with the paper.[44] He hastened the launch, moving it to October 4.[44] The launch vehicle for PS-1, was a
modified R-7 – vehicle 8K71PS number M1-PS– without much of the test equipment and radio gear that was present
in the previous launches.[43] It arrived at the Soviet missile base Tyura-Tam in September and was prepared for its
mission at launch site number one.[43] On Friday, October 4, 1957, at exactly 10:28:34 pm Moscow time, the R-7, with
the now named Sputnik 1 satellite, lifted off the launch pad, and placed this artificial "moon" into an orbit a few
minutes later.[45] This "fellow traveler," as the name is translated in English, was a small, beeping ball, less than two
feet in diameter and weighing less than 200 pounds. But the celebrations were muted at the launch control center
until the down-range far east tracking station at Kamchatka received the first distinctive beep ... beep ... beep sounds
from Sputnik 1's radio transmitters, indicating that it was on its way to completing its first orbit.[45] About 95 minutes
after launch, the satellite flew over its launch site, and its radio signals were picked up by the engineers and military
personnel at Tyura-Tam: that's when Korolev and his team celebrated the first successful artificial satellite placed into
Earth-orbit.[46]

US reaction
The Soviet success raised a great deal of concern in the United States. For example, economist Bernard Baruch wrote
in an open letter titled "The Lessons of Defeat" to the New York Herald Tribune: "While we devote our industrial and
technological power to producing new model automobiles and more gadgets, the Soviet Union is conquering space. ...
It is Russia, not the United States, who has had the imagination to hitch its wagon to the stars and the skill to reach for
the moon and all but grasp it. America is worried. It should be."[47]

Eisenhower ordered project Vanguard to move up its timetable and launch its satellite much sooner than originally
planned.[48] The December 6, 1957 Project Vanguard launch failure occurred at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in
Florida, broadcast live in front of a US television audience.[48] It was a monumental failure, exploding a few seconds
after launch, and it became an international joke. The satellite appeared in newspapers under the names Flopnik,
Stayputnik, Kaputnik,[49] and Dudnik.[50] In the United Nations, the Russian delegate offered the US. representative
aid "under the Soviet program of technical assistance to backwards nations."[51] Only in the wake of this very public

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failure did von Braun's Redstone team get the go-ahead to launch their Jupiter-C rocket as soon as they could. In
Britain, the US's Western Cold War ally, the reaction was mixed: some celebrated the fact that the Soviets had reached
space first, while others feared the destructive potential that military uses of spacecraft might bring.[52]

On January 31, 1958, nearly four months after the launch of Sputnik 1, von Braun
and the United States successfully launched its first satellite on a four-stage Juno I
rocket derived from the US Army's Redstone missile, at Cape Canaveral.[53] The
satellite Explorer 1 was 30.66 pounds (13.91 kg) in mass.[54] The payload of
Explorer 1 weighed 18.35 pounds (8.32 kg). It carried a micrometeorite gauge and a
Geiger-Müller tube. It passed in and out of the Earth-encompassing radiation belt
with its 194-by-1,368-nautical-mile (360 by 2,534 km) orbit, therefore saturating
the tube's capacity and proving what Dr. James Van Allen, a space scientist at the
University of Iowa, had theorized.[55] The belt, named the Van Allen radiation belt,
is a doughnut-shaped zone of high-level radiation intensity around the Earth above
the magnetic equator.[56] Van Allen was also the man who designed and built the
satellite instrumentation of Explorer 1. The satellite measured three phenomena: William Hayward Pickering,
cosmic ray and radiation levels, the temperature in the spacecraft, and the James Van Allen, and
Wernher von Braun display
frequency of collisions with micrometeorites. The satellite had no memory for data
a full-scale model of
storage, therefore it had to transmit continuously.[57] In March 1958 a second
Explorer 1 at a Washington,
satellite was sent into orbit with augmented cosmic ray instruments. DC news conference after
confirmation the satellite
On April 2, 1958, President Eisenhower reacted to the Soviet space lead in was in orbit
launching the first satellite, by recommending to the US Congress that a civilian
agency be established to direct nonmilitary space activities. Congress, led by Senate
Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson, responded by passing the National Aeronautics and Space Act, which Eisenhower
signed into law on July 29, 1958. This law turned the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics into the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). It also created a Civilian-Military Liaison Committee, chaired by the
President, responsible for coordinating the nation's civilian and military space programs.

On October 21, 1959, Eisenhower approved the transfer of the Army's remaining space-related activities to NASA. On
July 1, 1960, the Redstone Arsenal became NASA's George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, with von Braun as its first
director. Development of the Saturn rocket family, which when mature, gave the US parity with the Soviets in terms of
lifting capability, was thus transferred to NASA.

Uncrewed lunar probes

In 1958, Korolev upgraded the R-7 to be able to launch a 400-kilogram (880 lb) payload to the Moon. Three secret
1958 attempts to launch Luna E-1-class impactor probes failed. The fourth attempt, Luna 1, launched successfully on
January 2, 1959, but missed the Moon. The fifth attempt on June 18 also failed at launch. The 390-kilogram (860 lb)
Luna 2 successfully impacted the Moon on September 14, 1959. The 278.5-kilogram (614 lb) Luna 3 successfully flew
by the Moon and sent back pictures of its far side on October 6, 1959.

The US reacted to the Luna program by embarking on the Ranger program in 1959, managed by NASA's Jet
Propulsion Laboratory. The Block I Ranger 1 and Ranger 2 suffered Atlas-Agena launch failures in August and
November 1961. The 727-pound (330 kg) Block II Ranger 3 launched successfully on January 26, 1962, but missed the
Moon. The 730-pound (330 kg) Ranger 4 became the first US spacecraft to reach the Moon, but its solar panels and
navigational system failed near the Moon and it impacted the far side without returning any scientific data. Ranger 5
ran out of power and missed the Moon by 725 kilometers (391 nmi) on October 21, 1962. The first successful Ranger
mission was the 806-pound (366 kg) Block III Ranger 7 which impacted on July 31, 1964.

