Computational Methods in

Multiphase Flow VI

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 SIXTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON COMPUTATIONAL AND
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS IN MULTIPHASE AND COMPLEX FLOW

Multiphase Flow VI

CONFERENCE CHAIRMEN

A.A. Mammoli
University of New Mexico, USA

C.A. Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE

M. Asuaje
F. Gallerano
R. Groll
N. Mahinpey
J. Mls
K. Shala
L. Skerget
P. Vorobieff
Y. Yan
Y.F. Yap

Organised by
Wessex Institute of Technology, UK
University of New Mexico, USA

Sponsored by
WIT Transactions on Engineering Sciences
 WIT Transactions
Transactions Editor

Carlos Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology
Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst
Southampton SO40 7AA, UK
Email: [email protected]

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B Abersek University of Maribor, Slovenia G Belingardi Politecnico di Torino, Italy

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Computational Methods in
Multiphase Flow VI

EDITORS

A.A. Mammoli
University of New Mexico, USA

C.A. Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology, UK
Editors:
A.A. Mammoli
University of New Mexico, USA

C.A. Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

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ISBN: 978-1-84564-518-2
ISSN: 1746-4471 (print)
ISSN: 1743-3533 (on-line)

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 Preface

The study of multiphase flows is ever increasing in scope, primarily because

of the increasing importance that these flows have in manufacturing, minerals
extraction, environmental remediation, and medicine to name a few, and
because of the technological advances that are constantly occurring. Despite
experimental, theoretical and computational efforts that have spanned
decades, we are still far from a full understanding of the complex behaviors
inherent in multiphase flows. There are several causes for the difficulty in
formulating accurate models even for the simplest of systems. The interaction
of phenomena occurring at several different length scales, which in general
cannot be decoupled from one another, is the primary difficulty. At the
smallest (nano) scales, processes occur which are neither continuum nor
molecular, and therefore cannot be treated either at the molecular level (the
problem is too big) or at the continuum level (the model may miss important
non-continuum effects). Examples of such situations are interface phenomena
at engineered interfaces which involve both a vapor and a liquid phase, or
surface-to-surface interactions via an intervening fluid. One length scale up
(micro), structure formation can cause difficulties in formulating boundary
conditions and constitutive equations. Most investigators have approached
the problem by applying direct numerical simulation at some level, and
using models or approximations to treat smaller-scale phenomena, with the
ultimate aim of finding out enough about the flow behavior to be able to
construct a constitutive model which captures the essential physics.

Presently, a “theory of everything” is not considered a viable option, because

of the many possible combinations of flow parameters. Therefore, it is still
necessary to categorize multiphase flow problems into various categories
(e.g. bubbly flows, fluidized beds, suspensions). Within each of these
categories, developing accurate descriptions of the flows is possible.
The overall focus of this series of conferences is the combination of
experimental and computational techniques to gain a better understanding
of individual classes of multiphase flow, The goal of the conference is that
of facilitating the exchange of ideas and experiences directly and
interactively, thereby promoting the development of knowledge in this
increasingly important topic. The contents of this book reflect the quality of
the submissions and the diligence of the reviewers, whom we wish to thank.

The Editors
Kos, Greece 2011
 Contents

Section 1: Multiphase flow simulation

Hydrodynamics behaviour of slot-rectangular spouted beds:

assessment of slot width effect
E. Esmaili, N. Mahinpey & C. J. Lim .................................................................. 3

Analogues of Rayleigh-Taylor and Richtmyer-Meshkov instabilities

in flows with nonuniform particle and droplet seeding
P. Vorobieff, M. Anderson, J. Conroy, R.White, C. R. Truman & S. Kumar ..... 17

Comparison of numerical schemes for computational simulation of

liquid wavy film flow on vertical wall
J. K. Min & I. S. Park ........................................................................................ 29

Hybrid density- and pressure-based splitting scheme for

cavitating flows simulation
T. Alexandrikova, A. Pavlov & V. Streltsov ....................................................... 41

Studies of different numerical models for a turbulent particulate flow

in a square pipe with 90° bend
D. Schellander, D. Kahrimanovic & S. Pirker................................................... 57

Height function interface reconstruction algorithm for

the simulation of boiling flows
M. Magnini & B. Pulvirenti ............................................................................... 69

An experimental study of burnout and flow instability in sub-channels with

subcooled void at low pressure
V. Chatoorgoon.................................................................................................. 81
Section 2: Turbulent flow

Transition length between water and air-water flows on stepped chutes

A. L. A. Simões, H. E. Schulz & R. M. Porto ..................................................... 95

Experimental measurements of macro-particle dispersion in

grid turbulence and application to a stochastic numerical model
for solid body turbulent diffusion
A. Joly, F. Moulin, S. Cazin, A. Astruc & D. Violeau ...................................... 107

Methodology to determine residence time distribution

and small scale phenomena in settling tanks
T. Karches & K. Buzas .................................................................................... 117

Section 3: Bubble and drop dynamics

Heat and mass transfer in evaporating turbulent drop-laden flow

R. Groll ............................................................................................................ 129

Investigating the influence of fines in fluidized bed reactors

using 3D ECT images
C. Rautenbach, M. C. Melaaen & B. M. Halvorsen ........................................ 141

Experimental study of multiphase flow in a model gearbox

V. Chernoray & M. Jahanmiri ......................................................................... 153

Experimental analysis of two-phase flow in

domestic central heating systems: micro bubble characteristics
A. M. Fsadni, Y. T. Ge & A. G. Lamers ........................................................... 165

Experimental and computational study of pressure drop and void fraction

in a bubbling fluidized bed.
C. K. Jayarathna & B. M. Halvorsen .............................................................. 177

Extension of a model for the distribution of voidage around

bubbles in a fluidized bed
C. Rautenbach, C. Jayarathna, M. C. Melaaen & B. M. Halvorsen ................ 189

Section 4: Heat transfer

Spray quenching of specimen for ring heat treatment

P. Stark, S. Schuettenberg & U. Fritsching ..................................................... 201
Effect of inclination on flow and thermal characteristics of
air-water two-phase flow: an experimental investigation
M. J. Vaze & J. Banerjee ................................................................................. 213

Section 5: Incline flows

Geometrical and kinematic properties of interfacial waves in

horizontal heavy oil-water stratified flow
M. S. de Castro, C. C. Pereira, J. N. dos Santos & O. M. H. Rodriguez ......... 227

A numerical model for partially-wetted flow of thin liquid films

K. V. Meredith, J. de Vries & Y. Xin ................................................................ 239

Section 6: Energy applications

A techno-economical view on energy losses at hydropower dams

(case study of Karun III Dam and Hydropower Plant)
M. Jorabloo, M. Abdolahpour, R. Roshan & H. Sarkardeh............................. 253

Hydrate formation in natural gas pipelines

M. Naseer & W. Brandstätter .......................................................................... 261

Flow patterns in inclined gas-liquid annular duct flow

F. A. A. Mendes, O. M. H. Rodriguez, V. Estevam & D. Lopes ....................... 271

Section 7: Flow in porous media

Modelling effective permeability of fracture networks in

permeable rock formations by singular integral equations method
A. Pouya, M. N. Vu & D. Seyedi ...................................................................... 287

Modelling multiphase flow inside the porous media of a

polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell
T. Berning & S. K. Kær.................................................................................... 299

Capillary trapping of supercritical CO2 in porous media at the pore scale

T. Suekane, T. Izumi & K. Okada .................................................................... 311

Author Index .................................................................................................. 321

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 Section 1
Multiphase flow simulation
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 3

Hydrodynamics behaviour of slot-rectangular

spouted beds: assessment of slot width effect
E. Esmaili1, N. Mahinpey1 & C. J. Lim2
1
Dept. of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering,
Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Canada
2
Dept. of Chemical and Bio-Resources Engineering,
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

Abstract
Spouted beds, originally invented in Canada (1955), have been widely used in
drying, granulation, catalytic polymerization, residue treatment and coating of
several materials. Understanding of gas and particle hydrodynamics behavior in
a slot-rectangular spouted bed is important for evaluation of particle circulation
rate and gas-solid contact efficiency and also for overcoming scale-up
difficulties. Although have been extensively applied, the mechanisms of solid
movement in spouted beds are still not completely understood. In this research,
computational fluid dynamics (FLUENT 6.3) has been used to perform a
complete study on the hydrodynamic behavior of spouted bed using an Eulerian-
Eulerial two-phase model. The Eulerian model assumes that both phases can be
considered as fluid and also take the interpenetrating effect of each phase into
consideration by using inter-phase drag models. The computational work has
been significantly reduced using a 2D axisymmetric mesh for the bed, operating
at different conditions (i.e. different superficial gas velocities, static bed heights,
size of particle). Furthermore, the effect of slot width on the hydrodynamic
behavior of the bed has been predicted. The results predicted by numerical
simulation have been validated with the earlier experiments conducted. The
comparisons have been made in terms of fountain height for various operating
conditions. The results show a good agreement between the experimental data
and the numerical simulation.
Keywords: spouted beds, slot-rectangular, computational fluid dynamics,
FLUENT.

WIT Transactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 70, © 2011 WIT Press

www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3533 (on-line)
doi:10.2495/MPF110011
4 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

1 Introduction
Since its discovery by Mathur and Gishler [2], cylindrical-conical spouted beds
have been used in a number of applications such as gas-solid catalytic reactions,
coal gasification, drying of pastes and grains, particle mixing, tablet coating and
granulation [3]. However, the spouted bed technique has seldom been applied in
large scale industrial processes due to certain limitations, in particular scale-up
difficulties [4] such as instability to achieve good quality spouting in large scale
vessels, and difficulties in predicting the performance of spouted beds larger than
0.3 m in diameter [1].
Conventional spouted beds consist of a cylindrical column with a conical base
where the bed of particles is spouted by the injection of air through a circular
orifice at the bottom. The flow structure of spouted beds is quite different from
fluidized beds. At stable spouting, a spouted bed consists of three regions, a
spout in the center, a fountain above the bed surface and an annulus between the
spout and the wall, Figure 1. The behavior of spout and the fountain is similar to
fluidized beds with particles dynamically suspended, while the annulus region is
more like a packed bed or moving bed. It is generally believed that in the
annulus, particles move vertically downward and the radially inward, following
approximately parabolic paths [3]. The pressure drop of a conical spouted bed
under stable spouting condition is about 40% of a fluidized bed with the same
static bed height [5, 6]. This suggests that particles are not in a fully suspended
state at stable spouting.
As an alternative to units of circular cross-section, Mujumdar and colleagues
[4, 7, 8] suggested a spouted bed of rectangular cross-section to eliminate the

Figure 1: Schematic of a spouted bed operating in stable condition.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 5

scale-up disadvantages of conventional spouted beds. In this configuration the

column has vertical plane walls and a diverging base on two opposite sides,
while the other two opposing faces are both completely vertical. The spouting air
enters through a horizontal slot at the bottom of the two diverging plane surfaces.
Scaling up of the slot-rectangular columns can be achieved by simply moving
the facing vertical walls further apart, or combining small units by sharing either
the front and back faces or the sidewalls. A schematic diagram of this geometry
is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Schematic of the experimental apparatus.

The numerical simulation technique and computational fluid dynamics (CFD)

studies have become popular in the field of gas-solid two-phase flow. Many
researchers have applied the numerical simulation as a useful tool to obtain
detailed information about flow phenomena without disturbing them [9–14].
Shirvanian et al. [15] developed a three dimensional Eulerian simulation to
predict the manner in which particle size, density, loading, and inlet jet velocity
affect solids circulation in a rectangular spouted vessel. Their model is shown to
be able to successfully predict the experimentally observed phenomenon of
particle ‘‘choking’’ where the particle recirculation rate remains constant with
increasing particle loading once a ‘‘critical loading’’ is achieved. Their

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6 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

simulations also showed ‘‘mounding’’ of the particles on the outside of the draft
duct walls near the inlet at high solids loadings, which would tend to reduce the
effectiveness of metal recovery. This condition can be minimized or prevented
by reducing the solids loading and operating at lower fluid flow rates to increase
the particle circulation rate.
Bettega et al. [16] performed a numerical study of the scale-up of spouted
beds. Their results verified that the scale-up relationships of He et al. [17] were
well represented by CFD simulations, indicating the capability of this tool to
evaluate similitude method. They concluded that, when the full set of scaling
relationships are not satisfied, important disturbances appears in the
hydrodynamic of scaled equipments and make the spouted bed to extinguish.
These behaviours are the result of an overestimation or underestimation of
velocity in the entrance, respectively, when the whole set of dimensionless
parameters is not matched.
Sobieski [18] developed a computer model for an actual spouted bed grain
dryer to study the response of the Eulerian multiphase model to changes in
values of its parameters. The fountain height was assumed to be the basic value
characterizing the bed during operation. His results verified that the Eulerian
multiphase model can be used for the simulation of the hydrodynamics of
spouted-bed grain dryers. He also concluded that higher quantitative match of
experimental results with computations (particularly as concerns the internal bed
dynamics) can be obtained by appropriate choice of the turbulence model.
The present work is based on the earlier experiments conducted by Dogan et
al. [1]. A numerical simulation of slot rectangular spouted bed has been
presented to study the effect of slot width on the hydrodynamic behavior of the
bed. FLUENT 6.3.26 has been used to perform the numerical simulations based
on an Eulerian-Eulerian two phase model. Adjusted Di Felice drag model [19]
has been used to take the interpenetrating effect of each phase into consideration.
The results have been presented in terms of the fountain height for various
operating conditions (i.e. different superficial gas velocities, static bed heights,
and size of particle).

2 Experimental setup
The experiments were carried out by Dogan et al. [1] in a Plexiglas rectangular
column of cross-sectional dimensions α 150mm and β 29mm with an
overall height δ 700mm (see Figure 2). The included angle of the diverging
lower section, , was 30°. Air entry slots of length equal to β and widths,
λ 2, 6, 10 and 20  mm were used in the experiments. A fine wire mesh was
inserted across these slots to prevent particles from falling into the air pipe. A
calming chamber was installed below the air entry slots to regulate and smooth
the air flow. The fountain height, HF, was measured with a ruler taped to the
column wall. A summary of the experimental conditions studied in this work is
presented in Table 1. The particles used in their experiments were closely sized
glass beads of three different diameters and low density polyethylene. The
particle characteristics and key dimensions are listed in Table 2.

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Table 1: Experimental conditions.

Column width, (m) 0.15

Column thickness, (m) 0.029
Slot width, (m) 0.002-0.02
Bed height, Ho (m) 0.03-0.3
Air flow rate, ( ⁄ ) 0-0.015

Table 2: Particle properties.

Particles (mm) ( ⁄ ) (-) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )

Glass beads 0.86 2520 0.385 0.44 7.8
Glass beads 1.44 2520 0.385 0.62 10.2
Glass beads 2.28 2520 0.390 1.48 12.8
Polyethylene 3.77 940 0.392 0.80 8.3

3 Governing equations
A ‘‘two-fluid’’ (fluid and solid phases), Eulerian–Eulerian model was developed
to simulate the hydrodynamics of a rectangular spouted bed [19]. The governing
equations of the model have been summarized in Table 3.

Table 3: Governing equations.

Continuity:
. 0, (1)
Momentum equations:
. . (2)

.
(3)
.
Stress tensors
, (4)
. . (5)
. . (6)
. , (7)
√
√
1 1 1 (8)

1 (9)

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8 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Table 3: Continued.

