UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BANOS

COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES

MANGROVE PLANTATION MANAGEMENT

Submitted by:
Menorcha Michaela M. Villacrusis

Submitted to:
PhD. Diomedes Racelis

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in FRM 110

As an archipelagic country, more than fifty percent of our total population in in

coastal areas therefore it is very important protect and inform our coastal communities

about the importance of mangrove forest. Having the world’s fifth longest coast line and

geographically located at the typhoon belt made us more vulnerable. Strong typhoons

such as Yolanda and Ompong destroyed many coastal communities in Visayas and

Luzon and this is the only time in where we realized the importance of mangrove forest

as a natural barrier to the strong waves. Because almost half of our total population lives

in coastal areas, their livelihood depends greatly to fishing. Many mangrove forest in

our country were converted to fishponds and salt beds.

Mangroves are critical coastal ecosystems that impact our lives. They nourish

biodiversity as nursery grounds for many coastal and marine species and support

fisheries. They buffer coastal communities against extreme weather events such as

typhoons, stabilize coastlines and slow or reduce soil erosion. Despite these benefits, half

of the world’s mangroves have already been cleared or destroyed and those that remain

are under threat.

Mangroves are a type of coastal or estuarine wetland, characterized by the presence

of salt adapted trees and shrubs, that grows along the coast in tropical or subtropical

latitudes throughout the world. Many mangrove forests can be recognized by their

dense tangle of prop roots that make the trees appear to be standing on stilts above the

water. Their root systems are thus regularly inundated with saline water.
 Mangroves are among the most productive terrestrial ecosystems and are a natural,

renewable resource. Mangroves provide an important habitat to a wide array of marine

and terrestrial species. The quieter, more protected waters found among mangrove roots

provide breeding, foraging, and spawning areas for commercially and recreationally

important fisheries. Numerous bird species make their nests in the upper branches of

mangrove trees and hunt and fish within the confines of the mangrove forest. However,

the world's mangroves are subjected into different disturbances. Mangroves are losing

their habitats as rivers are dammed, their waters diverted and the intertidal zone

extensively developed for agriculture or aquaculture and generally dried up. Large tracts

have been converted to rice fields, fish and shrimp ponds, industrial and land

development and other non-forest uses. In parts of Asia, mangroves are home to

thousands of families. Mangrove areas are also over exploited for fuel wood and

charcoal-making. In overpopulated and acute fuel wood deficit areas, even small

branches and saplings are removed primarily for domestic fuel.

I. ECOLOGICAL BASIS FOR MANGROVE MANAGEMENT PLANNING

Mangroves are plant formations in tropical and subtropical coastlines. They are trees

and bushes growing below the high-water level of spring tide. The most noteworthy

features of the mangrove forests are their type of habitat, the relatively small species

comprising them, the stilt root of the Rhizophora spp., the presence of pneumatophores

in some genera such as Avicennia and Sonneratia, the adaptation of the seeds to the, and

the presence of lenticellated bark.

Mangrove forest is composed of small number of tree species due to the distinct

characteristics of their habitat. Few plant species are able to tolerate the high salinity of

the mud and the frequent inundation of sea-water in the estuary, they are also known as

the exclusive species. While plants found in the inter-terrestrial zone where brackish

water condition prevail, non-exclusive species were found. They are tree species that are

found in the mangrove forest but not restricted in the area. Biogeography. Mangrove

forest are not restricted only to the tropical forests, they also extend to furthur to the

North and South of the equator further classified to the Eastern zone comprised by the

East African coast, South Asia and the Pacific islands down to Australia, while the

Western zone is composed of the West Africa, and the coast of America and Carribean.

Most of the mangrove species found in the Western area are also found in the

Eastern area, however the Eastern zone is much richer in terms of numbers of species

present in the area. It is theorized that the difference in oceanic current around the world
affects the distribution of species from the Indo-West-Pacific biogeograpic region to

West Africa and the Atlantic.

The worlds largest mangrove forest area is situated in Sundarbans in the Bay of

Bengal that covers a total land area of approximately 660,000 ha. This may be due to

their geographic location, Mangrove formations are usually controlled by marine and

terrestrial factors such as local climate, geomorphology, salinity and other edaphic

characteristics. With these factors combined with the distance form the sea of the

mangrove forest, frequency and duration of inundation, and tidal dynamics usually

control the local distribution and succession of the local mangrove forest.

Mangrove ecology. It is known that ecology is the relationships of organism with

their environment. Forest communities are classified base on the predominant species

present in the community, hence a mangrove forest dominated by the Rhizophora species

with a distinct feature of prop and aerial roots as well as elongated propagules are

classified as Rhizoophora forrest type.