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First human in space

By 1959, American observers believed that the Soviet Union would be the first to get
a human into space, because of the time needed to prepare for Mercury's first
launch.[58] On April 12, 1961, the USSR surprised the world again by launching Yuri
Gagarin into a single orbit around the Earth in a craft they called Vostok 1.[59] They
dubbed Gagarin the first cosmonaut, roughly translated from Russian and Greek as
"sailor of the universe". Although he had the ability to take over manual control of
his capsule in an emergency by opening an envelope he had in the cabin that
contained a code that could be typed into the computer, it was flown in an
automatic mode as a precaution; medical science at that time did not know what
would happen to a human in the weightlessness of space.[59] Vostok 1 orbited the
Earth for 108 minutes and made its reentry over the Soviet Union, with Gagarin
ejecting from the spacecraft at 7,000 meters (23,000 ft), and landing by
parachute.[59] The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (International
Yuri Gagarin, the first
Federation of Aeronautics) credited Gagarin with the world's first human space person in space, 1961
flight, although their qualifying rules for aeronautical records at the time required
pilots to take off and land with their craft. For this reason, the Soviet Union omitted
from their FAI submission the fact that Gagarin did not land with his capsule. When the FAI filing for Gherman Titov's
second Vostok flight in August 1961 disclosed the ejection landing technique, the FAI committee decided to
investigate, and concluded that the technological accomplishment of human spaceflight lay in the safe launch,
orbiting, and return, rather than the manner of landing, and revised their rules, keeping Gagarin's and Titov's records
intact.[60]

Gagarin became a national hero of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, and a worldwide celebrity. Moscow and
other cities in the USSR held mass demonstrations, the scale of which was second only to the World War II Victory
Parade of 1945.[61] April 12 was declared Cosmonautics Day in the USSR, and is celebrated today in Russia as one of
the official "Commemorative Dates of Russia."[62] In 2011, it was declared the International Day of Human Space
Flight by the United Nations.[63]

The radio communication between the launch control room

Poyekhali!
and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of
0:00 MENU
rocket launch:
Gagarin's voice

Problems playing this file? See media help. Korolev: "Preliminary stage..... intermediate.....
main..... lift off! We wish you a good flight.
Everything is all right."

Gagarin: "Поехали!" (Poyekhali! - Let's go!).[64]

Gagarin's informal poyekhali! became a historical phrase in the Eastern Bloc, used to refer to the beginning of the
human space flight era.[65][66]

First American in space

The US Air Force had been developing a program to launch the first man in space, named Man in Space Soonest. This
program studied several different types of one-man space vehicles, settling on a ballistic re-entry capsule launched on
a derivative Atlas missile, and selecting a group of nine candidate pilots. After NASA's creation, the program was
transferred over to the civilian agency and renamed Project Mercury on November 26, 1958. NASA selected a new
group of astronaut (from the Greek for "star sailor") candidates from Navy, Air Force and Marine test pilots, and

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narrowed this down to a group of seven for the program. Capsule design
and astronaut training began immediately, working toward preliminary
suborbital flights on the Redstone missile, followed by orbital flights on the
Atlas. Each flight series would first start uncrewed, then carry a non-
human primate, then finally humans.

On May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space,

launched in a ballistic trajectory on Mercury-Redstone 3, in a spacecraft he
named Freedom 7.[67] Though he did not achieve orbit like Gagarin, he was
the first person to exercise manual control over his spacecraft's attitude Alan Shepard, the first American in
and retro-rocket firing.[68] After his successful return, Shepard was space, 1961
celebrated as a national hero, honored with parades in Washington, New
York and Los Angeles, and received the NASA Distinguished Service Medal
from President John F. Kennedy.[69]

Kennedy directs the Race toward the Moon

Before Gagarin's flight, US President John F. Kennedy's support for
America's crewed space program was lukewarm. Jerome Wiesner of These are extraordinary times. And we
face an extraordinary challenge. Our
MIT, who served as a science advisor to presidents Eisenhower and
strength as well as our convictions
Kennedy, and himself an opponent of crewed space exploration, have imposed upon this nation the role
remarked, "If Kennedy could have opted out of a big space program of leader in freedom's cause.
without hurting the country in his judgement, he would have."[71] As ... if we are to win the battle that is now
late as March 1961, when NASA administrator James E. Webb going on around the world between
submitted a budget request to fund a Moon landing before 1970, freedom and tyranny, the dramatic
Kennedy rejected it because it was simply too expensive.[72] Some achievements in space which occurred in
were surprised by Kennedy's eventual support of NASA and the recent weeks should have made clear to
space program because of how often he had attacked the Eisenhower us all, as did the Sputnik in 1957, the
administration's inefficiency during the election.[73] impact of this adventure on the minds of
men everywhere, who are attempting to
Gagarin's flight changed this; now Kennedy sensed the humiliation
make a determination of which road they
and fear on the part of the American public over the Soviet lead.
should take. ... Now it is time to take
Additionally, the Bay of Pigs invasion, planned before his term began
longer strides—time for a great new
but executed during it, was an embarrassment to his administration
American enterprise—time for this
due to the colossal failure of the American forces.[74] Looking for
nation to take a clearly leading role in
something to save political face, he sent a memo dated April 20,
space achievement, which in many ways
1961, to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, asking him to look into
may hold the key to our future on Earth.
the state of America's space program, and into programs that could
offer NASA the opportunity to catch up.[75] The two major options at ... Recognizing the head start obtained by
the time seemed to be, either establishment of an Earth orbital space the Soviets with their large rocket
station, or a crewed landing on the Moon. Johnson in turn consulted engines, which gives them many months
with von Braun, who answered Kennedy's questions based on his of lead-time, and recognizing the
estimates of US and Soviet rocket lifting capability.[76] Based on this, likelihood that they will exploit this lead
Johnson responded to Kennedy, concluding that much more was for some time to come in still more
needed to reach a position of leadership, and recommending that the impressive successes, we nevertheless
crewed Moon landing was far enough in the future that the US had a are required to make new efforts on our
fighting chance to achieve it first.[77] own.