Radial distribution function

1 (10)
,

Granular temperature
. : . 3 , (11)

, (12)
1 1 2 1 , (13)
12 1
,
√
Inter-phase momentum exchange
(14)
1 (15)
. 1.5 /2 (16)
log (17)

P and Q will be adjusted to satisfy:

, (18)

, , (19)
,

4 Numerical simulation
Governing equations of mass and momentum conservation as well as the
granular temperature equation are solved using finite volume method employing
the Phase-Coupled Semi Implicit Method for Pressure Linked Equations (PC-
SIMPLE) algorithm, which is an extension of the SIMPLE algorithm to
multiphase flow. A two-fluid Eulerian-Eulerian model, which considers the
conservation of mass and momentum for each phase, has been applied. The
adjusted Di Felice drag model [19] has been implemented to include the
momentum transfer between the phases. The 2D axisymmetric computational
domain has been meshed with unstructured triangular cells in the cone base and
structured square cells in the rest of the domain. GAMBIT 2.13 has been used
for meshing the geometry, Figure 3. The mesh was generated using node spaces
of larger than the particle diameter. Volume fraction, density, and pressure are
stored at the main grid points that are placed in the center of each control
volume. A staggered grid arrangement is used, and the velocity components are
solved at the control volume surfaces. A pressure correction equation is built
based on total volume continuity. Pressure and velocities are then corrected so as
to satisfy the continuity constraint. Second-order upwind discretization scheme

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 9

was used for discretizing the partial differential equations. An adaptive time-
stepping algorithm with 100 iterations per each time step and a minimum value
of 2 10   s for the lower domain of time steps was used to ensure a stable
convergence. The adaptive determination of the time step size is based on the
estimation of the truncation error associated with the time integration scheme
(i.e., first-order implicit or second-order implicit). If the truncation error is
smaller than a specified tolerance, the size of the time step is increased; if the
truncation error is greater, the time step size is decreased. The convergence
criteria for other residual components associated with the relative error between
two successive iterations has been specified in the order of 10 . The discretized
equations along with the initial and boundary conditions are solved using

Table 4: Computational model parameters.

Parameter Value/description
Bed dimension 0.15 0.029 0.7 , 30°
Slot width 0.002 0.02 
Static bed height 0.06 0.21 
Solver Pressure based, unsteady, 2nd order Imp.,
axisymmetric
Multiphase flow model Eulerian, 2-phase (air, particles)
Grid interval spacing 0.0025
Time steps 0.0002 (s)
Discretization Momentum 2nd order upwind
Volume fraction QUICK
Turbulent 2nd order upwind
Materials Particle density 2520 ⁄
Gas density 1.225 ⁄
Gas viscosity 1.7894
10 ⁄ .
Mean particle diameter 0.86 3.77 
Phases Gas-solid drag model Adjusted Di Felice
Res. coeff. 0.95
Initial solid packing 0.385 0.392
Max. packing limit 0.63
Boundary conditions Inlet Velocity 0.5 10  /
Outlet Pressure-outlet
Axis Axisymmetric
Wall Non-slip for the fluid
Under-relaxation Pressure 0.3
factors Momentum 0.4
Volume fraction 0.3
Granular temperature 0.2
Convergence criterion 0.001

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10 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

FLUENT 6.3 on Colfax CXT5000 PSC GPU Processing with 960 cores and
32GB RAM. The results have been saved after 5 (sec) flow time simulation to
make sure that the fountain reaches a statistically steady state height.
Computational model parameters and boundary conditions are summarized in
Table 4.

Structured
square cells

Unstructured
triangular cells

Figure 3: Computational mesh.

5 Results and discussion

Simulation results have been compared to the experimental data [1] in order to
validate the model. Figure 4 compares the experimental and simulation results
for the fountain height as a function of superficial air velocity for a specific
operating condition, (H 0.11  m , dp 0.86 mm , λ 0.006 m ). As for
cylindrical columns [20], the fountain height increases with increasing
superficial gas velocity. The figure shows that the slope of the best fit line to data
has been well predicted by the model, (Error < 2%). However, the numerical
simulation overestimates the fountain height at a specific superficial air velocity,
(Error < 10%). Assumptions and simplifications made in the numerical
simulation is one of the main sources of this error. 2D simulation neglects the

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 11

15

10 y = 16.695x ‐ 7.822
Hf *100 (m)

y = 16.39x ‐ 8.630
5
Simulations

Experiments by O. 
M. Dogan [1]
0
0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5
U (m/s)

Figure 4: Fountain height as a function of superficial air velocity

(H 0.11  m , dp 0.86 mm , λ 0.006 m ).

Upgrading the computational domain for 3D simulations of the bed, variable

particle size and density can decrease the computational error to a minimum.
Figure 5 shows the model predictions of fountain height as a function of
superficial air velocity for three different slot width, and (H 0.11  m , dp
1.44 mm ). The effect of slot width on the minimum spouting velocity is also
shown in this figure. It can be seen that U , increased with increasing λ. An
increase in U , with inlet orifice size was previously reported for conical
cylindrical columns [3], While, for conical beds, some authors found a decrease
in U with increasing orifice diameter [3]. The figure also shows that fountain
height increases with decreasing slot width which is in a good agreement with
experimental data reported by Dogan et al. [1]. This implies that with smaller
slot width, higher superficial air velocity will be required to obtain a desired
fountain height. Comparing the slope of each line shows that the rate of fountain
height increase with superficial air velocity also decreases with increasing slot
width.
Figure 6 shows the contour plots of solid volume fraction at different
superficial air velocities after 5 (sec) real-time simulations. It is characteristic for
the spouted beds that the fountain forms only after exceeding a certain value of
velocity of the gas supplying the device. The transition from the established
spouted condition to the fixed bed condition, described by Mathur and Epstein

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12 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

45
40
35
30
Hf *100 (m)

25
20
15 λ (m)
10 0.006
0.01
5
0.02
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
U (m/s)
Figure 5: Fountain height as a function of superficial air velocity and slot
thickness (H 0.11  m , dp 1.44 mm ).

[3], is presented in this figure. The plots also show highest concentration of solid
particles in the annulus region, while the fountain and the spout regions have
lower concentrations, respectively. These computations allowed determination of
the fountain height and the volume distribution of particles in the model. The
studies presented here on the influence of supply gas velocity on fountain
dynamics are consistent at the qualitative level with the experimental results
described in literature [1].

Figure 6: Contours of solid volume fraction for different superficial

gas velocity (H 0.11  m , dp 1.44  mm , λ 0.010 m ),
(Velocities in m/s ).

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 13

6 Conclusion
Numerical simulation of a slot rectangular spouted bed have been performed in a
2D axisymmetric solution domain using the Eulerian-Eulerian approach in order
to investigate the effect of slot width on the hydrodynamic behaviour of the bed.
FLUENT 6.3 was used to perform the calculations. The results show that the
fountain height decreases by increasing the slot width at a specific superficial air
velocity. The results show a linear relationship between the fountain height and
superficial gas velocity. The results predicted by numerical simulation have been
validated with the earlier experiments conducted by Dogan et al. [1]. The
comparisons have been made in terms of fountain height for various operating
conditions, (i.e. different superficial gas velocities, static bed heights, size of
particle). The results show a good agreement between the experimental data and
the numerical simulation. However, further modeling efforts are required to
study the effect of bed thickness using a three dimensional model, and variable
size and density distribution of particles in the bed.

Nomenclature

Single particle drag function, dimensionless

Solid diameter, m
Restitution coefficient, dimensionless
Acceleration due to gravity, ⁄
Radial distribution coefficient, dimensionless
Gas/solid momentum exchange coefficient, dimensionless
Pressure, Pa
Solid pressure, Pa
Velocity, m/s
Reynolds number, dimensionless
Conductivity of granular temperature, / .
Dissipation of granular temperature, / .

Greek symbols
Density, ⁄
Granular temperature, ⁄
Stress tensor, Pa
Shear viscosity, ⁄
Bulk viscosity, ⁄
Volume fraction, dimensionless

Subscripts
Gas
Solid

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14 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

References
[1] Dogan, O. M., Freitas, L. A. P., Lim, C. J., Grace, J. R., Luo, B.,
“Hydrodynamics and Stability of Slot-Rectangular Spouted Beds. Part I:
Thin Bed”, Chem. Eng. Comm., (2000), Vol. 181, pp. 225-242.
[2] Mathur, K. B. and P. E. Gishler. “A technique for contacting gases with
coarse solid particles”, AIChE J. (1955) 1 (2), 157-164.
[3] Mathur, K. B. and N. Epstein, “Spouted Beds”, Academic Press, New York,
(1974).
[4] Anderson, K., Raghavan, G.S.V, Mujumdar, A.S. “Drying ‘84”,
Hemisphere Pub., New York, (1984), pp. 205-209.
[5] Wang, Z. G., Bi, H. T., Lim, C. J., “Numerical simulations of
hydrodynamic behaviors in conical spouted beds”, Particuology (2006).
4(3-4), 194-203.
[6] Mukhlenov, I. P. and Gorshtein, A. E., “Hydrodynamics of reactors with a
spouting bed of granular material”, Vses. Konf. Khim. Reactrom
Novosibirsk (1965), (3) 553-562.
[7] Kalwar, M. I., Raghavan, G. S. V. and Mujumdar, A. S., Can. J. Chml. Eng.
(1992), 70, RR7.
[8] Passos, M. L., Mujumdar, A. S. and Raghavan, G. S. V., Powder Technol.
(1993), 74, 97.
[9] Du, W., Bao, X. J., Xu, J., Wei, W. S., “Computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) modeling of spouted bed: Assessment of drag coefficient
correlations”. Chem. Eng. Sci. (2006), 61(5), 1401-1420.
[10] Duarte, C. R., Murata, V. V., Barrozo, M. A. S., “A study of the fluid
dynamics of the spouted bed using CFD”, Brazilian J. of Chem. Eng.
(2005), 22(2), 263-270.
[11] He, Y. R., Zhao, G. B., Bouillard, J., Lu, H. L., “Numerical simulations of
the effect of conical dimension on the hydrodynamic behavior in spouted
beds”, Can. J. Chem. Eng. (2004), 82(1), 20-29.
[12] Huilin, L., Yongli, S., Yang, L., Yurong, H., Bouillard, J., “Numerical
simulations of hydrodynamic behaviour in spouted beds”, Chem. Eng.
Research and Design (2001), 79(A5), 593-599.
[13] Kawaguchi, T., Sakamoto, M., Tanaka, T., Tsuji, Y., “Quasi-three-
dimensional numerical simulation of spouted beds in cylinder”, Powder
Technol. (2000), 109 (1-3), 3-12.
[14] Lu, H. L., He, Y. R., Liu, W. T., Ding, J. M., Gidaspow, D., Bouillard, J.,
“Computer simulations of gas-solid flow in spouted beds using kinetic-
frictional stress model of granular flow”, Chem. Eng. Sci. (2004), 59(4),
865-878.
[15] Shirvanian, P.A., Calo, J.M., Hradil, G., “Numerical simulation of fluid-
particle hydrodynamics in a rectangular spouted vessel”, International J. of
Multiphase Flow (2006), 32, 739-753.
[16] Bettega, R., Correa, R. G., and Freire, J. T., “Scale-Up Study of Spouted
Beds Using Computational Fluid Dynamics”, The Can. J. of Chem. Eng.
(2009), 87, 193-203.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 15

[17] He, Y. L., Lim, C. J., and Grace, J. R., “Scale-up Studies of Spouted Beds”
Chem. Eng. Sci. (1997), 52, 329–339.
[18] Sobieski, W., “Numerical Analysis of Sensitivity of Eulerian Multiphase
Model for a Spouted-Bed Grain Dryer”, Drying Technol. (2008), 26:12,
1438-1456.
[19] Esmaili, E., “Adjustment of Drag Coefficient Correlations in Three
Dimensional CFD Simulation of Gas-Solid Bubbling Fluidized Bed”, MS.c
Thesis, Dept. of Chem. and Petroleum Eng., University of Calgary,
December 2009.
[20] Grace, J. R. and Mathur, K. B. (1978), Height and structure of the fountain
region above spouted beds. The Canadian Journal of Chemical
Engineering, 56: 533–537. doi: 10.1002/cjce.5450560501.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 17

Analogues of Rayleigh-Taylor and

Richtmyer-Meshkov instabilities in flows with
nonuniform particle and droplet seeding
P. Vorobieff1 , M. Anderson1 , J. Conroy1 , R. White1, C. R. Truman1
& S. Kumar2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of New Mexico,
Albuquerque, USA
2
Department of Engineering, The University of Texas, Brownsville, USA

Abstract
The well-known Rayleigh-Taylor (RT) and Richtmyer-Meshkov (RM) instabilities
characterize the behavior of flows where two gases (or fluids) of different
densities mix due to gravity (RT) or due to impulsive acceleration (RM).
Recently, analogous instabilities have been observed in two-phase flows where
the seeding density of the second phase, e.g., particles or droplets in gas, and the
resulting average density, is initially non-uniform. The forcing causes the second
phase to move with respect to the embedding medium. With sufficient seeding
concentration, this leads to entrainment of the embedding phase. The resulting
movement is similar to the movement that would evolve in a mixing flow with no
second phase seeding, but with non-uniform density (not unlike a mixture of lighter
and heavier gases), where RT and RM instabilities develop in the case of gravity-
induced and impulsive acceleration, respectively. The hydrocode SHAMRC has
been used in the past to study the formation and growth of the RM instability. Here
we attempt to use it to model the first order formation and growth phenomena of
the new class of instability in two-phase flows first, by approximating the second
phase as a continuous fluid with an averaged density, and second, by taking the
relative motion of particles (droplets) into account explicitly. The initial conditions
are varied to provide a wide range of instability growth rates. Comparison of the
numerical results with experiment shows good agreement.
Keywords: compressible flow, two-phase flow, instability, shock wave.

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18 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

1 Introduction
There exist two well-known hydrodynamic instabilities that develop in a fluid (gas)
of initially non-uniform density.
The first of these two is the Rayleigh-Taylor instability (RTI), first generally
described by J.W. Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) [1] for a continuous density interface,
appreciably later described analytically for a sharp interface by Taylor [2], and
shortly thereafter observed experimentally by Lewis [3]. Most commonly, this
instability develops on a density interface between heavy and light fluid in a
gravity field, when the heavy fluid is above the light fluid. The unstable (heavy
above light) stratification leads to growth of perturbations on the density interface
and formation of vortices, followed by development of secondary instabilities,
transition to turbulence, and mixing of the heavy and light fluids. It is this
interfacial instability that makes it possible, for example, to pour beer from a
bottle (otherwise, the liquid would be held in by atmospheric pressure). RTI is also
responsible for the formation of many natural features on Earth, such as salt domes
[4] and cold plumes at subduction zones in the mantle [5]. The same instability
plays an important role in stellar evolution, including such violent phenomena as
Type Ia supernovæ [6].
The second instability, known as Richtmyer-Meshkov instability (RMI), also
characterizes a density interface, but subjected to an impulsive acceleration, for
example, due to the passage of a shock wave. It was first described analytically by
Richtmyer [7]. Several years later, an experimental study of the same phenomenon
by Meshkov [8] followed. RMI differs from RTI in several features. First, it
develops both when the impulsive acceleration of the interface is directed from
the “light” side toward the “heavy” side and in the opposite direction (in the
latter case, initial perturbations will begin growing in amplitude after undergoing
a phase inversion). Second, while RTI evolution is characterized by a continued
supply of energy to the deforming interface (e.g., via gravity field), energy input
for RMI occurs over a finite (and usually short – e.g., passage of a shock
wave) time interval. Subsequently, RMI and RTI are characterized by different
temporal relationships that describe perturbation amplitude growth. Like RTI, RMI
is responsible for formation of some astrophysical features, e.g., in supernova
remnants [9]. RMI is also important for several engineering applications, such as
scramjet design [10] and inertial confinement fusion (ICF), where RMI can affect
the fusion target stability [11].
Problems involving RTI and RMI are often chosen as benchmarks for validation
of numerical codes [12–14] – both because they present a computational challenge
and because comparison with many well-characterized experiments (or, in some
cases, data describing natural phenomena) is available.
All the studies described above pertain to RTI and RMI developing on an
interface (sharp or diffuse) between two liquids or gases. However, there is
also a question of considerable practical (as well as theoretical) interest: what
happens if, instead of a density interface between two gases, sustained or impulsive
acceleration is applied to an average density interface in a multiphase medium,

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 19

e.g., a gas non-uniformly seeded with small liquid droplets or solid particles?
Modeling such a problem directly could present an even greater challenge than
numerical simulation of RMI and RTI, because of the necessity to account for
the interaction between the embedding (gas) and embedded (droplets or particle)
phases. The simple assumption that the embedded phase can be modeled by
“smearing” the mass that it adds across the appropriate volume and treating the
resulting medium as a single-phase might work for some cases (especially for
gravity-driven flows), but it is explicitly invalid, for example, after the passage
of a shock front. The latter would accelerate the embedding phase, while particles
or droplets of the embedded phase will lag behind, interacting with the gas in
a possibly non-trivial way. Along with Stokes drag, compressibility effects have
also to be taken into account [15, 16]. Accounting for the interaction between each
particle (droplet) and the gas could soon become computationally prohibitive.
Our recent experiments [17, 18] confirm formation of large-scale vortices in a
gaseous medium non-uniformly seeded with micron- or submicron-sized droplets
or particles after shock acceleration. The flow structure superficially resembles one
that would emerge after shock acceleration of continuous medium with average
initial density matching that of our two-phase, non-uniformly seeded medium.
However, several important differences also exist between vortex formation due
to classical RMI and the roll-up we observe.
In the following sections, we will describe two experiments – multiphase
“analogues” of RTI and RMI, present some data from these experiments, and
discuss results from numerical modeling of the second experiment.

