ANKIYA NAAT of Assam

The Ankiya Naat (traditional Assamese one-act plays) are the true index of
Mahapurush Srimanta Sankardev’s creative genius. These plays, composed on the
combined formats of Assamese puppet dances of pre-modern era, Ozha-Pali, and also
other Indian theatrical institutions as well as techniques and practices followed in the
Sanskrit plays, have been termed the Ankiya Naat produced and presented by the
Mahapurush in Assam.

Although the plays composed by Mahapurush Sankardeva and Madhavdeva had

received popular acceptance, the term Ankiya Naat was not found during Sankardeva’s
life time. This nomenclature gained currency in subsequent time only. Twelve such
plays, scripted by Sankardeva and Madhavdeva between them are found on record.
According to some Carit Puthis (biographies) Sankardeva started as a play-wright by
planning and presenting the ‘Chihna-Yatra’ and proceeded to compose a few more
subsequently. The ‘Chihna-Yatra’ has no written script, the written scripts of his other
plays either. The six plays composed by him are- ‘Patni-Prasad’, ‘Keli-Gopal’, ‘Rukmini-
Haran’, ‘Parijat Haran’and the ‘Ram Bijoy’. The palys of Madhavdeva are ‘Chor-Dhara’,
‘Pimpara Guchuwa’, ‘Bhojan Bihar’, ‘Arjun Bhanjan’, Bhumi Letowa’ and the ‘Nrisinha
Yatra’. These six palys are also known as ‘Jhumur’.

Ankiya Naat are also called as Ankiya Bhaona . There is no significant difference
between these two terms. Generally, Naat is referred to the writer document and
Bhaona is the performance of the play. Both the words are interchangeable. The Bhaona
is often performed in the Namghar in a Sattra or a village. If the given space in a
Namghar being inadequate spectators make – shift arrangements (rabhaghar) are often
made by extending both sides of the verandah.

The actual performance of a Bhaona is preceded by a series of rituals. Such

rituals start with the very opening of a play (naatmela) at least a fortnight earlier. The
opening ritual consists of a naam-kirttana and a reading of the whole play in the
Namghar. A large number of people attend the ceremony. Since then the rehearsal of
the play begins. Everyday a player offers a sarai (a trayful of pulses and grams) seeking
blessings for his performance. The preceding day is called bar-akhara (main rehearsal) in
which a full and final rehearsal of the entire play is staged which is again witnesses by a
large gathering including the elders of the village who suggest tit-bits to the actors. A
discussion on giving a final touch to all necessary arrangements including the rabhaghar
volunteering, seating accommodation, light, costumes, cosmetics, masks, effigies and all

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other accessories is also held among the participants and village youths and respective
disciplines are entrusted upon responsible persons.

The day of the performance is a festive one with congregational chanting of

prayers (naam-kirttana) by the village superiors. The persons playing principal roles
observe fasting and seek the blessings of the holy assemblage for the smooth running of
the performance and for any omission or commission.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ONE-ACT PLAYS:

Certain common and general characteristics are noticed in all one-act plays
which are as follows:

(i) The dominant role of the Sutradhara (interlocutor);

(ii) Abundance of lyrical songs, slokas and payars (versified prayers);
(iii) Use of Brajavali language;
(iv) Use of versified prose; and
(v) Dances with songs.

(i) The dominance of the Sutradhara (Interlocutor) :

The Sutradhara plays a significantly dominant role in performance of the Ankiya

Naat. With a view to uplifting the spiritual level of the people in Assam through the
medium of acting and to propagate the ideals of devotion to Lord Krishna among all
sections of the society and also not to confine the role of Bhaona (plays) as only a
source of public entertainment, Sankardeva introduced the Sutradhara as per his own
imaginative power. Instead of confining the role of the Sutradhara within the prologue
(Purva Ranga) itself, he has used this role as the coordinating character in the entire
play, and also as the link between the play and its audience. In addition, depending on
time and place of the story, the Sutradhara is used to ensure the un-interrupted
progress of the play. Sankardeva has presented this character as the director of the play
as well. During the course of the prologue, the Sutradhara performs as a singing dancer
and also as an appraiser besides announcing the theme of the play to the audience.