Kennedy ultimately decided to pursue what became the Apollo ... I believe that this nation should
program, and on May 25 took the opportunity to ask for
commit itself to achieving the goal,
before this decade is out, of landing a
Congressional support in a Cold War speech titled "Special Message man on the Moon and returning him
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on Urgent National Needs". Full text safely to the Earth. No single space
project in this period will be more
He justified the program in terms of its importance to national impressive to mankind, or more
important for the long-range
security, and its focus of the nation's energies on other scientific and
exploration of space; and none will be
social fields.[78] He rallied popular support for the program in his so difficult or expensive to accomplish.
"We choose to go to the Moon" speech, on September 12, 1962, John F. Kennedy,
Special Message to Congress on Urgent
before a large crowd at Rice University Stadium, in Houston, Texas,
National Needs, May 25, 1961[70]
near the construction site of the new Manned Spacecraft Center
facility.[78] Full text

Khrushchev responded to Kennedy's implicit challenge with silence, refusing to publicly confirm or deny the Soviets
were pursuing a "Moon race". As later disclosed, they pursued such a program in secret over the next nine years.

Completion of Vostok and Mercury programs

Mercury
American Virgil "Gus" Grissom
repeated Shepard's suborbital
flight in Liberty Bell 7 on July
21, 1961. Almost a year after the
Soviet Union put a human into
orbit, astronaut John Glenn
became the first American to
Computer-generated image of the orbit the Earth, on February
Friendship 7 capsule in orbit 20, 1962.[79] His Mercury-Atlas John Glenn, the first American in
6 mission completed three orbit, 1962
orbits in the Friendship 7
spacecraft, and splashed down safely in the Atlantic Ocean, after a tense
reentry, due to what falsely appeared from the telemetry data to be a loose heat-shield.[79] As the first American in
orbit, Glenn became a national hero, and received a ticker-tape parade in New York City, reminiscent of that given for
Charles Lindbergh. On February 23, 1962, President Kennedy escorted him in a parade at Cape Canaveral Air Force
Station, where he awarded Glenn with the NASA service medal.

The United States launched three more Mercury flights after Glenn's: Aurora 7 on May 24, 1962 duplicated Glenn's
three orbits; Sigma 7 on October 3, 1962, six orbits; and Faith 7 on May 15, 1963, 22 orbits (32.4 hours), the maximum
capability of the spacecraft. NASA at first intended to launch one more mission, extending the spacecraft's endurance
to three days, but since this would not beat the Soviet record, it was decided instead to concentrate on developing
Project Gemini.

Vostok
Gherman Titov became the first Soviet cosmonaut to exercise manual control of his Vostok 2 craft on August 6,
1961.[80] The Soviet Union demonstrated 24-hour launch pad turnaround and the capability to launch two piloted
spacecraft, Vostok 3 and Vostok 4, in essentially identical orbits, on August 11 and 12, 1962.[81] The two spacecraft
came within approximately 6.5 kilometers (4.0 mi) of one another, close enough for radio communication.[82] Vostok 4
also set a record of nearly four days in space. Though the two craft's orbits were as nearly identical as possible given
the accuracy of the launch rocket's guidance system, slight variations still existed which drew the two craft at first as

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close to each other as 6.5 kilometers (3.5 nautical miles), then as far apart as 2,850
kilometers (1,540 nautical miles). There were no maneuvering rockets on the
Vostok to permit space rendezvous, required to keep two spacecraft a controlled
distance apart.[83]

The Soviet Union duplicated its dual-launch feat

with Vostok 5 and Vostok 6 (June 16, 1963). This
time they launched the first woman (also the
first civilian), Valentina Tereshkova, into space
on Vostok 6.[84] Launching a woman was
reportedly Korolev's idea, and it was
accomplished purely for propaganda value.[84]
Replica of the Vostok Tereshkova was one of a small corps of female
capsule cosmonauts who were amateur parachutists, but
Tereshkova was the only one to fly.[84] The USSR
didn't again open its cosmonaut corps to women
until 1980, two years after the United States opened its astronaut corps to women. Valentina Tereshkova

The Soviets kept the details and true appearance of the Vostok capsule secret until
the April 1965 Moscow Economic Exhibition, where it was first displayed without its aerodynamic nose cone
concealing the spherical capsule. The "Vostok spaceship" had been first displayed at the July 1961 Tushino air show,
mounted on its launch vehicle's third stage, with the nose cone in place. A tail section with eight fins was also added, in
an apparent attempt to confuse western observers. This spurious tail section also appeared on official commemorative
stamps and a documentary.[85]

Kennedy proposes a joint US-USSR program

On September 20, 1963, in a speech before the United Nations General Assembly, President Kennedy proposed that
the United States and the Soviet Union join forces in their efforts to reach the Moon. Soviet Premier Nikita
Khrushchev initially rejected Kennedy's proposal.[86]

On October 2, 1997, it was reported that Khrushchev's son Sergei claimed Khrushchev was poised to accept Kennedy's
proposal at the time of Kennedy's assassination on November 22, 1963. During the next few weeks he reportedly
concluded that both nations might realize cost benefits and technological gains from a joint venture, and decided to
accept Kennedy's offer based on a measure of rapport during their years as leaders of the world's two superpowers, but
changed his mind and dropped the idea since he did not have the same trust for Kennedy's successor, Lyndon
Johnson.[86]

As President, Johnson steadfastly pursued the Gemini and Apollo programs, promoting them as Kennedy's legacy to
the American public. One week after Kennedy's death, he issued an executive order renaming the Cape Canaveral and
Apollo launch facilities after Kennedy.