2 Experiment
Two different experimental arrangements were built. The setup for the modeling
of two-phase RTI (Fig. 1a) was extremely simple. Experiments were conducted
in a tall (about 1 m), fully enclosed rectangular acrylic container. In the middle
of the container, horizontal grooves and a slot in the walls were machined for a
removable steel bottom plate. In the top cover of the container, an opening was left
for a pipe attached to a commercial theatrical fog machine, producing a stream of
submicron-sized droplets of propylene glycol carried by air. Once the top section
of the container was filled with droplets and the temperature of the air-droplet mix
was found to be equal to the ambient (to avoid any effects due to air buoyancy), the
removable bottom plate was gently extracted, allowing the seeded and unseeded
air to mix. The setup was illuminated from the side with an LED panel, the flow
evolution recorded with a 720 × 480 pixel resolution digital camera at 30 frames
per second.
The arrangement for the shock-driven flow studies was by necessity much
more complex (Fig. 2). At the heart of it lay a shock tube with a 75 mm square
interior cross-section. The shock tube consisted of a 1.2 m long high-pressure
driver section, a 2.9 m long driven section, a 0.8 m long test section (made from
transparent polycarbonate), and a 0.8 m long runoff section. The initial conditions
studied here were produced as follows. Above the test section, a 75 l enclosed

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20 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Figure 1: a) Experimental arrangement for the studies of the multiphase analogue

of Rayleigh-Taylor instability. Dashed rectangle represents the field of
view of the flow visualization camera. b) Schematic of initial conditions
for shock-accelerated experiment.

settling tank was installed. On top of the tank, a commercial fog machine (of
the same type as for the previous experiment) was mounted. The mixture of
air and propylene glycol fog was allowed to reach thermal equilibrium with the
surroundings before the experiments (again, to exclude air buoyancy effects).
Subsequently, it was directed vertically downward across the test section through
a concentric nozzle. The inner nozzle (diameter 6.35 mm) contained the glycol-
seeded flow, while the outer concentric nozzle (outer diameter 12.7 mm) carried
unseeded air in the same direction. As the result, inside the test section, a laminar
cylindrical jet of droplet-seeded air formed, exiting through a 12.7 mm hole in the
bottom (Fig. 1a).
This jet formed the non-uniform droplet seeding for the initial conditions of
the experiment. The shock accelerating these initial conditions was produced by
pressurizing the driver section with helium and then mechanically puncturing the
membrane separating the driver section from the driven section. Two pressure
transducers mounted downstream in the driven section recorded pressure traces
to confirm the shock speed and trigger a high-speed camera used for flow
visualization (DRS Imaging IMACON-200) and the four lasers (New Wave
Research Gemini) used as light sources for flow visualization. The light from
each laser passed through a cylindrical lens, a spherical lens, and a flat mirror,
to illuminate the same horizontal cross-section of the flow. The camera, installed
on the opposite side of the test section from the lasers, was aimed at a 45◦ mirror
above the test section, recording a sequence of four frames corresponding to the
four laser pulses per experiment.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 21

Figure 2: View of the shock tube from the upstream direction (with respect to the
propagation of the shock) and close-ups of the concentric-flow nozzle
and the test section with the mirror.

For the analogues of RTI and RMI described in the following section,
the average initial density of the glycol-droplet mixture was measured to be
1.26 kg/m3 , compared to 1.20 kg/m3 for the unseeded air.

3 Numerical setup
To expand upon knowledge gained from the RMI experiments, the Second-order
Hydrodynamic Automatic Mesh Refinement Code (SHAMRC [19]) was used to
model the shocks and initial conditions found in the RMI experiments. SHAMRC
is a two- and three-dimensional finite-difference hydrodynamic computer code.
It is a descendant of SHARC (Second-order Hydrodynamic Advanced Research
Code). It is used to solve a variety of airblast related problems which include
high explosive (HE) detonations, nuclear explosive (NE) detonations, structure
loading, thermal effects on airblast, cloud rise, conventional munitions blast
and fragmentation, shock tube phenomenology, dust and debris dispersion and
atmospheric shock propagation. The code has the capability to run with a single
Eulerian grid or with the Automatic Mesh Refinement (AMR) option that divides

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22 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

the calculational domain into smaller Eulerian grids at several levels of refinement
to provide high-resolution results.
A two-dimensional Cartesian mesh was constructed out of square elements
approximately 0.005 cm on each side. The size of the elements was chosen so
that there would be exactly 128 zones across the diameter of the cylindrical initial
conditions. The mesh extents were set to the width of the shock tube test section
in the y direction and a distance of 51 cm in the x direction. The x-extent was
chosen so that approximately 2 ms of instability growth could be observed for
shock waves with a Mach number 1.66. The shock waves were generated by a
feed-in boundary condition located at the left boundary. This boundary condition
provides a set of constant material properties and satisfactorily recreates the shock
wave which accelerates the initial conditions.
The experimental initial conditions consisted of discrete glycol droplets
suspended in ambient air. Two approaches were taken in modeling these droplets.
The first was to create a pseudo-glycol fluid that has the same average mass as the
droplet/air mixture. This material was modeled as a perfect gas designed to match
pressure and temperature equilibrium with the surrounding ambient atmosphere.
The second approach was to model droplets as discrete particles. The SHAMRC
particle model treats each computational particle as a cloud of particles with
the same radius. Depending of the mass of the computational particles, it may
represent millions of physical particles. These particles are accelerated by the
surrounding gas via drag and are allowed to heat an cool through conduction.
As each computational particle has a distinct radius, a particle distribution can
be generated by randomly varying the particle radius when the particles are
generated. The exact distribution of the glycol droplets is an important factor,
as drag is a strong function of the particle radius. Differences in particle radii
will cause differences in acceleration rates and in turn cause larger particles to
lag behind smaller ones. The initial droplet distribution was only approximately
known (ranging from submicron-sized to several microns in diameter), so for the
initial simulation a distribution was chosen with particle diameters on the order of
0.7 µm.

4 Results of experiment

Figure 3 shows a sequence of images from the video describing the two-phase RTI
analogue. The most prominent features on the disturbed interface are “mushroom
caps” very similar to these observed in classical RTI. From these images, the
growth rate of the perturbation amplitude is well described by a quadratic function.
RTI amplitude growth as the function of time t is usually characterized [20, 21] as

h(t) = αAgt2 ,

where A is the Atwood number

ρ1 − ρ2
A= , (1)
ρ1 + ρ2
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 23

Figure 3: Flow visualization of the two-phase analogue of Rayleigh-Taylor

instability. Time t = 0 corresponds to the moment when the sliding
bottom plate is set in motion. Image extent is about 50 cm in the
horizontal direction, intervals between images 2 s.

with ρ1 and ρ2 being the densities of the heavier and lighter fluid (gas)
correspondingly, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. In our case, ρ2 would
be the density of unseeded air, while ρ1 would represent the average density of air
seeded with droplets, leading to an effective Atwood number A ∼ 0.03. This is a
rather low value (for example, RTI with sulfur hexafluoride SF6 above air would
be characterized by A ∼ 0.67).
Our measurements of amplitude h(t) combined with this value for A yield an
estimate α = 0.05 ± 0.01, which agrees well with results for “classic” RTI [22].
The corresponding characteristic velocity can be estimated as v = 3.8 ± 0.5 cm/s.
Based on this velocity, characteristic droplet size d =1 µm, and kinematic
viscosity of air ν = 1.56 × 10−5 m2 /s, the Reynolds number Red = dv/ν for
a drop is about 0.002. At the same time, the Reynolds number of the macroscopic
flow based on the representative size of the vortex structure l ∼ 2 cm is Rel ∼ 50.
This disparity strongly suggests that the relative motion of the droplets with respect
to the embedding air is negligible, and, at least from the point of view of the initial
instability growth, the seeded air can indeed be regarded as continuous medium
with a density ρ1 slightly greater than that of the unseeded air ρ2 .
Thus the notion of the existence of the two-phase analogue of RTI is
unambiguously confirmed. However, modeling this laboratory flow would be

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24 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Figure 4: Experimental images acquired after Mach 1.66 shock acceleration (left
to right) of a laminar, initially cylindrical air jet seeded with glycol
droplets. Horizontal image extent is 20 mm, time t = 0 corresponds
to moment immediately before shock wave arrival. Times after shock
acceleration are labeled in the images. Images show a laser-illuminated
horizontal section of the flow (normal to the axis of the jet). Note that
the field of view follows the droplets, which are being advected by the
shock-accelerated air with a piston velocity of about 300 m/s.

trivial, since continuum approach can be used. The analogue of RMI is another
matter. Fig. 4 shows an image sequence acquired in several experimental runs
after the shock passes through the initial conditions (droplet-seeded cylindrical
jet) at Mach number M ∼ 1.66. The bulk of the unseeded air behind the shock
front in these images moves with a piston velocity of about 300 m/s. The droplets
clearly do not follow the flow perfectly – they lag behind the shock-accelerated
air, as the images in Fig. 4 clearly show. The “tail” of lagging droplets of larger
sizes is particularly apparent in the first image following the shock passage (top
row, middle, t = 229 µs). As these droplets lag behind the air, they exchange
momentum with it, thereby slowing it down. This results in the air-droplet mixture
reaching some equilibrium velocity that is lower than the piston velocity of air not
seeded with droplets. That,in turn, leads to shear and roll-up of counter-rotating
vortices.
The morphology shown evolving in Fig. 4 is both similar (counter-rotating
vortex pairs) and different (droplet tail) from that evolving in the case of “classical”
RMI.

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Figure 5: Numerical images of the two modeling approaches at selected times.

Column 1 shows times, column 2 – results of continuum modeling,
column 3 – result of modeling with computational particles of
characteristic size 0.7 µm, column 4 – a single snapshot of the
modeling result with computational particles of characteristic size 7 µm
corresponding to time 1000 µs. The shock acceleration direction is from
bottom to top, horizontal cell extent is 12.7 mm.

5 Modeling results

Columns two and three of Figure 5 show a series of time images from the two
modeling approaches. The second column (“Pseudo-glycol fluid”) represents the
continuum approach, while the third and the fourth show results from modeling
with particles. The difference between columns 3 and 4 is in characteristic particle
size, which is increased by a factor of 10 for the last column. It is clear that both
methods produce instabilities that are similar in morphology to what is observed
in experiments. One aspect that is missing from the numerical results is the tail
of lagging particles. This is not surprising for the pseudo-glycol fluid approach,

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26 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

but the tail should be visible in the discrete particles modeling approach. One
possibility is that the particle sizes chosen for the simulation are too small. The
right column of Figure 5 shows results from a run with a different particle size
distribution at 1 ms. The distribution has particle sizes an order of magnitude larger
than the distribution in column three. In this new calculation, a large tail of trailing
particles is formed. The tail is now much larger than that found in experiments,
but this calculation demonstrates the importance of obtaining the correct particle
size distribution. The roll-up of the vortices is also different in this calculation.
More work is required to determine the actual particle distribution that makes up
the initial conditions in the experiments and to match it with numerics.

6 Discussion

For “classic” RTI vs. its two-phase analogue, only in the former case is the physical
gas-gas density gradient present, but this appears to be a distinction without a
difference, as the embedded droplets faithfully follow the embedding air, and on
the relatively short (seconds) time scale characterizing the mixing of seeded air
with the unseeded air in our experiments, the flow behaves macroscopically like
RTI, manifesting mixing zone growth consistent with earlier RTI experiments. The
two-phase analogue of RMI is much more interesting, because after impulsive
acceleration, droplets interact with the embedding phase in a complex way which
presents a challenge to model accurately.
Does what we observe represent a new hydrodynamic instability? All the
physical mechanisms involved are well-known, yet their combined manifestation,
especially in the case of two-phase shock-accelerated flow, leads to unexpected
results, whose importance may be considerable in astrophysical problems (e.g.,
shock propagation through dusty plasma), as well as in many engineering
applications.

7 Conclusion

We have presented an experimental and numerical study of multiphase analogues

of hydrodynamic instabilities emerging on a density gradient subject to sustained
(Rayleigh-Taylor) or impulsive (Richtmyer-Meshkov) acceleration. Our work
shows that vortices similarly form in a gaseous medium initially seeded with
microscopic droplets so that its average density is non-uniform, and the gradient of
this average density plays the role similar to the gaseous (or fluid) density gradient
in classical RMI and RTI.
Future work will involve experiments with a better characterization of the
initial conditions in terms of droplet sizes and distribution, as well as numerical
simulations using this information. The goal of numerical exercises here is
twofold. First, the code must be validated by quantitative comparison with a well-
characterized experiment. Second, after such validation provides confidence that
the numerics faithfully reproduce the relevant physics, numerical modeling can be

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 27

applied to problems of practical interest, for example, involving propagation of a

shock wave through dusty gas or plasma.

Acknowledgments

This research is funded by NNSA (US National Nuclear Security Agency) through
DOE (US Department of Energy) Grant DE-PS52-08NA28920 and by DTRA (US
Defense Threat Reduction Agency) awards HDTRA1-07-1-0036 and HDTRA1-
08-1-0053.

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[2] G.I. Taylor. The instability of liquid surfaces when accelerated in a direction
perpendicular to their planes. I. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.
Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 201(1065):192–196, 1950.
[3] D.J. Lewis. The instability of liquid surfaces when accelerated in a direction
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[4] M.P.A. Jackson and C.J. Talbot. External shapes, strain rates, and dynamics
of salt structures. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 97:305–323, 1986.
[5] T.V. Gerya and D.A. Yuen. Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities from hydration and
melting propel cold plumes at subduction zones. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, 212:47–62, 2003.
[6] W.H. Cabot and A.J. Cook. Reynolds number effects on RayleighTaylor
instability with possible implications for type Ia supernovae. Nature Physics,
2:562–568, 2006.
[7] R.D. Richtmyer. Taylor instability in shock acceleration of compressible
fluids. Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics, 13:297–319,
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[8] E.E. Meshkov. Instability of the interface of two gases accelerated by a shock
wave. Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Mekhanika Zhidkosti i Gaza, 4:151–
159, 1969.
[9] A. Burrows, J. Hayes, and B.A. Fryxell. On the nature of core-collapse
supernova explosions. Astrophysics Journal, 450:430–450, 1995.
[10] J. Yang, T. Kubota, and E.E. Zukoski. Applications of shock-induced mixing
to supersonic combustion. AIAA Journal, 31:854–862, 1993.
[11] V.N. Goncharov. Theory of the ablative Richtmyer-Meshkov instability.
Physical Review Letters, 82:2091–2094, 1999.
[12] R.M. Baltrusaitis, M.L. Gittings, R.P. Weaver, R.F. Benjamin, and J.M.
Budzinski. Simulation of shock-generated instabilities. Physics of Fluids,
8:2471–2483, 1996.