In Ankiya Bhaona the part played by the Sutradhara mainly includes the
following aspects:

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 (1) Nandi: This relates to singing in praise of the deity or the king who happens
to be the principal character of the play.
(2) Announcer: While in conversation with the Sangi (an associate character) the
title of the play and its synopsis are announced by him to the audience.
(3) Introduces the hero and other characters to the audience, while they appear
on the stage, by way of dancing and singing.
(4) He explains to the audience the scenes of the play that will be enacted
serially and without interruptions. In that process he recites the slokas in
Sanskrit, sings in Brajavali, prays and narrates descriptions in a very
attractive, yet serious way. But he does not sing songs pertaining to personal
sorrows and pleasures of the characters.
(5) As done by the prompter in the modern plays, the Sutradhara indicates the
time when a character has to deliver his or her dialogue on the stage.
(6) He gives a description of the scenes or events that cannot be shown on the
stage, so that the audience could get a clear idea of such events.
(7) He leads the entire group of artists in singing the Muktimangal a Bhatima
(the concluding prayer in verse) at the end of the play.

(ii) Abundance of lyrical songs, Slokas and Payars :

In an Ankiya Naat one can find plenty of songs (geets), dances and music. The
staging of such a play becomes complete only in coordinated display of all these
ingredients. Songs based on classical ragas (modes) are found from the beginning to the
end. Body gestures of different limbs are applied by the characters to denote such
things or actions that cannot be shown on the stage. Like the Bhotimas (a kind of
devotional and adoration songs) the recitations too are a kind of songs in practice. On
most occasions, such songs and recitations are accompanied with dances. This confirms
that staging of an Ankiya Naat without dances is never considered complete. Needless
to say that such songs and dances are always accompanied with instrumental music.

Apart from the Sutradhara the other characters also come to the stage in
dancing styles only. Instruments, such as Khols (long shaped drums), Taals (cymbals),
developed by Sankardeva and used for the Nrittya (Dance) became integral parts of the
Ankiya Naat subsequently.

Not only the prologue and the concluding part, but the entire course of the play
also progresses through lyrical songs. The audience can easily understand the scenes
even if the dialogues are given a miss. They do not find any problem in understanding
the theme of the play as well as the various phases through which the characters

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perform; the mental state and other co-related stages through which the players
proceed towards the final course of the play. All throughout the play, the events to
come are indicated at the beginning through slokas and songs (geets) which the author
takes recourse to. In the course of the play too, songs are presented to show the various
stages of troubles and emotional moments which the characters may have to pass
through. The Ankiya Naat have four kind of songs:

(i) Devotional- like the Bhotimas.

(ii) The musical modes- like ragas (modes) and talas (measures) in which a
song is presented.
(iii) Descriptive rhymes and metric prayers (chapays) and
(iv) Songs presented during entry of the characters into the stage, describing
their physical shapes, gestures, and movements.

The literary worth of these songs is no less than their musical value.
Contemplative meters, alliteration, embellishment, rhymes, figures of speech and
pleasant descriptions and thought-provoking perceptions are all mingled in such songs
(geets) that make them really melodious. They present the clear picture of the things
and situations which these songs are used to depict.

As already mentioned, all such scenes, events, situations and place of events
which cannot be performed on the stage are left to the Sutradhara to describe through
songs and gestures for the audience to perceive correctly. Also, as stated before, the
use of Brajavali is another distinct element of the Ankiya Naat. Of course, the use of
Brajavali throughout the play is found in the plays composed by Sankardeva only. Its
use, after Sankardeva, started to decline. Even in the plays composed by Madhavdeva
use of colloquial language outpaced Brajavali to a great extent.

(iii) The use of Brajavali Language :

Another specific characteristics is the use of Brajavali language in the Ankiya

Naat. While this language in Assamese is called ‘Brajavali’, there is a similar language in
Bengali known as ‘Brajabuli’ but they are not the same. It is spoken language prevailed
in Mithila region dung 14th & 15th Century AD. The Vaishnavite poets of mediaeval era
adding their own colloquial words and changing the form of the words here and there in
those used by poet Vidyapati in his books, the poets in subsequent times laid the
foundation of this language. As in the case of Pali used by the Buddhists, which is not a
specific literary form or a language of any particular region, but was created to be
understood easily by all sections of the people, so was the case of Brajavali too. Again,
as in Pali, which was created based on the language spoken in Magadha region with
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some changes mutatis mutandis to include words spoken in other regions too, the
Brajavali language was also created mixing Maithili and Awahatti words with those of
the Assamese language in its modes and style of spoken and written expressions.
However, some slight influence of Bhojpuri, Awadhi and Brajabhasa (Hindi as spoken in
Western parts of U.P.) is also noticed in Brajavali language, used by Mahapurush in their
writings. Similarly, verbs, adverbs and pronouns used in the Ankiya Naat are also found
in Maithili, Bhojpuri, Awadhi and Brajabhasa too with slight variation in forms. For
instance, we can point to words like ‘kabahu’, ‘yaker’, ‘yaise’, ‘kaise’, ‘yasu’,’mohi’, ‘hoi’
which are found in Maithili, Awadhi and Brajabhasa too. This might be due to the impact
of the year-long pilgrimages undertaken by the Mahapurush to such regions. The
sentences quoted in verbatim bellow will give an idea of the type of amalgamation that
Maithili has had with the Assamese Brajavali language:

“He’ parama Iswara, tohari pada prahare swamimari yaye. Ihaka dosha bareka
marasaGosain. Tohari aagu khudra [Link] mari kona yasa sadhaba. Yata
lagemane sasti pawala.” -Kaliya Daman

[Oh God, our husband is going to die due to your kicks. Kindly pardon him for
this time. He is a small fly in front of you, what glory will you achieve by killing
him? He has got enough punishment.]

Again,

“Hamo kata tapa kariya devaka bare briddha bayase krishnaka putra pawalo.
Sehi prana putra brikshya pariya kshyanike mari yaya; Gosainra Barase erawalla.
Toho Kinimitte manusa bheli; rakshyasito adhika bheli; apona putraka khaite
sawala. Krishnaka nakhai hamako khawa” -‘Arjun Bhanjan’

[After a lot of penance, and with the blessings from the God, I have got Krishna
as my son at this advanced age. That son, dearer than my life, was going to die in
a moment due to falling of the tree. He escaped from death only because of

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 divine blessing. Why have you become a woman? You are worse than a titan;
you want to eat your own son! Eat my flesh in place of Krishna.’]

(iv) Use of rhetoric prose :

The fourth distinct peculiarity of an Ankiya Naat is its versified prose. Its use in
Sankardeva’s plays is the first instance of such type of prose found in Assamese
literature. However, it does not represent the pure Assamese prosy form. The pure form
of Assamese prose in proper shape is found only in the writings of Baikuntha Nath
Bhagawat Bhattacharya (Bhattadeva) which became the sole medium of producing
perfect prosy writings. Mahapurush (Sankardeva) had perhaps used prosy dialogue in
his plays as found in the north Indian languages. Vidyapati and play-wrights such as
Govinda, Umapati etc. of Maithili had composed songs only in Maithili language, while
they used Sanskrit or Prakit in the dialogues. Sankardeva had shown great pioneering
traits by composing songs and dialogues in the regional language.

But this form of prose follows a style different form the spoken one. For this
reason, it should be termed a rhetoric or versified form only. Here, it may be kept in
mind that the Sutradhara and other characters too deliver their dialogues in rhetoric
mode even though composed in the prosy form. In the prosy sentences used in the
plays, the harmony between the phonetics and frequent application of alliterations and
re-alliterations in conformity with declination of words as per their tunes, has given a
distinct prosy form found in the plays which is very much different from the commonly
used prose. The excerpts quoted bellow are examples of the harmonious application of
the above stated factors distinctly found in the prose used in the plays.

“Srikrishna Rukminika bhakati basya huya bibidha bihar madana khela lila-keli
kautuka kariya Rajakumarika parama manorath purala. Se’ Nripatinandinika
mahodaya millala. Jagataka Param-a Guru Narayana, tanikara parama
soubhyagini bhela. Navatarani Padmini sata-sahasra pawala. Indrakajata
Sampatti nija mandire millala. Srikrishna charanapankaja paramanande
paricharya kare sarbatha rahal” -(Rukmini Haran)

[Being pleased with Rukmini’s devotion, Lord Krishna played various forms of
love sports with the princess and fully satisfied her desire. The princess felt
greatly honoured and extremely fortunate to be tied with the God of the
universe. She received thousands of newly blossomed lotus as well as the
fortunes of Indra in her own temple. She kept on serving at Krishna’s lotus like
feet all along very gladly.]

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 Needless to say that spreading devotional ideal is the main objective of the
Ankiya Naat. Therefore, the play-wrights have tried their level best to focus the
devotion to Krishna through various angles of their plays. Devotional ideal is another
characteristic of the Ankiya Naat that leads to the path of Bhakti. The particular
language is used to give a divine touch to all characters of Naat. Brajavali created a
different environment in a higher pedestal than one provided by colloquial dialects of
that period. Even though they have remained steadfast in focusing this aspect, the
writers have not ignored the amusement side too. They have maintained a balance
between the devotional aspect and the amusement factor judiciously, and have, thus,
maintained an equilibrium between high ideals of the dramatic creation or literary
characteristics on one hand, and religious propagation on the other. Thus, the Ankiya
Naat have become a symbol of lofty ideals as much as high standard of Assamese
dramatic literature as a result thereof.