Gemini and Voskhod

Focused by the commitment to a Moon landing, in January 1962 the US announced Project Gemini, a two-man
spacecraft that would support the later three-man Apollo by developing the key spaceflight technologies of space
rendezvous and docking of two craft, flight durations of sufficient length to simulate going to the Moon and back, and
extra-vehicular activity to accomplish useful work outside the spacecraft.

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Meanwhile, Korolev had planned further, long-term missions for the Vostok spacecraft, and had four Vostoks in
various stages of fabrication in late 1963 at his OKB-1 facilities.[87] At that time, the Americans announced their
ambitious plans for the Project Gemini flight schedule. These plans included major advancements in spacecraft
capabilities, including a two-person spacecraft, the ability to change orbits, the capacity to perform an extravehicular
activity (EVA), and the goal of docking with another spacecraft.[33] These represented major advances over the
previous Mercury or Vostok capsules, and Korolev felt the need to try to beat the Americans to many of these
innovations.[87] Korolev already had begun designing the Vostok's replacement, the next-generation Soyuz spacecraft,
a multi-cosmonaut spacecraft that had at least the same capabilities as the Gemini spacecraft.[88] Soyuz would not be
available for at least three years, and it could not be called upon to deal with this new American challenge in 1964 or
1965.[89] Political pressure in early 1964–which some sources claim was from Khrushchev while other sources claim
was from other Communist Party officials—pushed him to modify his four remaining Vostoks to beat the Americans to
new space firsts in the size of flight crews, and the duration of missions.[87]

Voskhod program
The greater advances of the Soviet space program at the time allowed their space
program to achieve other significant firsts, including the first EVA "spacewalk" and
the first mission performed by a crew in shirt-sleeves. Gemini took a year longer
than planned to accomplish its first flight, allowing the Soviets to achieve another
first, launching Voskhod 1 on October 12, 1964, the first spacecraft with a three-
cosmonaut crew.[90] The USSR touted another technological achievement during
this mission: it was the first space flight during which cosmonauts performed in a
shirt-sleeve-environment.[91] However, flying without spacesuits was not due to
safety improvements in the Soviet spacecraft's environmental systems; rather this
innovation was accomplished because the craft's limited cabin space did not allow
for spacesuits. Flying without spacesuits exposed the cosmonauts to significant risk
in the event of potentially fatal cabin depressurization.[91] This feat was not The Voskhod 1 and 2 space
repeated until the US Apollo Command Module flew in 1968; this later mission was capsules
designed from the outset to safely transport three astronauts in a shirt-sleeve
environment while in space.

Between October 14–16, 1964, Leonid Brezhnev and a small cadre of high-ranking Communist Party officials, deposed
Khrushchev as Soviet government leader a day after Voskhod 1 landed, in what was called the "Wednesday
conspiracy".[92] The new political leaders, along with Korolev, ended the technologically troublesome Voskhod
program, cancelling Voskhod 3 and 4, which were in the planning stages, and started concentrating on the race to the
Moon.[93] Voskhod 2 ended up being Korolev's final achievement before his death on January 14, 1966, as it became
the last of the many space firsts that demonstrated the USSR's domination in spacecraft technology during the early
1960s. According to historian Asif Siddiqi, Korolev's accomplishments marked "the absolute zenith of the Soviet space
program, one never, ever attained since."[94] There was a two-year pause in Soviet piloted space flights while
Voskhod's replacement, the Soyuz spacecraft, was designed and developed.[95]

On March 18, 1965, about a week before the first American piloted Project Gemini space flight, the USSR accelerated
the competition, by launching the two-cosmonaut Voskhod 2 mission with Pavel Belyayev and Alexey Leonov.[96]
Voskhod 2's design modifications included the addition of an inflatable airlock to allow for extravehicular activity
(EVA), also known as a spacewalk, while keeping the cabin pressurized so that the capsule's electronics would not
overheat.[97] Leonov performed the first-ever EVA as part of the mission.[96] A fatality was narrowly avoided when
Leonov's spacesuit expanded in the vacuum of space, preventing him from re-entering the airlock.[98] In order to
overcome this, he had to partially depressurize his spacesuit to a potentially dangerous level.[98] He succeeded in safely
re-entering the ship, but he and Belyayev faced further challenges when the spacecraft's atmospheric controls flooded
the cabin with 45% pure oxygen, which had to be lowered to acceptable levels before re-entry.[99] The reentry involved

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two more challenges: an improperly timed retrorocket firing caused the Voskhod 2 to land 386 kilometers (240 mi) off
its designated target area, the town of Perm; and the instrument compartment's failure to detach from the descent
apparatus caused the spacecraft to become unstable during reentry.[99]

Progress in the Space Race, showing the US passing the Soviets

in 1965

Project Gemini
Though delayed a year to reach its first flight, Gemini was able to take
advantage of the USSR's two-year hiatus after Voskhod, which enabled the
US to catch up and surpass the previous Soviet lead in piloted spaceflight.
Gemini achieved several significant firsts during the course of ten piloted
missions:

On Gemini 3 (March 1965), astronauts Virgil "Gus" Grissom and John

W. Young became the first to demonstrate their ability to change their
craft's orbit.
On Gemini 5 (August 1965), astronauts L. Gordon Cooper and
Charles "Pete" Conrad set a record of almost eight days in space, long
enough for a piloted lunar mission.
On Gemini 6A (December 1965), Command Pilot Wally Schirra
achieved the first space rendezvous with Gemini 7, accurately Rendezvous of Gemini 6 and 7,
matching his orbit to that of the other craft, station-keeping for three December 1965
consecutive orbits at distances as close as 1 foot (0.30 m).[100]
Gemini 7 also set a human spaceflight endurance record of fourteen
days for Frank Borman and James A. Lovell, which stood until both nations started launching space laboratories
in the early 1970s.
On Gemini 8 (March 1966), Command Pilot Neil Armstrong achieved the first docking between two spacecraft, his
Gemini craft and an Agena target vehicle.
Gemini 11 (September 1966), commanded by Conrad, achieved the first direct-ascent rendezvous with its Agena
target on the first orbit, and used the Agena's rocket to achieve an apogee of 742 nautical miles (1,374 km), the
crewed Earth orbit record still current as of 2015.
On Gemini 12 (November 1966), Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin spent over five hours working comfortably during three
(EVA) sessions, finally proving that humans could perform productive tasks outside their spacecraft. This proved
to be the most difficult goal to achieve.
Most of the novice pilots on the early missions would command the later missions. In this way, Project Gemini built up
spaceflight experience for the pool of astronauts for the Apollo lunar missions.

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Soviet crewed Moon programs

Korolev's design bureau produced two prospectuses for circumlunar
spaceflight (March 1962 and May 1963), the main spacecraft for which were
early versions of his Soyuz design. Soviet Communist Party Central
Committee Command 655-268 officially established two secret, competing
crewed programs for circumlunar flights and lunar landings, on August 3,
1964. The circumlunar flights were planned to occur in 1967, and the landings
to start in 1968.[101]

The circumlunar program (Zond), created by Vladimir Chelomey's design

bureau OKB-52, was to fly two cosmonauts in a stripped-down Soyuz 7K-L1,
launched by Chelomey's Proton UR-500 rocket. The Zond sacrificed habitable
cabin volume for equipment, by omitting the Soyuz orbital module. Chelomey
gained favor with Khruschev by employing members of his family. Soyuz 7K-L3 (Lunniy Orbitalny
Korabl), alongside the Apollo
Korolev's lunar landing program was designated N1/L3, for its N1 Command/Service Module to
superbooster and a more advanced Soyuz 7K-L3 spacecraft, also known as the scale
lunar orbital module ("Lunniy Orbitalny Korabl", LOK), with a crew of two. A
separate lunar lander ("Lunniy Korabl", LK), would carry a single cosmonaut
to the lunar surface.[101]

The N1/L3 launch vehicle had three stages to Earth orbit, a fourth stage for
Earth departure, and a fifth stage for lunar landing assist. The combined space
vehicle was roughly the same height and takeoff mass as the three-stage US LK lunar lander (Lunniy Korabl),
alongside the Apollo Lunar
Apollo/ Saturn V and exceeded its takeoff thrust by 28%, but had only roughly
Module to scale
half the translunar injection payload capability.

Following Khruschev's ouster from power, Chelomey's Zond program was

merged into the N1/L3 program.

Outer space treaty

The US and USSR began discussions on the peaceful uses of space as early as 1958, presenting issues for debate to the
United Nations,[102][103][104] which created a Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in 1959.[105]

On May 10, 1962, Vice President Johnson addressed the Second National Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Space
revealing that the United States and the USSR both supported a resolution passed by the Political Committee of the
UN General Assembly on December 1962, which not only urged member nations to "extend the rules of international
law to outer space," but to also cooperate in its exploration. Following the passing of this resolution, Kennedy
commenced his communications proposing a cooperative American/Soviet space program.[106]

The UN ultimately created a Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of
Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, which was signed by the United States, USSR, and the
United Kingdom on January 27, 1967 and went into force the following October 10.

This treaty:

bars party States from placing weapons of mass destruction in Earth orbit, on the Moon, or any other celestial
body;
exclusively limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes, and expressly prohibits
their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases,
installations, and fortifications;

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declares that the exploration of outer space shall be done to benefit all countries and shall be free for exploration
and use by all the States;
explicitly forbids any government from claiming a celestial resource such as the Moon or a planet, claiming that
they are the common heritage of mankind, "not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by
means of use or occupation, or by any other means". However, the State that launches a space object retains
jurisdiction and control over that object;
holds any State liable for damages caused by their space object;
declares that "the activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial
bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty", and
"States Parties shall bear international responsibility for national space activities whether carried out by
governmental or non-governmental entities"; and
"A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State
Party in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference
with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies,
may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment."
The treaty remains in force, signed by 102 member states. – As of 2015

Disaster strikes both sides

In 1967, both nations faced serious challenges that brought their programs to temporary halts. Both had been rushing
at full-speed toward the first piloted flights of Apollo and Soyuz, without paying due diligence to growing design and
manufacturing problems. The results proved fatal to both pioneering crews.

On January 27, 1967, the same day the US and USSR signed the Outer
Space Treaty, the crew of the first crewed Apollo mission, Command Pilot
Virgil "Gus" Grissom, Senior Pilot Ed White, and Pilot Roger Chaffee, were
killed in a fire that swept through their spacecraft cabin during a ground
test, less than a month before the planned February 21 launch. An
investigative board determined the fire was probably caused by an
electrical spark, and quickly grew out of control, fed by the spacecraft's
pure oxygen atmosphere. Crew escape was made impossible by inability to
Charred interior of the Apollo 1 open the plug door hatch cover against the greater-than-atmospheric
spacecraft after the fire that killed
internal pressure.[107] The board also found design and construction flaws
the first crew
in the spacecraft, and procedural failings, including failure to appreciate
the hazard of the pure-oxygen atmosphere, as well as inadequate safety
procedures.[107] All these flaws had to be corrected over the next twenty-two months until the first piloted flight could
be made.[107] Mercury and Gemini veteran Grissom had been a favored choice of Deke Slayton, NASA's Director of
Flight Crew Operations, to make the first piloted landing.