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[13] A.W. Cook and Y. Zhou. Energy transfer in Rayleigh-Taylor instability.

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[14] A. Palekar, P. Vorobieff, and C.R. Truman. Two-dimensional simulation of
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7(8):427 – 438, 2007.
[15] M.K. Parmar, A. Haselbacher, and S. Balachandar. Prediction and modeling
of shock-particle interaction. AIAA Paper 2009-1124, 2009.
[16] M.K. Parmar, A. Haselbacher, and S. Balachandar. Improved drag correlation
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48:1273–1276, 2010.
[17] M. Anderson, P. Vorobieff, S. Kumar, J. Conroy, R. White, C. Needham, and
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 29

Comparison of numerical schemes for

computational simulation of liquid wavy film
flow on vertical wall
J. K. Min1 & I. S. Park2
1
Rolls-Royce University Technology Center,
Pusan National University, Korea
2
School of Mechanical Engineering,
Kyungpook National University, Korea

Abstract
Film flows are classified into no-wavy laminar, wavy laminar and turbulence
along the Reynolds number or the flow stability. Since the wavy motions of the
film flows are so intricate and nonlinear, the studies have largely been dependent
upon the experimental way. The numerical approaches have been limited on the
no-wavy flow regime. In this study, the film’s full wavy motion is numerically
investigated. The present numerical approach is based on the VOF interface
capturing methods. The implicit and explicit schemes for the interface time
marching are compared with each other. The HRIC (High Resolution Interface
Capturing) and the geometry reconstruction method are tested as the treatment of
convective terms at the liquid-air interface. The dependency of the grid density
and the time step size are investigated in the aspect of the probability density
function of the film thickness. All results are compared with Takamasa’s
experimental results.
Keywords: wavy film flow, free surface, VOF.

1 Introduction
The film flows are generally applied to the phase-change heat transfer
(condensation or evaporation) because of their advantages for heat transfer like
the high latent heat, the thin film thickness and the large heat transfer area.

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30 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Many previous studies [1–5] proved that the film thickness is the most
essential parameter governing heat transfer. Thus a lot of researchers have
attempted to apply more reasonable film thicknesses for their applications.
Nusselt suggested the exact analytic solution for the film flows in a laminar
governing equation set. It is still considered as a very powerful and useful result
for simple application problems. Some researchers [6–8] have solved only the
convective and diffusive heat transfer equation with the film thickness and
velocity distribution from the Nusselt solution as the flow information. They
couldn’t be applied to the accurately predicting the local heat and mass transfer
in the developing region. Thereafter a lot of researchers [3–5] attempted to
numerically solve the parabolized Navier-Stokes equation as the governing
equation with the marching technique. This has been evaluated as the more
accurate numerical approach by considering the convective heat transfer effect
by the normal velocity component which has been neglected in the thin film flow
so far. Because the parabolized governing equations were solved, this method
was applicable to the laminar as well as the turbulence flow regimes and found
the average film thickness reasonably. But it could not solve the time changing
phenomena such as the film’s wavy motion which happened due to the flow
instability in higher flow rate conditions.
There have been attempts to solve the elliptic type full Navier-Stokes
equations [9–12]. Since this method could additionally consider the diffusion in
the primary flow direction, it was advantageous for the falling film on the
horizontal circular tube. The numerical free surface capturing or tracking
methods such as MAC (Marker and Cell) [13], VOF (Volume Of Fluid) [14],
moving grid technique [15] and so on, were applied to investigate the film’s free
surface location precisely.
The analysis for the three dimensional film flows with secondary flows in the
cross section like the grooved, fluted or spiral tube was conducted [11, 12]. The
approaches using the elliptic governing equations which were investigated with a
flourish in the late 1990s could make no more evolutions because of their
weakness of high computational cost comparing with the advantages from their
accurate calculation.
It is known that the film flow is getting unstable as the flow rate increases.
Thus the laminar wavy motion starts to appear over Reynolds number 30 and the
flow transits to the turbulence between Reynolds 1,600 and 3,200. Most
applications belonged in the laminar wavy regime to apply the heat-transfer-
boosting effects by the interfacial wave and the thin film thickness. Since waves
in the turbulence regime are highly frequent and short waves, the heat and mass
transfer enhancement by the wavy motion can be somewhat simulated by
adjusting the turbulence intensity. But the waves of long wavelength and high
amplitude in the low Reynolds number need the wavy motion itself to be
accurately solved. Because the wavy motion of film flow means the temporary
and spatially fluctuating film thickness, its height (amplitude), frequency, and
velocity are as important as the average film thickness.
Complex interactions between the liquid turbulence structure in the film and
gas-liquid interfaces govern the physical properties of such flows. The resulting

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 31

interfacial waves show fascinating nonlinear phenomena, including solitary

waves and complex disordered patterns. To elucidate these phenomena in detail,
spatial-temporal knowledge of the interfacial waves is essential.
Due to the limitation of the numerical approaches, the experimental
techniques measuring film flow such as electrical-resistance or electrical-
capacitance methods have widely developed [16–22]. The electrical methods can
measure the film’s spatially averaged thickness, but not the film’s wavy
behaviors (wave amplitude, frequency, and so on). A laser displacement sensor
[21] and a supersonic echo method [22] have a higher spatial resolution and thus
it becomes possible to measure the film’s wavy characteristics. But for the cases
of large curvature gas-liquid interface, the measuring is impossible because the
reflected laser beam and the sonic wave cannot reach the detector. Takamasa and
Hazuku [23] successfully measured the wavy characteristics of the films flowing
down a vertical plate wall and a vertical tube wall with a sensitivity of 2  m
and 1kHz. They used the laser focus displacement method with the high spatial
and temporal resolution. A lot of studies have been conducted with the above
experimental ways to reveal not only the film’s wavy motion itself (such as wave
celerity, amplitude and frequency) but also the relationship with the heat transfer.
In this study, various numerical schemes are tested for the laminar wavy film
flow region. The present numerical approach is based on the VOF interface
capturing methods. The implicit and explicit schemes for the interface time
matching are compared with each other. The HRIC (High Resolution Interface
Capturing) and the geometry reconstruction method are tested as the treatment of
convective terms at the liquid-air interface. The dependency of the grid density
and the time step size are investigated in the aspect of the probability density
function of the film thickness. All results are compared with Takamasa’s
experimental results [23]. In addition the results obtained from turbulence flow
simulation are compared together.

2 Numerical analysis
We consider a vertical wall on which the wavy laminar film flows as shown in
Fig. 1. For constant fluid properties, the continuity and momentum equations for
two-dimensional incompressible unsteady laminar film flows are written as:


( ui )  0 (1)
xi
 (  ui )  p    u u j  
 (  ui u j )       i      gi (2)
t x j x j x j   x j xi  
where, ui is the velocity vector, p pressure, gi gravity vector,  density and 
viscosity of the fluid. To describe the motion of free surface, the VOF (Volume
Of Fluid) approach adopts the volume fraction function  which has a value
between zero to unity according to the fraction of liquid inside each control
volume. The corresponding equation for the volume fraction function is:

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32 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

 
 ( u j )  0 . (3)
t x j
Using this volume fraction  , the effective material properties in Eqs. (1) and
(2) can be evaluated as follows:
  l  (1   )  g (4)
  l  (1   )  g (5)
where the subscripts l and g represents the liquid and gaseous phases,
respectively.
The boundary conditions for this problem are also shown in Fig. 1. On the
liquid inlet boundary, the uniform velocity u0 and fixed film thickness  0 are
specified according to the corresponding Reynolds numbers. No-slip condition is
applied on the vertical wall and gas inlet. Pressure outlet conditions are used for
the other boundaries. On the free surface, the surface tension force is taken into
consideration to satisfy the following force balance equation:
p  p 
1 (6)
l g
R
where  represents the surface tension coefficient and R the radius of curvature
of the free surface. In the numerical procedure, the CSF (Continuum Surface
Force) model by Brackbill et al. [24] has been used. In this method, the surface
curvature  can be evaluated by the divergence of surface normal which is
defined as the normalized gradient of volume fraction  . To impose the pressure
jump across the surface, the volume force defined by the following equation
should be applied for the control volume at the free surface.
   (7)
Fvol  
1
(l   g )
2

W
y
0 gas
inlet
x
liquid
g
inlet

vertical free
wall surface

liquid gas H

outlet

Figure 1: Schematic of wavy film flow.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 33

For the numerical computations, the commercial CFD code FLUENT 6.3 has
been used. Second order upwind scheme for the spatial discretization, implicit
time marching and explicit time discretization for the VOF equation were
adopted. In order to capture the location of interface precisely, the volume
fraction  should vary sharply near the free surface of the liquid. VOF approach
has the possibility of smearing the fraction function due to the false diffusion of
numerical scheme. This problem is largely related to the numerical evaluation of
flux values at the control surface of partially filled cell near the interface.
Numerous computational techniques to improve the accuracy of surface tracking
by VOF have been studied. Hirt and Nichols [14] suggested the donor and
acceptor method in their initial VOF technique. According to this method, a cell
near the free surface can be identified as a donor and the neighbouring cell as the
acceptor depending on the flow direction at the control surface. The amount of
the fluid from each phase across the control surface is calculated using the
volume fraction value at the donor cell and the acceptor cell is assumed to
receive the same amount of fluid from the donor cell. This method also
determines the orientation of free surface using the gradient value of volume
fraction  at the cell near the free surface, which can be either horizontal or
vertical. Using the determined orientation and the velocity of the interface, the
flux values across the control surface can be evaluated by modified upwinding
technique in order to inhibit the false diffusion. Youngs [25] has suggested the
PLIC (piecewise linear interface calculation) technique. In this method, the slope
of the interface at the cell can be evaluated using the volume fraction values of
surrounding neighboring cells. With this linear slope and the motion of the
interface, the fluid flux across the control surface can be calculated as well.
Water is used for the liquid film flow and air for the gaseous phase in the
present study. The width of liquid film  0 at the inlet is set to 0.4–0.6mm based
on average film thickness, the height of the domain H = 500mm and the width
W = 4.6mm. Corresponding dimensionless parameters are defined as follows:
u 
Re  0 0 (8)

 u 2
We  0 0 (9)

where Re is the Reynolds number and We the Weber number. The Reynolds
number has the range of 200 to 1000 and the inlet velocity for each Re can be
calculated using the definition, eq. (8).
A 40  3000 grid was generated for the computational domain, which was
clustered to the wall and uniform in the flowing direction. Several test showed
that the Courant number Co  t / (xcell / v fluid ) should be less than 0.5 in order to
get a stable solution. As a result, the time step was selected to have t  104 sec,
which showed Co  0.43 for Re  1000 case. For the computation, machines
having Intel Xeon processors with eight nodes were used and it took 10–24 hours
of CPU time to get a solution for 15000 time steps.

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34 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

3 Results and discussions

For the discretization scheme at the cell near the free surface, the HRIC (High
Resolution Interface Capturing) scheme is known as an improved scheme
providing better accuracy. This is a blending scheme of upwind and downwind
differencing. In this study, however, the use of HRIC scheme produced less
realistic results. Table 1 shows the cases for testing the numerical schemes for
the time marching and the interfacial cell treatment. Fig. 2 shows the
distributions of the probability density function for the film thickness for each
case. Comparing with Takamasa’s experimental result, the explicit time
marching and geometry reconstruction method is best fit with.
Fig. 3 shows the time variations of film thickness calculated using explicit
HRIC scheme, implicit HRIC scheme and geometric reconstruction scheme,
respectively. Geometric reconstruction scheme is a generalized Youngs’ method
and used with second-order discretization scheme in this calculation. It is hard to
identify a solitary wave when explicit and implicit HRIC schemes were used,
whereas a distinct solitary wave is observed with geometric reconstruction
scheme, which is closer to previous experimental findings [23].
For the comparison of the effects by the grid and time step sizes, two grid
systems (grid spacing= 0.5 and 0.2 mm) and three time step sizes
( 2 104 , 1 104 , and 0.5  104 sec. ) are tested. Fig. 4 shows the distributions of
the probability density functions for each case. For the cases of grid size, 0.5
mm, much wider ranges of film thickness are predicted than the cases of grid
size, 0.2 mm. As the time step sizes become smaller, the distribution becomes
sharper. But the gap with the experimental result is narrowed no more. The
average film thickness is about 0.5 mm as shown in the probability density
function. This means that finer grid spacing than the average film thickness is
required for the accurate calculation. The results of grid size 0.2 mm are more
realistic comparing with Takamasa’s experimental data and invariant with the
time step size.
The film Reynolds number handled in this study is ranged between 200 and
1,000. This is known as the laminar wavy film flow region. However, the wavy
motion is a transient phenomenon to the turbulence, and the wave itself is a large
fluctuation and originated by the disturbance from outside. Such generated
waves are amplified and sometimes damped out according to the mass flow rate.
In this study, to investigate the film flow’s turbulence effect, we adopt the two

Table 1: Test cases for inspecting numerical scheme for time differencing
and interfacial cell treatment.
diff i di t f i l ll t t t

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 35

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 2: Probability density functions for film thickness at Re=649,

(a) Takamasa’s experiment, (b) Explicit geometry reconstruction,
(c) Explicit HRIC, and (d) Implicit HRIC.

0.8
R e=600

G eometric R econstruction
0.7 Explicit H R IC
Film thickness, G[mm]

0.6

0.5
Implicit H R IC

0.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time [ms]

Figure 3: Comparison of interface cell treatment-geometry reconstruction

scheme and HRIC scheme.

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36 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Figure 4: Probability density functions for various time step and grid sizes at
Re=649.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5: Comparison with turbulence simulations at Re=649, (a) Laminar,
(b) Standard k   , and (c) k   turbulence model.
generalized 2-equation turbulence models (standard k   model and k  
model) and compared the results with the laminar simulation. Fig. 5 compares
the results one another. The Reynolds number of test case is 649. The turbulence
simulations generate more severe wave fluctuations because of the turbulence
fluctuation. Both turbulence analyses show a quite different wavy motions
comparing with the real case. Thus in the present Reynolds number range (200–
1,000), when the flow is simulated by the laminar assumption, more reasonable
results can be obtained.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 37

Fig. 6 shows the wave’s time-propagation processes for Reynolds number

200. To accurately observe and compare the wave shapes, the figures are made
with x-y aspect ratio 5:1. The solitary waves with high wave amplitude appear
and the foregoing small waves are merged at several points by the big wave
approaching from upstream. The small amplitude ripples are observed among the
solitary waves.

(a) t=1.00 sec. (b) t=1.01 sec. (c) t=1.02 sec. (d) t=1.03 sec. (e) t=1.04 sec. (f) t=1.05 sec.

-0.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2

y[m]

-0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3

-0.4 -0.4 -0.4 -0.4 -0.4 -0.4

0 0.005 0 0.005 0 0.005 0 0.005 0 0.005 0 0.005
x[m] x[m] x[m] x[m] x[m] x[m]

Figure 6: Propagation of wave along time at Re=200.

Fig. 7 shows the relationship between average film thickness and the
Reynolds number. The average film thickness is defined as the arithmetic mean
value of the instantaneous film thicknesses and calculated as follows.
1 n
  i
n i 1
(10)

The Nusselt’s theoretical result for laminar flow condition is

13
 3 2 R e 
    (11)
 g 
The universal velocity profile is Karman’s velocity profile (Eq. (12))
calculated for turbulent flow condition.