(v) Music and Dance :

The Ankiya Naat do not aim at focusing their characters through dialogues unlike
the western plays. Nor do they aim at projecting the variegated picture of life and the
world either. They intend to create an impact of devotional sentiment on the minds of
the audience through dances, songs and acting which depict the deeds of the God in His
various incarnations. Therefore, these plays give preference to devotional sentiment
over actual dramatic flavor. By generating devotional sentiment (Bhakti Rasa, the
principal aim of the Ankiya Naat) rather than a dramatic suspense or flavor, the
audience is taken to a spiritual environment. The actions, creation of conflicts between
characters etc are of secondary importance. However, creation of certain characters is
indispensable in order to present the divine deeds and make them understandable and
entertaining to the audience. In that process, certain scenes of conflicts and clashes
have also been added in the plays without which it would be difficult to attract the
audience. Since not much importance is given on such conflicts or discords, the Ankiya
Naat are virtually devoid of serious conflicts. Some sort of ostensible clashes are seen in
‘Rukmini Haran’, ‘Parijat Haran’ and the ‘Ram Vijoy’ Naat but these are not an integral
part of those plays. On the other hand, there are practically no clash or conflict in ‘Patni
Prasad’, ‘Keli Gopal’ and also in the Madhavdeva’s Jhumuras. We can find only a
semblance of discord in those plays. It is for this reason, we notice only the external
form of a drama in the Ankiya Naat which are bereft of vital dramatic elements.
Descriptive coherence of speech or dialogue and abundance of songs may create a
contemplative situation only but never any conative dramatic environment.

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 Being required to retain the mythological stories in their un-deviated form, the
authors of the Ankiya Naat have not tried to present a separate identity to the
characters, nor their nature as per variation in situations. Although human nature and
behaviors may be noticed in them, they are never human beings; they are either gods or
demons even though some sorts of human nature and behaviors are evident in them.
Therefore, the characters in the plays are not dynamic, but static. The Vaishnavite poets
clearly aimed at propagating the deeds of Lord Krishna and make the people sing and
listen to his glories. Their objective is mainly to demonstrate devotional sentiment and
the sport of waves for the audience to relish. Those poets did not aim at thickening the
dramatic sentiment for the audience to enjoy. Neither did they emphasizes the
importance of portraying the characters and variegation of the story. Although most of
play-wrights have hesitated to take full liberty to portray the characters somewhat
differently from their descriptions found in the original stories, some very talented
authors have been able to present their characters brightly within the limited scope
available to them. For instance, Sankardeva has succeeded to portray lively characters
like Satyabhama, Narada, Parasuram while Madhavdeva has shown child Krishna with
similar liveliness. The characters; such as Madanamanjari, Lilavati, Kanakavati etc. who
are either friends of Sita or Rukmini, and the Bhats (panegyrists) like Haridas Surabhi,
Vedanidhi Bipra etc are Mahapurusa’s own creations.

2. THE PECULIARITIES OF SANKARDEVA’S PLAYS:

Certain peculiarities are commonly found in the plays of Mahapurusa Srimanta

Sankardeva which are as follows:

(a) Most of his plays are based on Tenth Part of the Bhagawat. Only ‘Ram Vijoy’
has been based on the ‘Ramayana’.
(b) In most cases he has started his plays with a couple of slokas (hymns); one of
them is based on a meter called ‘Sardul Vikririta’ (a kind of classical meter).
(c) We find two Bhotimas (songs praising the God), in most of his dramas except
in the ‘Ram Bijoy’ and the ‘Rukmini Haran’ each of which contains four such
Bhotimas.
(d) The language of his plays is very rich in literary beauty. Sankardeva has made
it most interesting and enjoyable, by his judicious use of prosodies and
occasionally with a local touch as and when he considered necessary.
(e) In certain cases similar descriptions of characters and environments are
noticed in his plays. Sita and Rukmini, for instance, have been described
almost in identical fashions.

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 (f) Again, similarity in the behaviors of the Kings towards their rivals at the sight
of the beauty of the heroine is found in his plays. Such scenes are found in
the Ram Bijoy and the ‘Rukmini Haran’ Naat.
(g) Sankardeva applies generally short versified meters in the songs of adoration
composed in Sanskrit.
(h) He has portrayed Lord Krishna (Lord Rama in Ram Bijoy) as the hero of his
plays where he has attempted to focus the human characteristics of the
heroes who stun the human beings with their natural and supernatural acts.
(i) Although we find elements like sexual sentiment, heroism, dreadfulness,
tragedies etc in Sankardeva’s plays, he mainly devotes to propagate
devotional sentiment only through his dramatic works. Even though sexual
sentiment has a significant place in his plays like ‘Keli Gopal’ ‘Rukmini Haron’
and the ‘Ram Bijoy’, Sankardeva has succeeded in converting it to devotional
sentiment finally.
(j) He has mostly taken recourse to a character called ‘Bhaat’ (panegyrist) to
describe amorous attraction between the hero and the heroine and their
union. Such characters have been given a prominent role in the Ram Vijoy’
and the ‘Rukmini Haron’ Naat.
(k) One must acknowledge the unique impact of the dramatic songs which is
primarily the reason behind the attraction of Sankardeva’s plays. Such impact
is more prominent in the ‘Keli Gopal’ play.