On April 24, 1967, the single pilot of Soyuz 1, Vladimir Komarov, became the first in-flight spaceflight fatality. The
mission was planned to be a three-day test, to include the first Soviet docking with an unpiloted Soyuz 2, but the
mission was plagued with problems. Early on, Komarov's craft lacked sufficient electrical power because only one of
two solar panels had deployed. Then the automatic attitude control system began malfunctioning and eventually failed
completely, resulting in the craft spinning wildly. Komarov was able to stop the spin with the manual system, which
was only partially effective. The flight controllers aborted his mission after only one day. During the emergency re-
entry, a fault in the landing parachute system caused the primary chute to fail, and the reserve chute became tangled
with the drogue chute; Komarov was killed on impact. Fixing the spacecraft faults caused an eighteen-month delay
before piloted Soyuz flights could resume.

Onward to the Moon

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The United States recovered from the Apollo 1 fire, fixing the fatal flaws in
an improved version of the Block II command module. The US proceeded
with unpiloted test launches of the Saturn V launch vehicle (Apollo 4 and
Apollo 6) and the Lunar Module (Apollo 5) during the latter half of 1967
and early 1968.[108] Apollo 1's mission to check out the Apollo
Command/Service Module in Earth orbit was accomplished by Grissom's
backup crew commanded by Walter Schirra on Apollo 7, launched on
October 11, 1968.[109] The eleven-day mission was a total success, as the
spacecraft performed a virtually flawless mission, paving the way for the
United States to continue with its lunar mission schedule.[110]

The Soviet Union also fixed the

Commemorative plaque and the
parachute and control
"Fallen Astronaut" sculpture left on
problems with Soyuz, and the the Moon in 1971 by the crew of
next piloted mission Soyuz 3 Apollo 15 in memory of 14
was launched on October 26, deceased NASA astronauts and
1968.[111] The goal was to USSR cosmonauts
complete Komarov's
rendezvous and docking
mission with the un-piloted Soyuz 2.[111] Ground controllers brought the
Artist view of Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5
two craft to within 200 meters (660 ft) of each other, then cosmonaut
after docking
Georgy Beregovoy took control.[111] He got within 40 meters (130 ft) of his
target, but was unable to dock before expending 90 percent of his
maneuvering fuel, due to a piloting error that put his spacecraft into the wrong orientation and forced Soyuz 2 to
automatically turn away from his approaching craft.[111] The first docking of Soviet spacecraft was finally realized in
January 1969 by the Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 missions. It was the first-ever docking of two crewed spacecraft, and the first
transfer of crew from one space vehicle to another.[112]

The Soviet Zond spacecraft was not yet ready for piloted circumlunar
missions in 1968, after five unsuccessful and partially successful
automated test launches: Cosmos 146 on March 10, 1967; Cosmos 154 on
April 8, 1967; Zond 1967A September 27, 1967; Zond 1967B on November
22, 1967.[113] Zond 4 was launched on March 2, 1968, and successfully
made a circumlunar flight.[114] After its successful flight around the Moon,
Zond 4 encountered problems with its Earth reentry on March 9, and was
ordered destroyed by an explosive charge 15,000 meters (49,000 ft) over
Soyuz 7K-L1 Zond spacecraft. Artist
the Gulf of Guinea.[115] The Soviet official announcement said that Zond 4
view
was an automated test flight which ended with its intentional destruction,
due to its recovery trajectory positioning it over the Atlantic Ocean instead
of over the USSR.[114]

During the summer of 1968, the Apollo program hit another snag: the first pilot-rated Lunar Module (LM) was not
ready for orbital tests in time for a December 1968 launch. NASA planners overcame this challenge by changing the
mission flight order, delaying the first LM flight until March 1969, and sending Apollo 8 into lunar orbit without the
LM in December.[116] This mission was in part motivated by intelligence rumors the Soviet Union might be ready for a
piloted Zond flight during late 1968.[117] In September 1968, Zond 5 made a circumlunar flight with tortoises on board
and returned to Earth, accomplishing the first successful water landing of the Soviet space program in the Indian
Ocean.[118] It also scared NASA planners, as it took them several days to figure out that it was only an automated
flight, not piloted, because voice recordings were transmitted from the craft en route to the Moon.[119] On November
10, 1968 another automated test flight, Zond 6 was launched, but this time encountered difficulties in its Earth

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reentry, and depressurized and deployed its parachute too early, causing it
to crash-land only 16 kilometers (9.9 mi) from where it had been launched
six days earlier.[120] It turned out there was no chance of a piloted Soviet
circumlunar flight during 1968, due to the unreliability of the Zonds.[121]

On December 21, 1968, Frank

Borman, James Lovell, and
William Anders became the
first humans to ride the Saturn
V rocket into space on Apollo 8.
They also became the first to
leave low-Earth orbit and go to
Earthrise as seen from Apollo 8,
another celestial body, and
December 24, 1968 (NASA)
entered lunar orbit on
December 24.[122] They made
ten orbits in twenty hours, and transmitted one of the most watched TV
broadcasts in history, with their Christmas Eve program from lunar orbit, The Lunar Module flew in lunar orbit
that concluded with a reading from the biblical Book of Genesis.[122] Two on Apollo 10, May 22–23, 1969
and a half hours after the broadcast, they fired their engine to perform the
first trans-Earth injection to leave lunar orbit and return to the Earth.[122]
Apollo 8 safely landed in the Pacific Ocean on December 27, in NASA's first dawn splashdown and recovery.[122]

The American Lunar Module was finally ready for a successful piloted test flight in low Earth orbit on Apollo 9 in
March 1969. The next mission, Apollo 10, conducted a "dress rehearsal" for the first landing in May 1969, flying the
LM in lunar orbit as close as 47,400 feet (14.4 km) above the surface, the point where the powered descent to the
surface would begin.[123] With the LM proven to work well, the next step was to attempt the landing.