Both biotic and abiotic factors constitute the ecosystem where all the organisms are

interacting in a complex processes and life cycles of carbon, water, and nutrients with

their environment. Present studies of the forest ecosystems now takes into account the

organic and inorganic aspects of the life cycles due to the increasing need for the

environmentally sound forest management.

To utilize the natural energies and resources available to any given site as well as to

produce maximum carrying capacity for the desired products is the ultimate goal of

forest management to its maximum capacity. Therefore, it is required to carefully

area in a given condition.

Climate. Mangrove ecosystems are usually found in three climatic division, (a.)

equatorial zone, (b.) the tropical summer-rainfall zone, and (c.) partly in warm

temperature climates that do not have a really cold winter. The length of rainy season

determines the amount of fresh water in the area. In equatorial zone, the upland runoff is

usually enough to maintain the freshwater in the saline water table all throughout the

year however in dry areas, salinity in the soil increases. Therefore the duration of rainy

season and dry season affects the distribution of salinity in the intertidal zone. The shoot

growth of the seedling and sapling is closely correlated to water potential within the

plant and to environmental soil moisture deficits. In favorable sites ,the shoots growth

occurs in varying degrees throughout the year but in high stress sites, the shoots die

during the prolonged dry season and high growth rate occurs mainly during rainy season.

Temperature. In the equatorial belts, temperature is not usually a constraining factor

with regard to plant growth. However, periods of intense physiological stress may be

experienced when high temperatures are combined with full sunlight and prevailing

winds giving rise to high evapotranspiration and increased surface salinity due to the

capillary uptake. In such cases the format of heavy salty crusts on the soil surface can be

harmful to plant growth.

Wind and storm. Severe storms affect the waves, storm tides, and current systems, as

well as the volume and rate of fresh water discharge from the land. Mangroves play an

important role in moderating coastal storms at the interface between the land and sea.
The coastal belt, particularly near and along the foreshore, is a zone of intense

atmospheric turbulence due to the interplay of land and oceanic atmospheric influences.

Rainfall. Mangroves do not rely absolutely on rainfall for survival because they can

extract fresh water from the sea through salt excreting glands. However, rain fall

determines the rate of weathering it accounts for the amount of silt brought to the

mangrove swamp, and it also reduces the incidence of hyper-salinity.

Edaphic factors. The edaphic factor includes the physical, chemical, and biological

properties of soil that result from biologic and geologic phenomena or anthropogenic

activities. Discontinuities in the edaphic factor contribute to the intriguing patterns of

diversity we see in the biotic world. Chemical and physical features of soil greatly

influence the ecology and evolution of plants and their associated biota. Extreme soil

conditions,such as those found on serpentine outcrops, limestone and gypsum deposits,

and even mine tailings, have led to the formation of unique plant

communities characterized by both rarity and endemism. Such sites have also

provided model organisms to examine the process of divergence due to adaptation

and reproductive isolation and subsequent genetic differentiation, in some cases even

resulting in speciation

Mangrove vegetation. The vegetation is grouped into three types according to their

distribution, biological characteristics, soil salinity and inundation intensity.

Nuclear vegetation. This group is comprised by mangrove species in intertidal zone

that are dependent on saline influences, the so-called obligate halophytes. Most species

have special adaptations which enable them to grow in the mangrove substrate, such as
vivipary, high salt tolerance, ability to withstand tidal submersion, pneumatophore or

aerating roots, succulence and salt excreting glands.

Marginal vegetation. The species here are commonly associated with the mangroves

in the landward fringe, in seasonal freshwater swamps, beaches and/or marginal

mangrove habitats. Though they exist in the mangroves, these species are not restricted

to the littoral zone.

Marginal facultive vegetation. This vegetational type has limited forestry potential.

It is highly modified due to human development and more suited for other land uses.

Mangrove forest is further identified and classified according to six community types

based on forest appearance, and related to geological and hydrological processes. Each

type has it own characteristic set of environmental variables such as soil type and depth,

soil salinity range, and flushing rates. Each community range has characteristic ranges of

primary production, litter decomposition and carbon export along with differences in

nutrient recycling rates, and community components.

Overwash mangrove forests - the red mangrove is the dominant species on these

islands that are frequently inundated and flushed by the tides, resulting in high rates of

organic export. Maximum height of trees is about 7 m (23 ft).

Fringe mangrove forests these mangrove fringes are found along waterways, best

defined along shorelines whose elevations are higher than mean high tide levels.