3.0  2.5 ln    
 Re  64 (12)
where

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38 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI


   u* (13)

u *  g (14)

The results by Brauer (Eq. (15)), Takahama (Eq. (16)), and Aragaki (Eq. (17)
shown in the figure are represented as follows:
13
 3 2 
  0.302  R e0.526 (15)
 g 
13
 2 
  0.473  R e0.526 (16)
 g
13
 2 
    8.92 R e5 2  4.04  10 5 R e9 22 15
(17) 
 g 
Takamasa’s result is the experimental one obtained by their laser focus
displacement method. The present results agree well with Nusselt and
Takamasa’s results especially in the far downstream region.

0.7
Average film thickness [mm]

0.6

0.5

N usse lt
Ara ga ki
0.4 T akaham a
Bra ue r
U nive rsa l V el. profile
T akam asa
P re se nt x= 1 0 0 m m
P re se nt x= 2 0 0 m m
0.3 P re se nt x= 4 0 0 m m

10 2 10 3
Re

Figure 7: Average film thickness for various Reynolds numbers and various
positions from liquid inlet.

4 Conclusions
For a film flow heat transfer which is widely applied due to its benefits for heat
transfer. The film flow becomes unstable with the wave propagation over the
Reynolds number 30. In this study, the wavy motions of the film flows were
numerically investigated, which have largely depended on the experimental
ways. The interfaces between liquid and gas were sharply captured by the VOF

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 39

and PLIC method. The surface tension acting on the interfaces was correctly
calculated from a well defined interface shape by the VOF and PLIC. Such
correctly estimated surface tension forces were able to propagate waves on the
interface correctly. The present numerical results showed a good agreement with
the experimental one in the aspects of the average film thickness. It is clearly
demonstrated that the current numerical Navier-Stokes procedure and precise
free-surface capturing method with consideration of surface-tension effect are
essential in order to predict the wavy film motion accurately.

Acknowledgement
This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the
National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology (the Grant 2010-0024619).

References
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correlations for laminar and turbulent film condensations on a vertical
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[3] M. Feddaoui, A. Mir & E. Belahmidi, Cocurrent turbulent mixed
convection heat and mass transfer in falling film of water inside a vertical
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condensation from turbulent flow of vapor-gas mixtures in vertical tubes,
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[5] I. S. Park & M. Y. Kim, Numerical investigation of the heat and mass
transfer in a vertical tube evaporator with the three-zone analysis, Int. J.
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[6] N.I. Grigoreva & V.E. Nakoryakov, Exact solution combined heat and mass
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[7] G. Grossman, Simultaneous heat and mass transfer in film absorption under
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[8] G. Grossman & M.T. Heath, Simultaneous heat and mass transfer in film
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[9] E. Stuhlträger, Y. Naridomi, A. Miyara & H. Uehara, Flow dynamics and
heat transfer of a condensate film on a vertical wall-i. Numerical Analysis
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[10] J.K. Min & D.H. Choi, Analysis of the absorption process on a horizontal
tube using Navier-Stokes equations with surface-tension effects, Int. J.
Heat Mass Transfer, 42 (24), pp. 4567-4578, 1999.

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40 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

[11] I.S. Park & D.H. Choi, Heat- and mass-transfer analysis for the condensing
film flow along a vertical grooved tube, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 44(22),
pp. 4277-4285, 2001.
[12] I.S. Park, Numerical analysis for flow, heat and mass transfer in film flow
along a vertical fluted tube, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 53(1-3),
pp. 309-319, 2010.
[13] F.H. Harlow & J.E. Welch, Numerical calculation of time-dependent
viscous incompressible flow of fluid with free surface, Physics of Fluids, 8
pp. 2182-2189, 1965.
[14] C.W. Hirt & B.D. Nichols, Volume of fluid (vof) method for the dynamics
of free boundaries, Journal of Computational Physics, 39, pp. 201-225,
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[15] S. Muzaferija & M. Peric, Computation of free-surface flows using the
finite-volume method and moving grids, Numerical Heat Transfer, Part,
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[16] S. Poltalski & A.J. Clegg, An experimental study of wave inception on
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[17] K. Mori, T. Matsumoto & H. Uematsu, Time-spatial interfacial structures
and flow characteristics in falling liquid film, Proceedings of Third
International Conference on Multiphase Flow, CD-ROM, #514, 1998.
[18] A. Elsäßer, W. Samenfink, J. Ebner, K. Dullenkopf & S. Wittig, Effect of
variable liquid properties on the flow structure within, Proceedings of Ninth
International Symposium on Application of Laser Techniques to Fluid
Mechanics, 1(3), pp. 1-10, 1998.
[19] A.E. Dukler & O.P. Bergelin, Characteristics of flow in falling liquid film,
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pp. 557-563, 1952.
[20] C.F. Hewitt & N.S. Hall-Taylor, Annular Two-phase Flow, Pergamon
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[21] M. Nasr-Esfahany & M. Kawaji, Turbulence structure under a typical shear
induced wave at a liquid/gas interface, Proceedings of AIChE Symposium
Series, 310(92), pp. 203-210, 1996.
[22] A. Serizawa, T. Kamei, I. Kataoka, Z. Kawara, T. Ebisu & K. Torikoshi,
Measurement of dynamic behavior of a liquid film flow with liquid droplets
in a horizontal channel, Proceedings of Second International Conference on
Multiphase Flow, 2, pp. 27-34, 1995.
[23] T. Takamasa & T. Hazuku, Measuring interfacial waves on film flowing
down a vertical plate wall in the entry region using laser focus displacement
meters, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 43, pp. 2807-2819, 2000.
[24] J.U. Brackbill, D.B. Kothe & C. Zemach, A continuum method for
modeling surface tension, Journal of Computational Physics, 100,
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 41

Hybrid density- and pressure-based splitting

scheme for cavitating flows simulation
T. Alexandrikova, A. Pavlov & V. Streltsov
Mentor Graphics Corporation, Mechanical Analysis Division,
Moscow, Russia

Abstract
A new numerical method to simulate steady-state isothermal liquid flows with
hydraulic cavitation is proposed. The 3D averaged N-S equations with Lam-
Bremhorst κ – ε turbulence model are used. The barotropic state equation is
developed basing on thermodynamic equilibrium relations.
Simulation of such flows faces a lot of numerical difficulties concerned with
variations of density, speed of sound and time scale.
The method is a hybrid splitting scheme that is a mixture of “density-based” and
“pressure-based” approaches. The splitting scheme is the “pressure-based”
SIMPLE-type algorithm in the region of incompressible liquid flow without
cavitation. The scheme degenerates to the “density-based” algorithm in a
compressible region (2-phase state or pure gas). The proposed method differs
from both “density-based” preconditioned algorithms and SIMPLE-type methods
adapted to the case of cavitating flows.
The method has been tested on numerous typical 3D problems with hydraulic
cavitation. Results of numerical simulation are in good agreement with
experimental data. The algorithm shows high efficiency for the considered
problems. The method has been implemented in FloEFDТМ.
Keywords: cavitating flows, numerical method, splitting scheme.

1 Introduction
A new numerical algorithm for simulation of cavitating flows is proposed in the
paper. Cavitating flows are encountered in a wide range of applications playing
mostly negative but sometimes positive role. We consider hydraulic cavitation

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doi:10.2495/MPF110041
42 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

that occurs in liquid flows when the pressure falls close to the saturated vapour
pressure. In this case a two-phase flow takes place.
An approach when fluid is considered as a homogeneous and isothermal medium
is used. The medium has such thermodynamic properties that it can be either an
incompressible liquid or a highly compressible medium that corresponds to two-
phase state or a compressible vapour that is treated as an ideal gas.
As cavitating flows are mostly turbulent, the averaged N-S equations are used
in the paper. It is known that specific choice of turbulent model and its
parameters influences on results of simulation (Senocak and Shyy [1]). However,
this influence is not investigated in this paper because the problem requires a
special research. To close the system of averaged N-S equations the Lam-
Bremhorst k   turbulent model and barotropic state equation are utilized.
Constructing numerical method to simulate cavitating flows, it is important to
take into account the fact that regions of incompressible flow and highly
compressible flow exist simultaneously in calculation domain. The speed of
sound may drop from thousands in liquid flow to units in vaporized flow. It leads
to supersonic flows with high Mach numbers, sometimes with shocks. Thereby
the cavitation problems are characterized by wide range of Mach number from
near zero to several tens in one calculation domain.
An important feature of cavitating flows is the presence of several time scales.
It is common that the time scale is greater by several orders of magnitude in
liquid than in vaporized region with a supersonic flow. The typical time step
varies over 2 orders of magnitude over calculation domain in considered below
problems.
Another important feature is that properties of the model medium are
changing dramatically when crossing the boundary an incompressible flow
region and a compressible one. The speed of sound is changing by 3 orders of
magnitude in considered problems. As a result, nonlinearity of the equation
system strongly manifests itself on the boundary of liquid and vaporized regions.
Difficulties in numerical simulation of flows with widely varied Mach
number appear not only in multiphase flows but in many traditional gas
dynamics problems as well. Nowadays nature of the difficulties has been
investigated in details. The problems are related to change of character of flow
parameters mutual influence while Mach number is varying. In a compressible
flow all parameters (density, pressure, momentum and temperature) significantly
influence on each others. The form of the mass conservation equation is such
that it is naturally interpreted as a density equation. So, the density, momentum
and energy are used as basic unknowns when considering compressible flows.
Such methods are named “density-based”.
While Mach number approaching to zero, the pressure-density dependence
becomes weak. So, in the case of low Mach number and incompressible flows,
the mass conservation equation is used to describe the pressure-momentum
coupling. Such methods are named “pressure-based”.
To date there are two main approaches to calculate all-speed compressible
flows. The first one employs the “density-based” methods originally developed
to simulate speed compressible flows (usually at M>0.3). The methods are

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 43

adapted to low Mach number case by introducing artificial compressibility or

using some preconditioning techniques (Kunz et al. [2], Li and Merkle [3], Li et
al. [4, 5]). Without such adaptations the methods are almost useless for low-
speed flows at M  0 .
The second approach utilizes the “pressure-based” methods originally
developed for incompressible flows. Usually these are SIMPLE-family splitting
schemes (or “pressure-correction” methods) adapted to the case of compressible
flows at high speed (Van der Heul et al. [6, 7]).
Presented in the paper approach differs from the both abovementioned
approaches. At first glance the idea to apply the “pressure-based” in region of
incompressible flow and the “density-based” approach in region of supersonic
compressible flow looks quite natural. But it is not obvious how to couple these
approaches. We propose a way of combining the approaches that is based on the
following simple key idea. Employing the finite volume method, we suggest
mixing fluxes and pressure approximations that correspond to “pressure-based”
and “density-based” approaches on faces of control volumes. After that these
mixed approximations are substituted in SIMPLE-type splitting scheme.
Managing the mixing weight in fluxes, we can obtain either the original
SIMPLE-type semi-implicit splitting scheme or the explicit “density-based”
scheme or a mixture of these approaches.
In this paper only the steady-state regimes of cavitating flows are considered.
Such flows (for averaged flow parameters) are realized in a large number of
applications. It is too consuming in time to solve such problems by an algorithm
developed for time-dependent problems.
Of course, unsteady effects, such as periodically coming off cavitating vortex,
are of considerable interest, but we will not consider such flows in the paper.

2 Governing equations
Mass conservation and momentum equations:
  u i 
+ 0, (1)
t  xi
 p  ij

 u i  
+ ( u i u j ) + =   2  eijk  j u k , (2)
t x j  xi  x j xi
2
 ij  (   t ) sij ,  ijR   t sij  k ij ,
3
ui u j 2 uk
sij     ij ,   12  r .
2 2
(3)
x j xi 3 xk
Here the Coriolis and centrifugal forces are taken into account.
Turbulence Lam-Bremhorst k   model equations:

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44 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

 k  k u i      u
+ =     t  k    ijR i   ,
t  xi xi  
 k  xi  x j

   u i       
  f 1C  1   ijR i  f 2 C  2  ,
u 2
 =    t 
t  xi x i      x i  k x j k
k2 , 2 7.5  , k 2 ,
t  C f  f   1  exp 0.0165 R y  1  
 Re 
 
t
 Re t 
3
 0.05 
f1  1  
 f 
 
 , f 2  1  exp  Re t2 , R y   k y , Prt  0.9 ,
   
C   0.09 , C  1  1.44 , C  2  1.92 ,  k  1 ,    1.3 . (4)

It is assumed that flow is isothermal. So, the energy equation is omitted. It is

supposed that T is constant, T=T0 .
To close the system a state equation is needed. For practical purposes, it is
important to be able to simulate flows of industrial liquids, such as liquid fuels,
synthetic and mineral oils, freons and so on. But thermodynamic properties of
such substances are incomplete or not widely available. Taking into account this
fact, the state equation is derived in such a way that it requires just minimal and
easy available parameters of a substance. We consider the barotropic state
equation [27] for the homogeneous mixture consisting of liquid, its vapour and
small amount of inert non-condensable gas (see Fig. 1). In practice, the most
liquid fluids contain small amount of dissolved gases.
In Fig. 1 parameter p EL is pressure value below which vapour appears in the
mixture, p VE is pressure value below which liquid disappears from the mixture.
These two parameters p EL and p VE are derived from the condition of phases
equilibrium employing Helmholtz thermodynamic potential [27]. In two-phase
region the density-pressure dependency is

p  pE M I ,

RT YI

where p E is the saturated vapour pressure, M I and YI is the molecular mass

and mass fraction of the inert gas.
Thus, defining only the density of a liquid and the saturated vapour pressure
at temperature T0 , the molecular masses of substance of this liquid and a
dissolved inert gas, we obtain the state equation for the specific fluid:

    p . (5)

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 45

Figure 1: The barotropic state law  ( p ) .

3 Numerical method
Describing the numerical method, we pay the most attention to the operator-
splitting technique. Details of spatial approximations are omitted. Being
introduced by Yanenko [28], the operator-splitting technique has been further
developed to treat SIMPLE-type methods in terms of this approach. Now this
technique is well-accepted in CFD. Details of specific treating are presented in
Churbanov et al. [29].
Following the finite volume method, the integral form of conservation
equations (1)-(4) is approximated.
Let us describe the principal idea how to couple two approaches, the p-based
semi-implicit SIMPLE-type approach and the ρ-based explicit approach, in one
numerical method.
Assume that there are two well-established numerical methods. One is p-
based method for incompressible (low-compressible) flows, for example
SIMPLE splitting scheme with corresponding spatial approximations of fluxes
and pressure:
Finc(  ) m    ak mk is face mass flux approximation,
Finc( m )  ui1/ 2   bk mk is face momentum flux approximation,
p inc   c k p k is face pressure approximation.
Here m is momentum, u is velocity, a k , bk , c k are approximation coefficients,
and summation by index k is performed over the stencils of the approximations.
Subscript “inc” is used to refer to incompressible (low-compressible) case.
The second well-established method is ρ-based one for high-speed
compressible flows. For example well-known AUSM (Liou) with corresponding
spatial approximations of fluxes and pressure:
( )
Fcomp  u  AUSM is the AUSM face mass flux approximation,
(m)
Fcomp  u  m  AUSM is the AUSM face momentum flux approximation,
p comp   p  AUSM is the AUSM face pressure approximation.
Subscript “comp” is used to refer to compressible case.