Unknown to the Americans, the Soviet Moon program was in deep trouble.[121] After two successive launch failures of
the N1 rocket in 1969, Soviet plans for a piloted landing suffered delay.[124] The launch pad explosion of the N-1 on
July 3, 1969 was a significant setback.[125] The rocket hit the pad after an engine shutdown, destroying itself and the
launch facility.[125] Without the N-1 rocket, the USSR could not send a large enough payload to the Moon to land a
human and return him safely.[126]

Apollo 11
Apollo 11 was prepared with the goal of a July landing in the Sea of
Tranquility.[127] The crew, selected in January 1969, consisted of
commander (CDR) Neil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP)
Michael Collins, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin.[128]
They trained for the mission until just before the launch day.[129] On July
16, 1969, at exactly 9:32 am EDT, the Saturn V rocket, AS-506, lifted off
from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39 in Florida.[130]

The trip to the Moon took just over three days.[131] After achieving orbit,
Armstrong and Aldrin transferred into the Lunar Module, named Eagle,
and after a landing gear inspection by Collins remaining in the
Command/Service Module Columbia, began their descent. After
American Buzz Aldrin during the first
overcoming several computer overload alarms caused by an antenna switch
Moon walk in 1969
left in the wrong position, and a slight downrange error, Armstrong took
over manual flight control at about 180 meters (590 ft), and guided the

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Lunar Module to a safe landing spot at 20:18:04 UTC, July 20, 1969 (3:17:04 pm CDT). The first humans on the Moon
waited six hours before they left their craft. At 02:56 UTC, July 21 (9:56 pm CDT July 20), Armstrong became the first
human to set foot on the Moon.[132]

The first step was witnessed by at least one-fifth of the

Neil Armstrong's historic first words
population of Earth, or about 723 million people.[133] His first on the Moon.
words when he stepped off the LM's landing footpad were, 0:00 MENU
"That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for "That's one small step for [a] man,
mankind."[132] Aldrin joined him on the surface almost 20 one giant leap for mankind."
minutes later.[134] Altogether, they spent just under two and
one-quarter hours outside their craft.[135] The next day, they Problems playing this file? See media help.
performed the first launch from another celestial body, and
rendezvoused back with Columbia.[136]

Apollo 11 left lunar orbit and returned to Earth, landing safely in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, 1969.[137] When the
spacecraft splashed down, 2,982 days had passed since Kennedy's commitment to landing a man on the Moon and
returning him safely to the Earth before the end of the decade; the mission was completed with 161 days to spare.[138]
With the safe completion of the Apollo 11 mission, the Americans won the race to the Moon.[139]

The Race winds down

NASA had ambitious follow-on human spaceflight plans as it reached its
lunar goal, but soon discovered it had expended most of its political capital
to do so.[140]

The first landing was followed by another, precision landing on Apollo 12

in November 1969. NASA had achieved its first landing goal with enough
Apollo spacecraft and Saturn V launchers left for eight follow-on lunar
landings through Apollo 20, conducting extended-endurance missions and
transporting the landing crews in Lunar Roving Vehicles on the last five.
They also planned an Apollo Applications Program to develop a longer-
Apollo 17's Saturn V in 1972
duration Earth orbital workshop (later named Skylab) to be constructed in
orbit from a spent S-IVB upper stage, using several launches of the smaller
Saturn IB launch vehicle. But planners soon decided this could be done
more efficiently by using the two live stages of a Saturn V to launch the
workshop pre-fabricated from an S-IVB (which was also the Saturn V third
stage), which immediately removed Apollo 20. Belt-tightening budget cuts
soon led NASA to cut Apollo 18 and 19 as well, but keep three
extended/Lunar Rover missions. Apollo 13 encountered an in-flight
spacecraft failure and had to abort its lunar landing in April 1970,
returning its crew safely but temporarily grounding the program again. It
resumed with four successful landings on Apollo 14 (February 1971), Apollo
15 (July 1971), Apollo 16 (April 1972), and Apollo 17 (December 1972).

In February 1969, President Richard M. Nixon convened a Space Task

Moonwalk, December 13, 1972
Group to set recommendations for the future US civilian space program,
headed by his Vice President Spiro T. Agnew.[141] Agnew was an
enthusiastic proponent of NASA's follow-on plans, and the STG recommended plans to develop a reusable Space
Transportation System including a Space Shuttle, which would facilitate development of permanent space stations in
Earth and lunar orbit, perhaps a base on the lunar surface, and the first human flight to Mars as early as 1986 or as
late as 2000.[142] Nixon had a better sense of the declining political support in Congress for a new Apollo-style

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program, which had disappeared with the achievement of the landing, and he intended to pursue detente with the
USSR and China, which he hoped might ease Cold War tensions. He cut the spending proposal he sent to Congress to
include funding for only the Space Shuttle, with perhaps an option to pursue the Earth orbital space station for the
foreseeable future.[143]

The USSR continued trying to perfect their N1 rocket, finally canceling it in 1976, after two more launch failures in
1971 and 1972.[144]

Salyuts and Skylab

Having lost the race to the Moon, the USSR decided to concentrate on
orbital space stations. During 1969 and 1970, they launched six more Soyuz
flights after Soyuz 3, then launched the first space station, the Salyut 1
laboratory designed by Kerim Kerimov, on April 19, 1971. Three days later,
the Soyuz 10 crew attempted to dock with it, but failed to achieve a secure
enough connection to safely enter the station. The Soyuz 11 crew of
Vladislav Volkov, Georgi Dobrovolski and Viktor Patsayev successfully
docked on June 7, and completed a record 22-day stay. The crew became
the second in-flight space fatality during their reentry on June 30. They The Soyuz 11 crew with the Salyut
were asphyxiated when their spacecraft's cabin lost all pressure, shortly station in the background, in a
Soviet commemorative stamp
after undocking. The disaster was blamed on a faulty cabin pressure valve,
that allowed all the air to vent into space. The crew was not wearing
pressure suits and had no chance of survival once the leak occurred.