Maximum hight of mangroves is about 10 m (32 ft).

Riverine mangrove forests this type may be tall forests along tidal rivers and creeks,

subject to regular flushing. All the three Floridian mangroves, White (Laguncularia
racemosa), black (Avicennia germinans) and red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle) are

present. Stand height may reach 18 - 20 m (60 - 65 ft).

Basin mangrove forests - this generally stunted type is located in the interior of

swamps in depressions channelling terrestrial runoff toward the coast. Red mangroves

are present where there is tidal flushing but towards the inland portion white and black

mangroves predominate. Trees may reach 15 m (49 ft) in height.

Hammock fore s t s - generally similar to type (4) above but they are found on

slightly elevated sites relative to surrounding areas. All species are present but the height

is seldom more than 5 m (16 ft).

Zonation and inundation. It is the degree of flooding, which depends on soil level, is

important in the establishment and dispersal of propagules, its effect on mature stands

may be less pronounced. it was suggested that the morphology of the propagules controls

the zonation of mangroves because the smaller propagules can be transported further

inland through already established vegetation by tides.

To be conserved, a resource must be managed sustainably and seen to be useful to

local communities. In this context, extractive activities should produce a positive impact

on the surrounding community such as generating local employment without impairing

the environment. It is almost impossible to 'conserve a resource without the support of

the local population. Local participation may involve information sharing, consultation,

decision-making and at the highest intensity initiating action.

Given the multiple use potential of mangrove ecosystems, an integrated approach to

mangrove management is essential and should cover the full range of products and

services which can be obtained from these areas.

The uses and values of the products obtainable from mangroves are many and

important. The importance of the resource stems from the many products taken directly

from the mangroves, including the non-wood products, as well as amenities provided

from within and beyond its boundaries. Wood products range from timber, poles and

posts to firewood, charcoal and tannin . Non-wood products include thatch, honey,

wildlife, fish, fodder and medicine . In addition, mangrove lands are often converted to

salt ponds or to agriculture or aquaculture purposes .

Many of the non-timber species found in mangroves are extremely versatile . The

Nipa palm (Nypa fruticans) for example, is used mainly as thatch for roofing but can also

produce a sugary syrup, alcohol and vinegar. Phoenix paludosa palm stems are used in

fencing and construction purposes. Nibong (Oncosperma filamentosa) is a very useful

palm in the landward fringe of mangroves. Whole stems are used for house and bridge
posts and split stems for flooring, decking, fish drying platforms, backbones for nipa

thatch, roof gutters, water pipes, and many other uses.

Other plants are used as fodder. Avicennia leaves, for instance, are grazed by camels,

goats and cattle in India, Pakistan, and the Arabian coast. In Australia, wild buffaloes

graze on mangroves in the Northern Territory . This sight can also be seen in Vietnam.

The stall feeding of sheep and pigs has been practised in a number of countries using

mangrove fodder in conjunction with other feedstock.

Cockles (Anadara sp) collected from estuarine mud-flats are a source of protein for

local inhabitants, as are crabs and the fishery in the tidal aquatic system.

The traditional "management paradigm" implies that if the forests are properly

managed then the non-wood ecosystem components will remain stable. This is notionally

flawed, because unless the non-wood components are integrated into the planning,

implementation, and monitoring levels of the forest management system adopted, they

will often be marginalized or ignored.

The inland margin of the mangroves and the upper tidal limits of estuaries constitute

the brackish water zone, where the water is mildly saline. Economically, this is an

important zone because, the brackish-water creeks are fringed by the salt water palm,

Nypa fruticans. The mangrove Date Palm, Phoenix paludosa and Sago (Metroxylon sago)

are also found in this formation. The inhabitants of the mangrove-Nypa palm zone along

the Gulf of Papua New Guinea subsist almost entirely on a diet of sago, which is very

rich in carbohydrates, and crabs, as a protein source.

Mangrove forests are the habitat of numerous species of fish and shellfish. Coastal

fisheries depend on these and they provide much of the protein needed by coastal people.
Some mangroves are converted to fish- or shrimp-ponds. Near urban centres, much

mangrove forest has been lost to provide land for industry, tin-mining, solar salt-works

and for hotels. There has also been conversion to paddy fields, often unsustainable

because of acid sulphate conditions.

The mangrove swamp is closely linked to terrestrial land use practices . In particular,

changes in water-flow regimes affect the mangroves, and the overdrawing of

groundwater or excessive removal of mangrove vegetation may increase the danger of

aquifer salinization and contamination.