3. SANSKRIT DRAMAS AND ANKIYA NAAT:

While discussing about styles and usages of the Ankiya Naat one has to consider
their similarities and differences with the dramatic traditions of the Sanskrit plays. In
this context, noted writer Kaliram Medhi had mentioned in details in the fore-words of
his compilation of ‘Ankiya Naat titled ‘Ankawali’. Written in English, the preface of this
book has indicated the main similarities found between the Sanskrit plays and the
Ankiya Naat. Writer Medhi had mainly mentioned about the similes noticed in the texts
of the plays. Besides these, we can also point to the directions prescribed in the ‘Natya
Sastra’ authored by sage Bharat Muni, in context of acting and dancing mentioned in
the prologues. These directions are followed by several regional dramatic institutions,
such as ‘Kathakali’ and ‘Kuriyattam’ of Kerala and ‘Yakshya Gan’ in Andhra and
Tamilnadu. Sankardeva has applied such prologues in his plays with his extra-ordinary
imaginative power. Prologues containing Gayan-Bayan (songs with instrumental music)
and also different forms of instrumental plays (Dhemalis) can be called the Purbaranga
(prologue) of the Ankiya Naat. Besides this, Gyan-Bayan accompanied with Khols (long

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shaped drums), Taals (cymbals), Daba (a large variety of drum) and Kali (clarion) etc are
together a great dramatic institution by themselves.

In the beginning of his preface, writer Medhi has mentioned about the
similarities between prologues in Sanskrit dramas and those found in the Ankiya Naat.
Prologue (purbaranga) means the programmers preceding commencement of the
actual play. This includes Pratyahar (playing of the Mridanga), Avataran (positioning of
the singers and the instrument players), Ashrawanya (tuning of the musical
instruments), Sangswadan (readying the instruments to play), Asarita (testing of tunes
and beats of the instruments), Stuti (hymns), Charit Nritya (dance and hoisting of the
flag with worship) followed by Nandigeet (adoration song by the Sutradhara). The part
preceding the Nandigeet is called ‘Purbarang’ (prologue). Before commencement of an
Assamese One-act play, a dramatic environment is created with playing of instrumental
music and performing different modes of dancing, such as Saru-Dhemali, Bor-Dhemali,
Deva-Dhemali, Naat-Dhemali and Guru-Dhemali all of which are different forms of
sports with music and instruments. Then, the Sutradhara enters the stage and begins his
dancing. The use of the term Dhemali instead of Purbarang should be carefully noted.
The dances performed by the musicians playing khols (a kind of long shaped drums) and
Taals (cymbals) are called ‘Dhemali’, the forms of which are determined by the foot-
work, body movements and hand gestures of the artists. In Dhemalis, dances push the
songs to the back seat. The strokes on the Khols (drums) vary as per foot-work and hand
gestures of the drum beaters (bayans). Since these prologues are performed with
dances and gestures, they are called the Dhemalis meaning sports. The use of the word
‘Rang-Dhemali’ in our language is understood easily by all. The word ‘Rang’ has been
derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Ranga’ which means acting. Clubbing Rang with
Dhemali, the word Rang-Dhemali has been coined in our language as in the compounds
words like ‘Kaj-Karma’, ’Hat-Bazar’ etc. The origin of ‘Dhemali’ is ‘Dhab’ which implies
movement; so, it is called a Dhemali which implies movements and gestures. We do not
find acting in Dhemalis of Ankiya Bhaonas, but there are body movements and gestures
in dances performed in a cyclic style. As such, the use of the word Dhemali appears to
be quite appropriate. In northern India, dances and songs presented in the Holi festival
are called Dhamars or Dhamals. A kind of songs sung in a particular mode called ‘Geya’
is also known as ‘Dhamar’. But their relation with the Dhemali played in Ankiya Bhaonas
cannot be established. In short, Dhemalis mean such actions which demonstrate
physical movements and gestures. In the sports played by the children we find enough
body movements in their races, for instance. Dancing by the Sutradhara (interlocutor)
while singing Nandi and Bhotimas in the Ankiya Bhaonas after every stage is performed
traditionally.