Salyut 1's orbit was increased to prevent premature reentry, but further piloted flights were delayed while the Soyuz
was redesigned to fix the new safety problem. The station re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on October 11, after 175
days in orbit. The USSR attempted to launch a second Salyut-class station designated Durable Orbital Station-2 (DOS-
2) on July 29, 1972, but a rocket failure caused it to fail to achieve orbit. After the DOS-2 failure, the USSR attempted
to launch four more Salyut-class stations up to 1975, with another failure due to an explosion of the final rocket stage,
which punctured the station with shrapnel so that it would not hold pressure. All of the Salyuts were presented to the
public as non-military scientific laboratories, but some of them were covers for the military Almaz reconnaissance
stations.

The United States launched the orbital workstation Skylab 1 on May 14, 1973. It weighed 169,950 pounds (77,090 kg),
was 58 feet (18 m) long by 21.7 feet (6.6 m) in diameter, with a habitable volume of 10,000 cubic feet (280 m3). Skylab
was damaged during the ascent to orbit, losing one of its solar panels and a meteoroid thermal shield. Subsequent
crewed missions repaired the station, and the final mission's crew, Skylab 4, set the Space Race endurance record with
84 days in orbit when the mission ended on February 8, 1974. Skylab stayed in orbit another five years before
reentering the Earth's atmosphere over the Indian Ocean and Western Australia on July 11, 1979.

Apollo–Soyuz Test Project

In May 1972, President Richard M. Nixon and Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev negotiated an easing of relations
known as detente, creating a temporary "thaw" in the Cold War. In the spirit of good sportsmanship, the time seemed
right for cooperation rather than competition, and the notion of a continuing "race" began to subside.

The two nations planned a joint mission to dock the last US Apollo craft with a Soyuz, known as the Apollo-Soyuz Test
Project (ASTP). To prepare, the US designed a docking module for the Apollo that was compatible with the Soviet
docking system, which allowed any of their craft to dock with any other (e.g. Soyuz/Soyuz as well as Soyuz/Salyut).
The module was also necessary as an airlock to allow the men to visit each other's craft, which had incompatible cabin
atmospheres. The USSR used the Soyuz 16 mission in December 1974 to prepare for ASTP.

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22/01/2018 Space Race - Wikipedia

The joint mission began when Soyuz 19 was first launched on July 15, 1975
at 12:20 UTC, and the Apollo craft was launched with the docking module
six and a half hours later. The two craft rendezvoused and docked on July
17 at 16:19 UTC. The three astronauts conducted joint experiments with the
two cosmonauts, and the crew shook hands, exchanged gifts, and visited
each other's craft.

Legacy
Apollo-Soyuz crew: From left to
right: Donald "Deke" Slayton, Human spaceflight after Apollo
Thomas Patten Stafford, Vance
Brand, Alexey Leonov, and Valeri In the 1970s, the United States
Kubasov began developing a new
generation of reusable orbital
spacecraft known as the Space
Shuttle, and launched a range of uncrewed probes. The USSR continued to
develop space station technology with the Salyut program and Mir ('Peace'
or 'World', depending on the context) space station, supported by Soyuz
spacecraft. They developed their own large space shuttle under the Buran International Space Station in 2010
program. The USSR dissolved in 1991 and the remains of its space program
mainly passed to Russia. The United States and Russia worked together in
space with the Shuttle–Mir Program, and again with the International Space Station.

The Russian R-7 rocket family, which launched the first Sputnik at the beginning of the Space Race, is still in use
today. It services the International Space Station (ISS) as the launcher for both the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft. It
also ferries both Russian and American crews to and from the station.

See also
Cold War playground equipment Space policy
Comparison of Asian national space programs—a Space propaganda
so-called "Asian space race" Spaceflight records
History of spaceflight Timeline of Solar System exploration
List of space exploration milestones, 1957–1969 Timeline of space exploration
Moon Landing Timeline of the Space Race
Moon Shot Woods Hole Conference
Space advocacy Mars race
Space exploration

Notes
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15. Siddiqi (2003a), pp. 4, 11, 16
6. Burrows (1998), p. 96
16. Schefter (1999), pp. 7–10
7. Burrows (1998), pp. 99–100
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110. Murray (1990), pp. 323–324 ntrycode=spaceprogram). The Museum of Broadcast
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134. Jones, Eric M. (1 January 2010). "Apollo 11 Lunar 136. Parry (2009), pp. 250– 251
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109hrs:24mins:13secs to when Armstrong was back
144. Portree, 1.2.4 Manned Lunar Program (1964-1976)
inside the LM at 111hrs:38mins:38sec

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External links
Scanned letter from Wernher Von Braun to Vice President Johnson (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Ap
ollomon/apollo3.pdf)
"America's Space Program: Exploring a New Frontier", a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places
(TwHP) lesson plan (http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/101space/101space.htm)
Why Did the USSR Lose the Moon Race? (http://english.pravda.ru/main/2002/12/03/40312.html) from Pravda,
2002-12-03
Space Race Exhibition (http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gal114/gal114.htm) at the Smithsonian National Air
and Space Museum
TheSpaceRace.com (http://www.thespacerace.com/) – Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs
Timeline of the Space Race to the Moon 1960 – 1969 (http://www.historyshots.com/space/timeline.cfm)
Shadows of the Soviet Space Age, Paul Lucas (https://web.archive.org/web/20070212153437/http://www.strange
horizons.com/2004/20040503/shadows.shtml)
Chronology:Moon Race (http://www.russianspaceweb.com/chronology_moon_race.html) at
russianspaceweb.com
John F. Kennedy Moon Speech at Rice Stadium and Apollo 11 Mission Video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
9yW2cObTTy8) on YouTube

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