Consequently, the coastal zone should be considered as an integral component of

overall regional land use planning and development so that appropriate land use policies

and action programmes may be formulated. Priority should be given not only towards the

rehabilitation of degraded coastal lands but also the rational use of land on a sustainable

basis, including the planned development of sustainable forest/marine products.

In order to develop an appropriate national or regional plan for the management and

conservation of mangroves, a comprehensive data-base should be available, including

information on the distribution and extent of mangrove areas, forest composition, actual

and potential production and ecological factors which govern mangrove dynamics.

Studying mangrove ecosystems for management purposes is not an easy task. Its

complex nature and the different land-uses it may be allocated to, call for the concourse

of expertise in various disciplines including Forestry, Ecology, Geomorphology,

Aquaculture and Agriculture.

As a first step towards integrated management of mangroves a survey of the

mangrove areas should be undertaken. The kind of survey to be applied depends on

various factors such as the size of the area to be covered, the type of vegetation, the

purpose of the survey, the funds available, etc_ In mangrove areas, the pressure on the

resources (wood and non-wood products) and the land (agriculture, aquaculture, etc.) is

increasing every day. Alternative uses of the forest land and the resources should be

evaluated efficiently and quickly. The information needed for this evaluation includes

the entire range of biological, physical and socio-economical data. One might be inclined

to use a multi-resource survey approach to gather data which will be used in the

evaluation of the production trade-offs and conditions of resources.

Consequently, with different data requirements, multi-resource surveys could

increase rather than decrease survey costs, and it might thus be advantageous to conduct

a stratified or multiple-phase survey instead, where, based on the national/regional

survey results, certain areas are allocated for more detailed and specific surveys.
IV. SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Integrated management planning presupposes that the greatest societal benefits are

realized when forests are managed for a mix of goods and services on a sustainable basis.

Wood and non-wood potential uses and their sustainable economic implications are

analyzed. A multiple-use strategy that harmonizes viable uses is formulated. Unlike

traditional planning approaches, timber production is not over-emphasized at the expense

of non-wood components of the ecosystem. Nowhere is the need to strike a balance

between different uses more compelling than in mangroves, where more often than not,

the non-wood opportunities may be economically and socially more important. Planning,

therefore, is required to achieve the desired combination of forest uses over space and

time, so that the various productive components of the forest production system can be

optimally used and sustained to meet intended objectives.

Ideally, forest management should be based on a complete understanding of all of the

social, economic and ecological parameters that are involved. That the current

knowledge on the ecological functioning and biological interactions for some non-wood

resources is incomplete, is however, not in itself an impediment to their sustainable

management. Forest management is enhanced through practice, and its scientific

foundation is strengthened through trials and experimentation. Management may be

conducted empirically on the basis of limited inventory supplemented by experience,

sound reasoning and intuition.

A key question for the longer term is how to reconcile sound environmental

activities with economic growth expectations. Part of the answer may well be founded on

the design of policies that will foster a pattern of economic growth that makes use of a
wider range and integrated mix of resource opportunities rather than over-exploiting any

single-use. This diversified and less single resource-intensive approach is one aspect of

integrated multiple-use planning.

Mangrove management planning should thus be part of an Integrated Coastal Area

Management (ICAM) programme. ICAM ensures the sustainable use of the economic

goods and services generated by the coastal ecosystems for meeting development

objectives and to preserve the environmental health, resource quality and ecological

integrity of the coastal area

On a practical basis, as non-wood uses are usually managed by nonforestry agencies,

it follows that coordination and linkages between concerned land uses and the relevant

agencies/users will be required. Many different uses of the mangrove area are totally

compatible and can be carried out simultaneously. Others, such as large scale

aquaculture, protection of wildlife habitats and intensive forest operations, are less so

and a zonation of the area according to priority uses might be necessary.

Whereas integrated management of mangroves is strongly advocated, the focus of

the present document is on the forest management aspects and additional information on

management of other mangrove resources such as fisheries and wildlife must be sought

elsewhere
V. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Enhanced National Greening Program (EO 193) is signed to extend the

implementation of EO 26 until 2028 and to reforest 1.2M ha between 2017 to 2022

Blue carbon is a carbon stored in coastal and marine [Link] was found out that

coastal ecosystem can sequester and store more carbon per unit area than terrestrial

forests.

REFERENCES

EO 26, National Greening Program

EO 193, Enhanced National Greening Program

FAO 117, Mangrove Forest Management Guidelines

International Union for Conservation of Nature

The Blue Carbon Initiative