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 The impact of Sanskrit plays is felt in the Ankiya Naat while performing Nandi,
and singing by the Sutradhara (after the prologue) and also on his adoration songs, as
well as in the ‘Muktimangalan’ performed at the conclusion of the play. As in the
Sanskrit plays, we find two Nandi Slokas in the Assamese Ankiya Naat, particularly in
those composed by Sankardeva. In the first Sloka, Lord Krishna (Lord Rama in Ram Bijoy)
is adored while the second one is presented giving a brief account of the play’s theme.
This Nandi Sloka reflects the spiritual aim contained in the play.

The other principal connective of Ankiya Naat with the Sanskrit traditions and
similes is the Sutradhara. This character, which plays a vital and dominant role in the
Ankiya Naat has been created in line with the one found in the Sanskrit plays, as well as
in the ‘Natya Sastra’ of Bharat Muni). As in the Sanskrit dramas, the theme of the play in
Ankiya Naat is explained to the audience by the Sutradhara on the stage, through Nandi
geets, Bhotimas and slokas. But, as against confining his role in the prologue and the
concluding part in Ankiya Naat, the Sutradhara is linked with every stage in Sanskrit
dramas as the narrator of the events in the play.

Be it in accordance with the Sanskrit plays or with the specific objective of

propagating devotional ideals as the case may be, Sankardeva concludes his Naat with a
Muktimangal in the same way as ‘Bharat Bakya’ (message given by Bharat Muni) in the
Sanskrit plays. In Sanskrit dramas, the principal character recites the ‘Bharat Bakya’
praying for well-being of the audience, while in the Ankiya Naat the Sutradhara leads
the entire group of artists in presenting ‘Muktimangal’ pleading God for the welfare of
the entire people of the society as a whole in their present and subsequent births.

In the performing of Ankiya Bhaona too, the play-wrights use gestures, attires,
and other required accessories (Aharya) and also focus on devoted acting. Although, all
the nine forms of literary sentiments (Nava-Rasa) are found in different Ankiya Naat,
yet all such sentiments are mingled finally in devotional sentiment only.

As per the Natya Sastra, acting is based on four elements, i.e. physical
movement and gestures expressing thought-provoking sentiments and gestures like
smiles, laughs and tears; and ‘Aharya’ (costumes, cosmetics and make-ups etc).
Although all these four elements are there in the Ankiya Naat too, we do not find
symbolic gestures to express any situation or thought there. The characters, however,
take recourse to physical or body movements, to indicate the realistic substance of the
events. Use of such movements and gestures are readily found in the dances of
Sutradhara. The use of colour and masks has a specific role in such plays. It appears that
the Ankiya Bhaona strictly follow the directions mentioned in the Natya Sastra in this

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context. In the Sanskrit plays, scenes or events not practicable to be shown on stage are
left to the audience to conceive or realize from descriptive narrations. In the Ankiya
Naat, scenes, not practicable or worthy of showing on the stage, are left to the
Sutradhara to narrate and explain to the audience.

Also, as in the Sanskrit dramas, where besides Sanskrit, Prakrit and its words in
distorted forms are also used, the writers of Ankiya Naat too use Sanskrit and Brajavali
languages besides Assamese in most cases.

Invariable use of versified prose and songs are also found in Ankiya Naat, as in
their Sanskrit counter parts, like voices from the Heaven heard in the plays, mainly in
the dialogues of the Sutradhara, where he says, “Akaxe Deva Dundubhi Bajata” (devine
beats are heard from the Heaven) found in the prologue. Such voices are sometimes
found in main course of the plays too.

4. IMPACT ON SOCIO-RELIGIOUS LIFE:

The main objective of Ankiya Bhaona is to attract the audience to religious and
devotional aspect by glorifying the Almighty and also the gods and the goddesses
projecting their deeds through visual media. Secondly, they also aim at entertaining the
people. In medieval Europe, certain theatrical institutions had been established, mainly
concerning the Church. The dramas staged there were one-sided and religion oriented.
Those were classified into three categories- mystic plays, miracle plays and moral plays.
In the first two categories of plays mystical deeds of Lord Jesus and the Apostoles were
shown while in the third category the human personality and transitivity and their
actions and reactions in minds were displayed. In the initial stage, the Church had not
taken these shows favourably. The conservative Churches were the reason behind the
demise of the Roman theatre. But subsequently, the Church started to relent indirectly,
if not directly, and allowed staging of dramas based upon stories relating to Lord Christ
and Jenesis of the Bible, within the Church campus but not inside the Church. Those
theatrical performances provided exquisite amusement to the audience and helped a
lot in propagating Christianity. In course of time, the Church Fathers started to lose their
grip on such theatres. They began to be staged on the cross-roads and in places of
public gatherings. As mobile stages were created on wheel cart sand the green-rooms
beneath such carts, these theatres were a source of amusement to the audience. The
audience were stunned at the appearance of the followers of the Satan with dreadful
masks, or the angels with beautiful wings, on the stage. These theatrical institutions
subsequently gave birth to traditional plays in due course of time.