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46 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

It is proposed that the coupling is to be performed by combining spatial

approximations of convective fluxes and pressure, and substituting these mixed
approximations into any SIMPLE-family scheme.
Spatial approximations of fluxes and pressure are mixed on CV (control
volume) faces with some weight w. The weight is defined on CV faces and
depends on state of fluid in adjacent CVs. It is equal to zero in liquid
(incompressible flow region) and 1 in containing vapor medium (compressible
flow region).
Note that the combined fluxes and pressure approximations are treated
differently in time, as it is shown below. The p-based approximations are treated
implicitly where it is necessary, and the ρ-based approximations are treated
explicitly in all cases.
Unsteady form of equations is used to obtain steady-state solutions. But time-
step is treated as calculation parameter that is varying in space. Symbol “^” is
used to mark parameters that refer to new iteration and are treated as unknowns.
Symbol “~” is used to mark intermediate values of parameters. And parameters
at old iteration do not have any “cup” symbol.
To simplify description, let us present deriving the method in 1d case.
The discrete mass equation is written as
Vi
ti
 
 i  Fˆi( 1/)2 mˆ   Fˆi ( 1/)2 mˆ  S  0 , (6)

where   ˆ   and the weighted mass fluxes on CV faces are

Fˆi (1 )/ 2 mˆ   1  wi 1 / 2   Fˆinc(  ) mˆ   wi 1 / 2  Fcomp
( )
m  ,
Fˆinc(  )   ak mˆ k , ( )
Fcomp  u  AUSM .
Following the operator-splitting technique, the discrete momentum equation is
written on two time levels, on intermediate and new ones. For “predictor”, on
intermediate time level, it is
Vi ~
t i
~
 ~

( mi  mi )  Fi ( m1/)2  Fi( m1/)2 S   p i 1/ 2  p i1 / 2 S  f i , (7)

where the weighted momentum fluxes and pressure on CV faces are

Fi ( m1 /) 2  1  wi 1 / 2   Finc( m )  wi 1 / 2  Fcomp
~ ~ ( m)
,
pi1/ 2  1  wi1/ 2   pinc  wi 1/ 2  pcomp ,
~ ( m) ~ , F ( m )  u  m 
Finc  ui1/ 2  bk mk comp AUSM
,
pinc   ck pk , pcomp  ( p ) AUSM .
~(m)
Here Fi 1 / 2 includes approximations of convective and diffusive fluxes of
momentum. In 3d case it also includes Coriolis force, and f i contains all other
explicitly treated terms and forces.
~(m)
The momentum equation is also written on new time level. The same Fi 1 / 2
but new pressure is employed:

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 47

Vi
ti
~
 ~

(mˆ i  mi )  Fi ( m1/)2  Fi ( m1/)2 S   pˆ i 1/ 2  pˆ i1/ 2 S  f i , (8)

pˆ i 1/ 2  1  wi 1/ 2   pˆ inc  wi 1/ 2  pcomp ,

pˆ inc   ck pˆ k , pcomp  ( p ) AUSM .
As usually for SIMPLE-type methods, an equation for pressure correction p̂
is derived to be used instead of the mass equation. For this purpose, eqn (7) is
subtracted from eqn (8), and the result is substituted in the mass equation (6).
This new equation replaces the mass equation in numerical method. Note that
only equivalent algebraic transformations are employed, and the final system of
discrete equations is fully equivalent to the original one.
Finally, the numerical method is written as the following equations that are
solved consequentially.
The equation to calculate m ~ (the “predictor” stage) is:
Vi ~
t i
~
 ~

(mi  mi )  Fi ( m1/)2  Fi( m1/)2 S   p i1/ 2  p i1/ 2 S  f i , (9)

The equation to calculate the pressure correction p is:

Vi
t i
 ~
 
( D (pn )  p ( n1) )   p ( n1)   Fi( 1/)2 m
~   F~ (  ) m
i 1 / 2
~ S ,  (10)

where D p  p is approximation of density correction  , and

  t   t 
p    1  wi 1/ 2 Finc( ,)i 1/ 2  Ginc p   1  wi 1/ 2 Finc
( )
, i 1 / 2  Ginc p   S ,
 V  V 

Ginc p i  1  wi1/ 2 pinc , i1/ 2  1  wi1/ 2 pinc , i 1/ 2 S  , (11)
pinc , i1/ 2   ck pk .
The equations to calculate new momentum (the “corrector” stage) and pressure
are:
~  ti G p ( n1) ,
mˆ i( n1)  m   (12)
i inc i
Vi
pˆ i( n1)  pi  pi( n1) . (13)
The state equation to calculate new density is:
 ( n1)    pˆ ( n1)  . (14)
  
The coefficient D p is approximated using   in CV and relations
 p  i
 i(n11)   i( n 1)
on CV faces.
p i(n11)  p i( n 1)
The local time step is defined differently in incompressible and compressible
flow regions:

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48 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

hi in incompressible flow region,

ti  Cinc (15)
ui
hi in compressible flow region ,
ti  Ccomp (16)
ui  c
1 / 2
  
here c    is the sound speed, Cinc  25 , Ccomp  0.3 .
 p 
Such definition provide high rate of convergence to steady-state solution in
both incompressible and compressible flow regions.
The internal iterations over index n are introduced. These are needed to take
into account non linear dependence of the density increment on the pressure
increment is in vicinity of two values of pressure, p EL and p VE . Three internal
iterations were enough to provide robust calculations.
It is easy to see that setting w=0 leads to the standard SIMPLE (if only one
internal iteration is performed).
Setting w=1 leads to the AUSM (with internal iterations).
The momentum equation:
( mi  mi )  u  m AUSM , i 1/ 2  u  m AUSM , i 1/ 2  S ,
Vi ~
t i
  p AUSM , i 1/ 2  p AUSM , i 1/ 2 S  f i , (17)
The mass equation:
( D (pn )  p ( n1) )  u AUSM  u AUSM  S  0 ,
Vi
(18)
t i
Other equations are as follows
~ , pˆ ( n1)  p  p ( n1) ,
mˆ i( n1)  mi i i i  ( n1)    pˆ ( n1)  .
In the original AUSM method eqn. (18) is used for direct calculation of 
and ˆ     . New pressure p̂ is defined from the inverse form of the state
equation pˆ  p ̂  .
Iterating abovementioned algorithm by n we obtain the original AUSM
method.
Thus, we have obtained the method that couples p-based and ρ-based
approaches.
To perform described below calculations, the following specific spatial
approximations were used. For “inc” approximations of convective fluxes in
incompressible flow regions, a combination of the central and the 2nd order
upwind approximations was utilized. Limiters were used to provide monotonic
properties of the approximation. For convective fluxes and pressure in
compressible flow region well-known method AUSM [1] with some
modifications as employed. For viscous fluxes central differences were used as
usually.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 49

The proposed numerical method has shown high efficiency and robustness
solving steady-state problems. This is due to the fact that different well-
established approaches are used in incompressible and compressible regions of
flow with corresponding different local time steps (15), (16).

4 Results
In this section we present some results of cavitating flows simulation.

4.1 Centrifugal pump with two-dimensional curved blades

The geometry of the pump is presented in Fig. 2. In details it is described in

Coutier-Delgosha et al [9] as well as results of experimental and numerical
investigation. For calculations we use numerical mesh with 72500 control
volumes. Similarly to [9] we specify the following boundary conditions – fixed
mass flow-rate at the inlet and fixed static pressure at the outlet boundaries
respectively. Presented numerical method utilizes the local time step, which
values are chosen taking into account the stability condition in the whole
computational domain. The results of flow simulation in cavitating and non-
cavitating conditions were obtained.

Figure 2: Centrifugal pump geometry, Coutier-Delgosha et al. [9].

The head drop chart H(NPSH) obtained by the calculation is drawn in Fig. 3.
Calculations were performed considering various regimes in noncavitating and
cavitating conditions, corresponding to various outlet pressure values and fixed
mass flow-rate. The results were obtained for a large range of NPSH values, that
correspond to different configurations of cavitation zones presented in the Fig. 4.
The growth of cavitation zones and changes of their shape are observed with
decrease of NPSH. Starting from NPSH=7 the cavitation zone attaching takes

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50 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Figure 3: Head drop curves.

place on the outlet side of blades. Here H(NPSH) curve drop begins. With a
further decreasing of NPSH the duct between blades is blocked by a cavity with
a liquid-vapour mixture. Obtained numerical results are in a good agreement
with experimental data.

4.2 Liquid fuel flow in a throttle nozzle

The results of liquid fuel flow in a throttle nozzle simulation are presented in this
section. Model experiment for cavitating regimes of the flow investigation was
described in detail in Winklhofer et al. [10]. In experiment the liquid fuel ran
through a throttle made in the middle of a nozzle. A pressure drops were fixed
and the authors measured mass flow-rates and visualized cavitation zones
occurred in a narrow section. Detailed view of the throttle nozzle is shown in
Fig. 5.
We simulated stationary 3D flows in a half of the geometry with a symmetry
plane. As an inert attenuated gas air with mass fraction Yair=0.1% was chosen.
Numerical results were obtained for 9 various regimes with pressure drop Pin-
Pout from 106 to 9·106 Pa, where Pin = 107Pa. The numerical and experimental
data of flow rate are presented in Fig. 6. Marked on the figure range of ratio error
is 5%.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 51

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 4: Volume fraction of vapour (a) Pout=4.2 bar, (b) Pout=3.8 bar,
(c) Pout=3.4 bar, (d) Pout=3.2 bar.

4.3 3-D multi-hole fuel injector

We considered a model of car engine injector (Fig. 8) described in Schmidt et al.

[11]. This model is axisymmetric so only 1/4 of the model can be considered. To
exclude influence of outlet boundary condition on a flow in the injector we
added enlarged domain with boundary condition P=Pout to the model outlet, just
as in [11]. For this computational domain we used the mesh with 110000 CVs

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52 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Figure 5: Throttle nozzle model. L=0.001 m., H=0.000299 m., W=0.0003 m.,
Rin=0.00002 m.

0.009

0.008

0.007
G, kg/s

Experiment
0.006

Calculations

0.005

0.004
20 40 60 80 100
P, bar

Figure 6: Flow rate characteristic of the throttle nozzle.

Volume fraction of vapour for pressure drop P  9  10 Pa.

6
Figure 7:

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 53

Figure 8: 180 degree section of the 3-D 6-hole injector geometry.

Figure 9: Mesh and steady-state cavitation zone. pin =600atm , pout =26atm,
Tinit  333K.

(Fig. 9). Boundary conditions were defined by fixed values of pressure on the
inlet and outlet boundaries, and different regimes were defined by different
values of inlet pressure Pin, whereas outlet pressure was constant Pout=26 atm.
Regime Pin=600 atm, Pout=26 atm, Tinit=333 K was considered. The volume

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54 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

fraction of vapour for stationary solution of this task is presented in Fig. 9.

Comparison of numerical result with external data shows good accordance of
mass flow (60 g/s) for this regime. Cavitation zones also finely accord with
calculations of Schmidt et al.

5 Conclusions
A hybrid method for simulating flows under hydraulic cavitation conditions is
presented. It is based on coupling the well-established “pressure-based” and the
“density-based” methods that allows efficient simulation of flows with both
incompressible and highly compressible regions. Numerical experiments show
that the new method is accurate, robust and efficient. It requires significantly less
iterations compared to traditional “density-based” approaches to obtain a steady-
state solutions.
Implemented in FloEFDTM method has been tested by solving a lot of typical
3D problems for cavitating flows with different liquids. Obtained results are in a
good agreement with experimental data.

Acknowledgments
The authors thank Alexander V. Muslaev and Gennady E. Dumnov for helpful
discussions and Alexander A. Sobachkin for continuous attention and support.

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ASME, Vol. 125, November 2003, pp. 970–978
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[11] Schmidt S.J., Sezal I.H., Schnerr G.H., Thalhamer M., Forster M.
Compressible Simulation of Liquid/Vapour Two-Phase Flows with Local
Phase Transition, 6th International Conference on Multiphase Flow, ICMF
2007, Leipzig, Germany, July 9–13, 2007
[12] Tryggvason Gretar, Bunner Bernard, Esmaeeli Asghar, Al-Rawahi Nabeel,
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 57

Studies of different numerical models for

a turbulent particulate flow in
a square pipe with 90° bend
D. Schellander, D. Kahrimanovic & S. Pirker
Christian Doppler Laboratory on Particulate Flow Modelling,
Johannes Kepler University, Austria

Abstract
In process industry simulating particulate flow is one of the actual top level
research topics. Driven by the wish for readily available simulation results with
predictive description of the processes in fluid and granular flow, many
mathematical models have been proposed.
Among these models Eulerian and Lagrangian based particle models are most
common. These models have been additionally augmented by sub-models in
order to picture effects like particle rotation, rough wall treatment or inter-
particle collisions. The last one includes in Lagrangian phase a very high
increase of computational effort because of finding collision partners.
In this paper these models are tested at a very simple flow situation of a 90°
bended square duct flow. From classical kinetic theory, Eulerian particle model
is considered and also a discrete phase model, known as Lagrangian particle
model. Finally, a hybrid Eulerian-Lagrangian model, EUgran+, is introduced
using a new radial distribution coefficient, based on measurements of Gidaspow
and Huilin. The presented hybrid model is based on an Eulerian model that is
augmented by Lagrangian tracer particles. These tracer particles provide
additional information on e.g. particle rotation and particle wall treatment that
prepares information for the classical Eulerian phase, using coupling equations.
It was the aim to create a robust simulation model for simulating particulate
flows with high and low loaded particle regions. The second aim was to create a
model which gives comparable accuracy as a Lagrangian model with particle
collision, without calculating collisions in Lagrangian phase, to decrease the
computational time.
Keywords: hybrid model, particulate flow, transport system, tracer particles.

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doi:10.2495/MPF110051
58 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

1 Introduction
The pneumatic transport and separation of materials, like dust, sand, cement,
coal and other particle based granular materials is in common use in the industry.
It can be found in the chemical industry, the coal industry, cement industry and
many other industries. Pulverised material is transported from one place in the
company to another place using pneumatic conveying systems with pipes,
containing elbows, bends and cyclones.
Since computer simulation is in our mind, scientists dream of simulating
particulate flows, but there were and are already limitations. For particle
interaction and flow simulation many equations are known, but nowadays it is
not possible to calculate the flow of an arbitrary geometry exactly. Computers
are nowadays more powerful than ten years ago but also today it is not possible
to simulate realistic high loaded particle conveying systems. These high loaded
regions are in a standard cyclone present and should be simulated.
For the simulation of particles in a fluid, two main models are now state of
the art. Thus we firstly present the Discrete Phase Model (DPM) and the
Eulerian Model (EM). The DPM describes single particles on their way through
the simulation region. The EM describes the particles as a continuous phase,
introducing a granular temperature. The granular temperature is a value for the
particle velocity fluctuation (e.g. Dartevelle [1]). Both models have their
advantages and disadvantages, especially in regions with low and high particle
loadings.
Secondly our Hybrid-Model (HM) is presented and depicted in detail, called
EUgran+ (e.g. Pirker et al. [2]). There are other hybrid models too, for example
the Dense Discrete Phase Model (DDPM), described in e.g. Fluent [3] which is
based on Lagrangian particle trajectories which get information from the
Eulerian phase. The EUgran+ model is based on the Eulerian granular phase and
is modified by information from Lagrangian tracer particles.

2 Fluid phase
The fluid phase is described by the Navier-Stokes equations. These equations are
state of the art and used in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) to describe a
fluid flow. With additional models, like the Reynold Average Navier-Stokes
equations, turbulence can be modelled (e.g. Fluent [3])

 g  g      g  g u g   0, (1)
t

 g  g u g      g  g u g u g  
t
-  g p g     g g  f g ,drag  f g ,add . (2)

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3 Discrete phase model

3.1 Introduction

The standard Lagrangian DPM is based on a translational force balance

 18 g C D Re p
up  u g  u p   g  f p,add . (3)
t  p d p2 24
It can be seen in this equation that all forces in the Lagrangian phase are based
on the mass of one particle. Additionally in this paper an angular momentum
balance is used, to account for particle rotation and Magnus force calculations.
dω p
 t p , g  t p ,add (4)
dt
3.2 Additional forces

3.2.1 Magnus force and torque

The standard DPM neglects the force created by particle rotation, the Magnus
force, which was detected by Newton first. Here the acceleration of one particle,
induced by the Magnus force is shown (e.g. Kahrimanovic [4]).

1   p  u g  u p    g
f p ,Magnus  u g  u p C L rp2   (5)
2   m
 p  p
The Magnus force describes a force induced by rotation of a particle, because of
different pressure regions within the boundary layer around the particle.
1
p  ug  ωp (6)
2
(6) describes the difference between the rotating fluid and the particle rotation,
C L is the lift coefficient (e.g. Lun and Lui [5]).
For the calculation of the angular momentum balance, the fluid-torque and
additional torque from interparticle collisions is needed. The fluid-torque can be
written as (e.g. Pirker et al. [2])
g
t p,g  d p3 C R  p Re R (7)
64 I p
with Re R as rotating Reynolds-number and I p as value in the main diagonal of
the inertia tensor.
m p d p2  g d p2 Ω p
Ip  , Re R  , (8)
10 g

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The rotation coefficient (e.g. Sommerfeld [6]) is written as

 64
 ... Re R  32
 Re R
CR   (9)
 12.9 128.4
  ... 32  Re R  1000
 Re R
Re R

Collisional forces between particles in a strand effects that the rotation of the
particles decreases. The rotational energy is transformed via friction into
temperature, also granular temperature which is neglected in this paper, because
of the very small values. The following equation describes the interaction
between collisions and angular velocity changing in one timestep.
ωp
t p ,add  C t N s , p (10)
t tp
The number of collisions in one timestep can be calculated as
t tp
N s , p  ns2 d p2 g 0  s , (11)
Vc
with assumption that Eulerian phase and Lagrangian phase represents identical
materials (e.g. Kahrimanovic [4], Fluent [3]). Ct is the torque factor which can
be used to adjust the simulation. In this paper Ct  1.

3.2.2 Particle-wall interaction

Particle-Wall interaction has a very high impact on the result of the simulation.
So a well constructed model must be used. For the simulations in this paper a
model depicted in Kahrimanovic [4] and Sommerfeld et al. [7] is taken. It can
handle rough walls in a sense that the computational effort is in an acceptable
range.

4 Eulerian phase model

The Eulerian granular phase model, in contrast to the Lagrangian model,
considers the multitude of the particles as an artificial continuous solids phase.
The individual values of particles are smeared out, the solid phase is based on
mean values. The standard Eulerian granular model relies on the assumption that
by inter-particle collisions energy is transferred from the mean flow towards
chaotic fluctuations of the particles. To describe this behaviour an additional
transport equation for the granular temperature must be solved (e.g. Fluent [3]
and literature cited therein).

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 61

The main part of this paper is the hybrid model, this gives additional
information for the momentum equation, which is written as

 s  s u s      s  s u s u s  
t
-  s p s     s s   s  s g  f s ,drag  f s ,add (12)
with the drag force between fluid and solid as
f s ,drag  K sg u g  u s  (13)

4.1.1 Particle-wall interaction

The particle-wall interaction is based on the same method as mentioned in
section 3.1.2.

5 Hybrid model: EUgran+

5.1 Additional forces for Eulerian granular phase and Lagrangian phases

For the exchange between the Eulerian and Lagrangian phase some additional
equations are needed (e.g. Pirker et al. [2]). This must be done because the
standard Eulerian granular model lacks some important physics. This includes
particle rotation and therefore Magnus force and also the effects of wall
roughness. A term describing the force between the two phase caused by
different velocities of the Eulerian granular and Lagrangian phase is added. In
Fig. 1 the hybrid model EUgran+ is shown in a modular way, so that the
different modules and the interaction between them are displayed.

5.1.1 Dragforce between Eulerian and Lagrangian phase

Between the Eulerian and Lagrangian phase a dragforce is designed. This force
is added to the Lagrangian phase and Eulerian phase.
31  e p , s 
f p ,drag   s g 0 u s  u p u s  u p  (14)
2d p
The equation is based on the force of solid-solid exchange for two different
solids. The solid-solid exchange coefficient (e.g. Fluent [3]) for two different
solids l and s is written as
 2 
31  els   C fr ,ls  s  s l  l d l  d s 2 g 0,ls
K ls   2 8  us  u p

2  l d l3   s d s3 
In this paper only one diameter and density for particles is used, this changes
the equation to the shown form (14). The radial distribution coefficient g0
which was evaluated from Carnahan and Starling [13], Lun and Savage [14],
Sinclair and Jackson [15] and Gidaspow [16], is calculated in a new way.

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62 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Figure 1: Simple flowchart of the hybrid model; the number in brackets refer
to the corresponding equations in the text.
We propose to combine the equations from Gidaspow, Sinclair and Jackson.
At the edges the results of both compared to experiments and computational
developments, seem to be good but in the middle an enhancement seems to be
possible.

 23
 1 s ...  s  0.07
 2
 121 17
g0    s ... 0.07   s  0.46 (15)
 100 2 1
 3     13 
 1   s   ... 0.46   s
 5   0.67  

For this work, (15), was created using the measured-data from Gidaspow and
Huilin and experiment-data from Alder and Wainright (e.g. van Wachem et al.
[8]) and used for the HM simulations.

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5.1.2 Magnus force

The Magnus force, calculated using Lagrangian tracer particles, can be adjusted
for the Eulerian phase for each cell with equation
f s ,Magnus   s  s f p ,Magnus (16)
so that the same acceleration as of one representative particle is added to the
solid phase. The average Magnus force in a cell is calculated at each timestep of
each tracer particle. The particle timestep for Lagrangian tracer particles is not
the same as the simulation timestep. For the n -th timestep of all particles hitting
one cell
n  1 f p ,Magnus  f p ,Magnus ,n
f p , Magnus  n 1
(17)
n n
is found.

5.1.3 Wallforce
For the interaction between wall and solid phase, as mentioned before, a
restitution coefficient model is used. Additionally to them a wall force from
Lagrangian part is added in the momentum equation (12). Based on the
difference of velocities from Lagrangian and Eulerian phase after wall reflection

f s ,wall   s
 sVrebound
Vc t ts
u p , rebound 
 u s  u' s ,rebound  s   (18)

is found. Equation (18) represents a force from the Lagrangian phase to the
Eulerian phase. It is assumed that all particles within the volume
Vrebound  u s , t ts Ac (19)
collide with the wall during the next timestep. This includes all particles with a
velocity higher than
u s ,  s   s en (20)
which is the velocity normal to the wall, and calculated with some assumptions
from the granular temperature. It is known that (e.g. Sommerfeld et al. [7])
u ' 2s v' 2s  w' 2s
s  (21)
3
and additionally assumed u '  v'  w' . With this knowledge the rebound
velocity (22) and the normal velocity (20) to the wall can be estimated.
u' s ,rebound  s    s e s ,rebound (22)

5.1.4 Collisional force from granular pressure

If many particles are in one cell then additionally particles can be reflected or
captured. This should be modelled with the additional collisional force based on
the granular pressure gradient (e.g. Pirker et al. [2])

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64 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

1
f p ,coll  C p p s (23)
 p s
with Cp as collisional pressure coefficient. Cp is used to adapt the strength of
the force and in this paper chosen with 1.

6 Simulations and results

6.1.1 Simulation
For the simulations a simple geometry, a square duct with 90° bend as depicted
in Fig. 2. is taken. The simulations conditions are presented in Tab 1.

Table 1: Simulation parameter.

Parameter Value
Velocity at inlet vin 10 m/s

Mass loading L 0.00206

Density fluid g 1.18 kg/m^3

Density particles  p  s 2500 kg/m^3

d p  ds
Particle diameter 77 µm

  M
Mass-Flow rate M 0.000547 kg/s
p s

Figure 2: Geometry for simulation with approx. 350000 cells.

For this geometry, (e.g. Mohanarangam et al. [9, 10] and Kuan et al. [11])
simulations and experiments are done and described. For this work we decided to
use this geometry, because there is known data for comparing our models with

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 65

the experimental data. It should be recognized that the EUgran+ is designed for
high loaded particle simulations, which is not the case here.

6.1.2 Results
The calculated velocities of the Lagrangian tracer particles and the granular
phase are plotted at 3 positions in the duct bend, exactly at 0°, 45° and 90°,
which is shown in Fig. 2. Additionally the measured data is depicted. In Fig. 3
the comparison of the different granular velocities can be seen. The Eulerian
phase is only present at the cells which are nearest to the wall, which gives very
bad results. The modelled Lagrangian phase (e.g. Kahrimanovic [4]) gives very
good results, in regions which are reached from Lagrangian particles. The
Lagrangian simulations are done with 3 different particle diameters 77 µm, 125
µm and 30µm and the average is plotted. The EUgran+ raises the granular phase
away from the wall which gives better results and supports the building of
particle strands at the Lagrangian part. The results are better as expected, the
hybrid model is very close to the results of the Lagrangian model, regarding
interparticle collisions.

Figure 3: Particle and granular velocities at 0° (left upper), 45° (right upper)
and 90° in bend.

Some values in Fig. 3 are zero, because there is no particle or granulate phase
at this position for particles with diameter 77 µm. l is the distance from the

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66 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

outer wall in the bend and u / uin is the average velocity at this point based on
the velocity at the inlet.

7 Conclusion and outlook

The results with the Lagrangian model (e.g. Kahrimanovic [4]), which has a very
high computational effort are very good, compared to the experimental data (e.g.
Mohanarangam et al. [9, 10] and Kuan et al. [11]). The computational effort is
increasing very strong, with additional particles. This runs into a computational
limit. The hybrid model is useful as model for simulations with dilute and highly
laden particle regimes, compared to the computational effort. The highly
complex particle-particle interaction calculation is included in a shorter way,
compared to calculation time, in the Eulerian phase. In regions where only a few
particles are present the Lagrangian part has the main impact on the particle fluid
interaction, in high loaded regimes the Eulerian part has the higher influence to
the simulation result. For simulating cyclones and pneumatic conveying
transport systems the EUgran+ is a good approach. For future work a wall
treatment model for the Eulerian phase, which brings the high level wall
treatment from the Lagrangian phase also to the Eulerian phase will be
developed. Then the coupling of Eulerian and Lagrangian phase in wall
treatment can be deleted, because both do the same.
For future, it would be additionally important to create a smooth exchange
field between discrete phase and granular Eulerian phase (e.g. Pirker et al. [12]).
In future work we will include this in the hybrid model. This reduces the
computational time significantly (e.g. Pirker et al. [12]) and give a more stable
simulation.

8 Abbreviations and notation

 volume fraction 1
 dynamic viscosity kg/(ms)
 density kg/m3
 granular temperature m2/s2
 shear rate tensor kg/(ms2)
 angular velocity 1/s
 particle fluid rotation 1/s

C constant 1
d diameter m
e restitution coefficient 1
fp force, Lagrangian phase m/s2
fs force, Eulerian phase kg/(m2s2)

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 67

g gravity m/s2
g0 radial distribution 1
I inertia tensor kgm2
m mass kg
p pressure Pa
r radius m
Re Reynolds number 1
t time s
t angular momentum 1/s2
u velocity m/s

add additional
coll collision
g gas phase
n normal vector with length 1
p particle, parcel of particles
rebound rebound from particle wall collision
s granular solid phase
tp timestep
 normal direction to wall

References
[1] Dartevelle, S., Numerical and granulometric approaches to geophysical
granular flows, Ph.D. thesis, Michigan Technological University,
Department of Geological and Mining Engineering, Houghton, Michigan,
2003
[2] Pirker, S., Kahrimanovic, D., Kloss, C., Popoff, B. & Braun, M.,
Simulating coarse particle conveying by a set of Eulerian, Lagrangian and
hybrid particle models, Powder Technology 204, 2010
[3] Fluent 6.3 User's Guide, Fluent Inc., 2006
[4] Kahrimanovic D., Numerische Simulation und experimentelle Validierung
von Gas-Partikel-Strömungen, Ph.D.-thesis, 2009
[5] Lun, C. K. K. & Lui, H. S., Numerical Simulation of dilute turbulent gas-
solid flows in horizontal channels, International Journal of Multiphase
Flow, 23, pp. 575 - 605, 1997
[6] Sommerfeld, M., Theoretical and Experimental Modelling of Particulate
Flows, Lecture Series 2000 - 06, Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics,
2000
[7] Sommerfeld, M., Crowe, C. & Tsuji, Y. Multiphase flows with droplet and
particles, CRC Press, 1998

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68 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

[8] van Wachem, B. G. M., Schouten, J. C. & van den Bleek, C. M.,
Comparative Analysis of CFD Models of Dense Gas-Solid Systems, AIChe
Journal Vol 47, No. 5, 2001
[9] Mohanarangam. K., Yang, W., Zhang, H. J., and Tu, J. Y., Effect of
particles in a turbulent flow within a 90° bend, Seventh International
Conference on CFD in the Minerals and Process Industries CSIRO,
Melbourne, Australia, 2009
[10] Mohanarangam, K., Tian, Z. F. & Tu, J. Y., Numerical simulation of
turbulent gas-particle flow in a 90° bend: Eulerian-Eulerian approach,
Computers and Chemical Engineering, 32, pp. 561–571, 2008
[11] Kuan, B., Yang, W., & Schwarz, M. P., Dilute gas-solid two-phase flows in
a curved 90° duct bend: CFD simulation with experimental validation,
Chemical Engineering Science, 2, pp. 2068–2088, 2007
[12] Pirker, S., Kahrimanovic, D. & Goniva, C., Improving the applicability of
discrete phase simulations by smoothening their exchange fields, Applied
Mathematical Modelling, 2010
[13] Carnahan, N. F., and K. E. Starling, Equations of State for Non-Attracting
Rigid Spheres, J. Chem. Phys., 51, 635, 1969
[14] Lun, C. K. K., and S. B. Savage, The Effects of an Impact Velocity
Dependent Coefficient of Restitution on Stresses Developed by Sheared
Granular Materials, Acta Mech., 63, 15, 1986
[15] Sinclair, J. L., and R. Jackson, Gas-Particle Flow in a Vertical Pipe with
Particle-Particle Interactions, AIChE J., 35, 1473, 1989
[16] Gidaspow, D., Multiphase Flow and Fluidization, Academic Press, San
Diego, 1994

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 69

Height function interface reconstruction

algorithm for the simulation of boiling flows
M. Magnini & B. Pulvirenti
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Energetica,
Nucleare e del Controllo Ambientale, Università di Bologna, Italy

Abstract
In this paper we present our results on numerical study of vapor bubbles growing in
quiescent superheated liquid, as effect of liquid evaporation at the interface. Height
Function interface reconstruction algorithm is coupled with an evaporation model
based on continuum field representation of source terms. The flow solver is a finite-
volume CFD code. Interface is tracked within a Volume-Of-Fluid framework.
Continuum-Surface-Force method accounts for surface tension effects. Vapor
bubble heat-transfer-controlled growth is simulated for three different working
fluids: water, HFE-7100 and R134a. Accuracy of interface reconstruction
algorithm is of maximum importance. Unbalance between pressure gradients
and surface tension forces at interface leads to the growth of an unphysical
velocity field which switches original only diffusive heat transfer mechanism
to combined diffusive-convective one. Height Function algorithm reduces the
magnitude of this unreal velocity field. Standard test cases are considered to assess
the performances of implemented version, through comparison with the widely
used Youngs algorithm.
Keywords: volume of fluid, height function, evaporation, surface tension, bubbles.