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 The Assamese Ankiya Naat too is primarily a religious institution. Besides
entertaining the audience, the Bhaona attracted their minds towards the Vaishnavite
Bhagawati Dharma (religious faith). Even though this institution was used as a channel
to propagate religious faith, the authors did never overlook the aspects like proper
costumes, accessories, equipment and conducive arrangement required for their
perfectly faultless presentation. Because of this reason, the Ankiya Naat began to be
highly appreciated as an artful manifestation.

Artists and artisans were coming up in various places to produce equipment,

accessories, cosmetics, masks, costumes and musical instruments and such other things
as may be required in staging of the plays. The skills of artisans passed on to generation
creating awareness for economic opportunities. Even in present day scenario, the
artifacts developed around Ankiya Naat provides sources of earning to some people in
the society. Thus, this institution succeeded in guiding the society through a truly decent
path. Based on this institution, musical groups of Gayan-Bayan (instrument players and
singers) began to spring up in nooks and corners of the villages and they started
practicing these arts on regular basis. Thus, through this institution, the good-will and
friendly ties flourished among different sections in the society and the people were
inspired to work in a spirit of co-operation and mutual understanding. Witnessing on the
stage, the triumph of virtue over the evil forces as well as the supernatural feats of the
divine powers, the people became inclined to believe in religion and the God. Thus, they
enhanced their spiritual standard to a large extent.

5. THE PLAYS COMPOSED BY MADHAVDEVA:

Mahapurush Madhavdeva, following his mentor’s example, is known to have

composed six one-act plays. However, it is suspected that some subsequent writers
wrote some more plays in his name. The critics are all one in their opinion that the plays
‘Chor-Dhara’, ‘Pimpara Guchuwa’, ‘Bhojan Behar’, ‘Arjun Bhanjan’ and ‘Bhumi Letowa’
were definitely composed by Madhavdeva, but the sixth one has not been ascertained
yet. As per some biographies written subsequently, Madhavdeva had also composed
‘Ram Yatra’ and ‘Govardhan Yatra’ and performed their staging as well. The play ‘Ram
Yatra’ was too lengthy and not suitable for staging and hence it was destroyed as
mentioned in the ‘Katha Guru Carit’. But, the biography is silent about the fate of
‘Govardhan Yatra’. As mentioned in the biography, Madhavdeva, in compliance with the
request of Vishnu Ata, had composed the play ‘Nrisinh Yatra’ and performed it on the
stage playing himself the title role. Although, not much is known whether he had
himself composed this play or done it by another writer and got it staged, yet it will not

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be wrong to presume that Madhavdeva was the actual author of this play. The ‘Nrisinh
Yatra’ written by Daitari Thakur, was composed only after era Madhavdeva .

The doubtful plays do not have ‘Nandi’ nor any sloka in the middle and in the
concluding parts either. But the ones free from any shade of doubt have begun with the
‘Nandi Slokas’. In fact, commencing the play with Nandi Sloka has been followed
traditionally in the same way as in the Sanskrit plays. Again, Radha has been portrayed
as the principal female character in ‘Bhusan Haran’ ‘Rass Jhumura’ and ‘Kotora Khela’
although Radha has no place in the Mahapuruxia religious faith; nor there is any scope
of worshipping Radha and Krishna together. For this reason, some of the critics do not
subscribe to the theory of Madhavdeva’s giving Radha a place in his plays. The language
of these plays too are not very refined at times. Although five of the geets (songs) found
in those plays are included in the Bor-Geets of Madhavdeva’s composition, many critics
opine otherwise. In ‘Rash Jhumura’, depicting Radha as the heroine, the composer has
shown the sexual sentiment of love. Since Sankardeva had already composed a play on
the same subject, the possibility of writing another play by Madhavdeva on the same
theme appears very remote. While composing ‘Rash Kriya’. Sankardeva did not deviate
from the descriptions found in the ‘Bhagawata’.However, the ‘Rash Jhumura’ does not
present full descriptions of ‘Rash Kriya’ as found in the ‘Bhagawata, where Radha has
not been portrayed as a heroine. In the play ‘Kotora Khela’, the last two lyrics are, of
course, compositions of Madhavdeva; but there is enough scope to doubt about the
author of the first few songs. The subject materials of the play do not belong to the
Bhagawata, but appear to have been taken from Dan-Khanda’ and ‘Nouka Khanda’ etc.
showing love affairs between Radha and Krishna, as envisaged in ‘Sri Krishna Kirtan’
composed by the Vaishnav writer of Gouda in Bengal.

6. CLASSIFICATIONS OF PLAYS :

The plays composed by Mahapurush Sankardeva are known as ‘Yatras’ or

‘Ankiya Naat’ but with the exception of ‘Arjun Bhanjan’ all other plays of Madhavdeva
are called ‘Jhumuras’. The difference between a Nat or Yatra and a Jhumura can be
distinguished from Arjun Bhanjan getting the status of a drama. In this play,
Madhavdeva has shown, a complete story as in the plays of Sankardeva’s composition.
But on the other hand, in ‘Chor Dhara’, ‘Pimpara Guchuwa’, Bhumi Letowa’ and ‘Bhojan
Behar’ composed by Madhavdeva, a complete story is absent. Such plays based on part
of a story, or a minor event, are called ‘Jhumura’s. In the book titled ‘Sangeet Damodar’
there is mention about ‘Jhumur’ as a Raaga (a musical mode) depicting sexual passion
and its symptiom: “Prayah Sringara-bahula Madhavika Madhura Mriduh. Ekaika
Jhumuri Loke Barnanadi Niycmejjita”. The dance performed by the woman in Santhal

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 Paraganas of present day Jharkhand (Choatal – Tribe) in a cyclic fashion or followed one
by the other, is known as ‘Jhumur’. A kind of song called ‘Jhumur’ is also found in
northern India including a dance called Jhumuri in Mithila. In ancient Assamese
literature the use of an eight-lettered rhyme is found where each line has eight letters,
for which the lines are short in length. Perhaps for this reason, the short plays of
Madhavdeva are called the ‘Jhumuras’. The dominance of female characters in such
songs is evident in ‘Jhumur’, or ‘Jhumura’ mentioned in the phrases of words like
‘yuvatiyutha sata gayata Jhumuri’ found in ‘Padakalpataru’ (a collection of Bengali
Vaishnavite poems). As such, the relation of women with Jhumur dance and Jhumura
songs is intimately close.

Madhavdeva, during his lifetime, had never used the word ‘Jhumura’ in any of
his plays. Perhaps, the author of the ‘Rash Jhumura’ had applied this word in his writings
after Madhavdeva’s demise. It is a matter of some doubt if Madhavdeva was or was not
the author of ‘Rash Jhumura’. ‘Rash Jhumura’ as a dance is still performed in the
Kamalabari Sattra and Garamur Sattra of Majuli.. The use of Jhumura is found in the
biography titled ‘Sankardeva and Madhavdeva’ written by Daitari Thakur. Yet all said
and done, it can, however, be assumed that the name ‘Jhumura’ was coined in post-
Madhavdeva era. Probably the word gained currency from seventeen century onwards.

The plays composed by Mahapurush Sankardeva are based on plots taken from
Puranas with a lot of ostensible conflicts in those plays, though not essentially very
deep. But, plays composed by Madhavdeva are not based on such full mythological
stories or sub-stories. Hence, the scope of conflicts are very limited in his plays. These
plays are mainly based on some naughty deeds of Lord Krishna during his childhood
days at certain specific times. These are of events of very short durations. Each of these
plays has been based on particular situations having no scope of developing a story.
Because of such factors, the dramatic conflicts in these plays appear to be
comparatively light and shallow.

Performance of Bhaona is a community task with satisfaction of participants in their

spiritual endeavor. Mahapurush Sankardeva laid the foundation of Assamese society by
perfectly bringing the local artifacts and culture into the spiritual path of Vaishnavism. The
devotional and ritualistic aspects of the performance completes the life of the villagers of
Assam without the need for arduous efforts. The great Neo Vaishnavism movement in the
North Eastern part of India has contributed to Indian Classical Heritage through the art of
Ankiya Naat.

This article is compiled mainly with the help of following references.

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 Dr. Satyendra Nath Sharma “Ásomiya Natya Sahitya”(2013), Saumar
Prakash, Guwahati

Dr. Pradip Jyoti Mahanta, ‘Bhaona’: “The Traditional Vaishnavite Theatre”.

Sh. Tulshi Narayan Mahanta of Sri Sri Thakarial Sattra has translated the article
from Assamese language to English with great efforts.

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