1 Introduction
Modern numerical implementation of surface tension driven flows, with phase
change, begins with the work of Juric and Tryggvason [1]. Earlier methods used
a Lagrangian approach with a moving mesh following the interface. The limit
of these methods was that they could not manage large interface deformation.
Juric and Tryggvason developed a Front Tracking algorithm where Lagrangian
evolution of interface is tracked on a fixed grid. Welch and Wilson [2] and Son

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70 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

and Dhir [3] reformulated two full Eulerian methods, called Volume-Of-Fluid
(VOF) and Level-Set (LS), in order to take into account for phase change. Both
methods solve a scalar field conservation equation, volume fraction for VOF
and level-set function for LS. This scalar field is used to reconstruct interface
shape and position. Level-set function varies smoothly through interface, giving an
accurate interface shape approximation, but mass conservation is not preserved. On
the contrary, Volume-Of-Fluid method preserves mass conservation, but volume
fraction field varies sharply through interface, leading to poor quality interface
representation. Several algorithms have been developed in order to give better
interface representation on Volume-Of-Fluid background. An important issue in
the simulation of boiling flows is the thermal boundary condition at the interface.
Most of the methods impose interface temperature at equilibrium saturation
temperature corresponding to system pressure, but different conditions may be
taken at interface. A detailed review can be found in [1].
The aim of the present work is to model a two-phase flow with phase change
by means of a finite-volume CFD code. VOF method is used to follow interface.
Two different methods to reconstruct interface are compared: Youngs method [4]
and Height Function (HF) method [5–7]. The comparison is carried out analyzing
algorithms performances through standard test cases. An evaporation model based
on continuum-field representation of source terms developed by Hardt and Wondra
[8] is implemented. Finally, HF and evaporation models are employed to simulate
the growth of a vapor bubble in quiescent superheated liquid.

2 Governing equations and numerical model

In the VOF method, a volume fraction α is defined for every domain cell. It
represents the fraction of volume cell occupied by liquid, and it can be thought
as the integral of an indicator function I(x, t) over the cell of volume V :


1
α= I(x, t)dV (1)
V V
The indicator function I(x, t) is a multidimensional Heavyside step function
with value 1 in liquid phase and 0 in vapor phase. Interface cells can be located by
those cells with volume fraction included between 0 and 1. Generic fluid property
Φ for every domain cell can be expressed in term of α as follows:
Φ = Φv + (Φl − Φv )α (2)
where Φv and Φl are vapor and liquid specific property. Since in this work
both phases are always considered incompressible, the substitution of Eq. (2) in
continuity equation yields the following volume fraction conservation equation:
∂α Sα
+ ∇ · (αu) = (3)
∂t ρl
where Sα represents mass source term due to evaporation or condensation.
Through Eq. (3) interface position is advected at every time step. Momentum

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 71

conservation equation for a surface tension driven laminar flow, with constant
surface tension σ, has the following form:
  
∂(ρu)
+ ∇ · (ρu · u) = −∇p + ∇ · µ ∇u + ∇u T
+ ρg + Fσ (4)
∂t
where Fσ represents surface tension force. It is modelled through Continuum-
Surface-Force (CSF) method developed by Brackbill et al. [9]. By CSF method
surface tension force Fσ can be expressed as:

Fσ = σκ∇α (5)

where κ stands for interface curvature. Therefore surface tension, a surface force,
is modeled as a volume force, localized on a finite thickness interface. Interface
curvature κ has to be computed by the interface reconstruction algorithm, in
this case Youngs or HF method. The flow equations set is completed by energy
conservation equation:
∂(ρcp T )
+ ∇ · (ρcp uT ) = ∇ · (λ∇T ) + SE (6)
∂t
where SE represents energy source term due to evaporation or condensation. Vis-
cous heating is neglected. The task of the evaporation model is to compute correct
mass and energy source terms, giving fields localized on interface cells.

Governing equations are discretized within a finite-volume framework. Volume

fraction conservation equation is discretized first order in time through explicit
scheme. PLIC technique by Youngs [4] is employed to compute mass transport
across interface cell sides. Implicit first order scheme is used to solve momentum
and energy conservation equations. Convective terms are discretized using a third
order MUSCL scheme [10]. Diffusive terms are always discretized with central
finite-difference scheme. For pressure-velocity coupling, PISO algorithm [11] is
used.

3 Evaporation model
The Hardt and Wondra evaporation model [8] is implemented in order to evaluate
mass and energy source terms on mass and energy equations. The model allows
local interfacial temperature to deviate from saturation condition and local mass
source is evaluated proportional to this interface superheating. According to Juric
and Tryggvason [1], different interface temperature conditions may be taken, in
order to account for entropy production due to phase change and for pressure
rising due to curved interfaces. For the sake of simplicity, without loss of accuracy,
entropy generation and non-equilibrium thermodynamics terms are neglected.
Within these assumptions, a mass source equation was derived by Schrage study
[12] of interface mass transfer. In order to express local interfacial mass flux
ṁ, Schrage introduced the concept of local interfacial convective coefficient hi ,

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72 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

expressed as:
2β h2 ρv
hi = √ lv (7)
2 − β 2πR Tsat
3/2

in which R is the gas constant, hlv is vaporization latent heat and β is a constant
called accommodation coefficient, for which details can be found in [12]. Local
interfacial convective coefficient hi is connected to local interfacial mass flux as
follows:
hi
ṁ = (Ti − Tsat ) (8)
hlv
where Ti is the interfacial temperature. An initial mass source field is evaluated
on interfacial cells, where evaporation takes place, by Eq. (8). Such a localized
source term may lead to numerical instabilities. To avoid instabilities, a diffusion
equation in which initial field represents initial condition is solved. The effect is to
smear the initial field over some cells. Diffused mass source field is then used to
evaluate mass and energy source terms. Hardt and Wondra [8] demonstrated that
this evaporation model leads to correct evaporation rate, by comparing their results
with some benchmarks.

4 Evaluation of surface tension effects:

HF and Youngs comparison
The task of the reconstruction algorithm is to reconstruct interface geometry,
meaning normal vector n and curvature, which is implicit in volume fraction field.
VOF based algorithms compute local curvature through derivatives of a chosen
color function c, by the following relation:

∇c
κ = −∇ · n = −∇ · (9)
|∇c|

where the first equation derives from geometrical considerations, see [9] for
reference. Youngs [4] is one of the widest reconstruction algorithm used on VOF
background, for this reason it was chosen as comparison. It works also with
unstructured grids. It employs volume fraction α as color function to compute
curvature, but volume fraction has a very sharp variation through interface, leading
to poor accuracy computation. Height Function method derives a smoother color
function field through local integration of volume fraction field, then derivatives
are more accurate. It only works with Cartesian grids. The algorithm implemented
is a merge of Malik et al. [6] and Hernandez et al. [5] schemes. It follows a brief
summary of the algorithm:
1. For each interface cell, volume fraction field on a local stencil is considered.
Stencil orientation, vertical or horizontal, depends on interface orientation,
determined by normal vector direction, computed as n = ∇α/|∇α|;
2. Stencil extension, from 3 × 3 up to 7 × 3 cells, is chosen depending on
volume fraction field variation, width is always 3 cells;

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 73

3. Stencil volume fraction field is adjusted to obtain a monotonic variation

along height direction, in order to avoid errors when more than one interface
cuts the stencil;
4. Volume fractions are summed columnwise, obtaining a local discrete height
function H field;
5. If central column H value is not included on the cell for which curvature
is being computed, curvature is taken equal to adjacent cell for which
this condition is satisfied. Otherwise, curvature is computed through the
extended form of Eq. (9):

H (2)
κ=− (10)
[1 + (H (1) )2 ]3/2

where H (1) and H (2) denote first and second order derivatives of height
function, computed through central difference scheme.
For axisymmetric simulations, curvature κ in Eq. (5) refers to total curvature,
obtained summing principal curvatures radii κ1 and κ2 . On a cylindrical
coordinate reference frame (r, φ, z), κ1 denotes interface curvature on r − z plane,
computed as reported from 1 to 5 steps. Curvature κ2 refers to second principal
curvature of the surface obtained through revolution of interface around z axis.
It lies on a plane normal to interface and perpendicular to r − z plane. Denoting
interface profile in r − z plane as f (z), second curvature can be expressed as:


f (z) 1
κ2 = − (11)
|f
(z)| f (z)[1 + (f
(z))2 ]1/2

The discrete version of first order derivative of interface profile f
(z) follows
from HF algorithm, while discrete interface position f (z) can be computed for
each interface cell, given cell volume fraction and normal vector.

4.1 Test case 1: inviscid static droplet

A circular droplet of radius R is centered on a L = 4R side square domain.

Different uniform mesh sizes ∆x are tested, in order to check convergence rate
of the methods. The coarsest mesh has 20 × 20 elements, with R/∆x = 5.
The most refined mesh has 160 × 160 elements, with R/∆x = 40. Surface
tension and phases’ densities are set as unity. Viscous and gravity effects are
neglected. Pressure is given at all boundaries as boundary condition. For such a
flow, momentum equation reduces to the form:

D(ρu)
= −∇p + σκ∇c (12)
Dt
If pressure gradient is balanced by surface tension force, left hand side term is
zero at each time step. Any unbalance leads to the growth of an unphysical velocity
field defined “spurious velocity” or “parasitic current”. Due to the absence of

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74 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

external forces, the accuracy of the surface tension model and curvature calculation
algorithms is attested by the comparison of unphysical velocity fields magnitude,
in terms of the following non-dimensional error norms:

 n
1  |ui |2
L2 (|u |) = 
∗
(13)
U i=1 n

1
L∞ (|u∗ |) = · max(|ui |) for i = 1, . . . , n (14)
U
where n is the number of domain cells and U is a velocity scale defined as
U = (σ/2ρR)1/2 . Velocity error norms convergence history is reported in
Fig. 1. Youngs method results do not converge with mesh refinement. HF results
show second order convergence for R/∆x ≤ 10, then for higher resolutions
convergence order is in the range [1, 2]. Simulation time step is hold constant at
∆t = 5 · 10−7 , while capillary time step constraint decreases as mesh is refined.
For R/∆x > 10 it gets too close to simulation time step, yielding a worsening
of convergence rate. The following non-dimensional pressure jump error norm is
defined: 
m
1  (∆pi − ∆pex )2
∗
L2 (∆p ) =  (15)
∆pex i=1 m

where m is the number of interior droplet cells and ∆pex = σ/R is the exact value
of pressure jump across the interface. Pressure convergence history is reported in
Fig. 1. Youngs results show convergence (first order) only for R/∆x ≤ 10. HF
error norm shows convergence rate in the range [1, 2] for all mesh sizes.

4.2 Test case 2: isothermal bubble rising in viscous liquid

The second test case is the simulation of a gas bubble rising in a viscous liquid
due to buoyancy forces. The effect of the combination of inertial, viscous and
surface forces on bubble numerical terminal shape and velocity are compared with
Bhaga and Weber experimental results [13]. Bhaga and Weber performed several
test cases with air bubbles rising in a quiet water-sugar solution. Acting on sugar
concentration, they could vary liquid density and viscosity to span a wide range
of Eötvös (E) and Morton (M) numbers, obtaining different bubble shapes and
terminal velocities, expressed as bubble Reynolds (Re) number. Surface tension
variations were negligible. Non-dimensional numbers are defined as follows:
ρl gD2 gµ4 ρl U D
E= , M= , Re =
σ ρl σ 3 µl
where D is bubble initial diameter and U is terminal bubble velocity, when the
rise reaches a steady state. Numerical and experimental results are compared for
4 different cases characterized by the same Eötvös number. Variation of Morton
number was possible in the simulations by changing only liquid viscosity. It was

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0 0
10 10

Ŧ2
10 Ŧ2
10

L2(|u |)
L (|u*|)

*
Ŧ4
10
2

Ŧ4
10
Ŧ6
10

Ŧ8
t=1't Ŧ6
t=50't
10 10
0 1 2 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10
a b R/' x
R/' x
0 0
10 10

Ŧ2
10 Ŧ2
10
Lf(|u |)
L (|u |)

*
*

Ŧ4
10
f

Ŧ4
10
Ŧ6
10

Ŧ8 t=1't Ŧ6 t=50't
10 10
0 1 2 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10
c R/' x d R/' x
Ŧ1 Ŧ1
10 10

Ŧ2 Ŧ2
10 10
L ('p*)

L2('p )
*

Ŧ3 Ŧ3
10 10
2

Ŧ4 Ŧ4
10 10

Ŧ5
t=1't Ŧ5 t=50't
10 10
0 1 2 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10
e R/' x f R/' x

Figure 1: L2 (|u∗ |) (a,b), L∞ (|u∗ |) (c,d) and L2 (∆p∗ ) (e,f) error norms after one
and fifty time steps. White squares represents HF and black diamonds
are Youngs error norms. Dashed lines are first order and solid lines are
second order curves.

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76 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

proved that setting density ρl /ρg and viscosity µl /µg ratios as in the experiments
leads to numerical errors. Since similitudes with experiments are guaranteed by
Eötvös and Morton numbers, which involve only liquid properties, gas properties
are set in order to fix aforementioned ratios to ρl /ρg = 1000 and µl /µg = 100.
Bhaga and Weber tested that wakes behind the bubbles are closed and symmetric
until Re < 110. Since the simulations are performed on a 2D axisymmetrical
domain, the cases chosen satisfy this condition.
A bubble of diameter D is centered at (0, 2D) of a [0, 4D] × [0, 12D]
axisymmetric rectangular domain, with x = 0 being the revolution axis. Domain
sizes are set in order to avoid boundary influence, following Hua et al. sensitivity
analysis [14]. Hua et al. show also that mesh resolution D/∆x ≥ 20 ensures grid
independence, then a 80 × 240 grid is chosen. Constant pressure is set on top and
bottom boundaries. Free-slip condition is imposed on the domain side.
All the simulations are run until a steady state condition for the rising bubble is
achieved, for both Height Function and Youngs algorithms. Then, bubble terminal
velocity is computed and Reynolds number is evaluated for each case. Bubbles
terminal shape for HF and Youngs cases are reported in Tab. 1, together with
experimental and numerical Reynolds numbers. For cases I, II and III, both
methods show similar performances, with errors in Reynolds number included
below 5%. HF method performs slightly better than Youngs. Bubble shapes are
very similar for both methods, close to experiments. Case IV is characterized by
the highest bubble terminal velocity, then by the highest difference in gas-liquid
phases velocity. Interface profile is highly deformed, the most in the bubble back,
where interface changes its orientation in really a sharp way. Then, interface is
poorly solved by the grid and HF algorithm computes wrong local geometry,
leading to errors in capillary effects calculation. Wrong forces computation leads
to the detachment of little parts of gas at bubble trail in the simulations. Then, the
smaller bubble main body moves with a lower velocity with respect to experiments.

5 Vapor bubble growing in superheated liquid

Height Function interface reconstruction algorithm and evaporation model are
implemented in order to simulate the growth of a spherical vapor bubble in an
infinitely extended superheated liquid. In accord to Plesset and Zwick analysis
[15], bubble growth process can be temporally split in two stages. A first stage,
called inertia-controlled growth, which starts at bubble formation. At this stage,
growth is governed by momentum interaction between bubble and surrounding
liquid. Later, an asymptotic stage is reached, called heat-transfer-controlled
growth. In this stage, characterized by a growth rate lower than first stage, growth
is limited by heat transport to the interface. This asymptotic stage is the object of
this study. Scriven [16] has derived an analytical solution for this stage, neglecting
viscous and surface tension effects and considering the interface at saturation
temperature. He obtained analytical bubble radius R as a function of time t:
√
R(t) = 2β γt (16)

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Table 1: Comparison of experimental and numerical Reynolds number. Figures

represents bubble terminal shapes computed at α = 0.5 contours. Solid
line is HF shape, dashed line is Youngs shape. Errors between parenthesis
are computed as err = |Re − Renum |/Re.

Test Experiments Simulations

case [13] Shapes ReHF ReY

E = 116
M = 848 2.37 2.37
I
(4%) (4%)
Re = 2.47

E = 116
M = 41.1 7 6.94
II (2.2%) (3.1%)
Re = 7.16

E = 116
M = 1.31 19.66 19.55
III (3.7%) (4.2%)
Re = 20.4

E = 116
M = 0.103 37.8 39
IV
(10.4%) (7.6%)
Re = 42.2

where β is a growth constant which details can be found in [16] and γ is liquid
thermal diffusivity. This solution is used to validate numerical results.
The growth of a bubble of initial radius R0 = 0.1 mm is simulated. The
bubble is centered at (4R0 , 0) of a [0, 8R0 ] × [0, 4R0 ] axisymmetric rectangular
domain, with y = 0 being the revolution axis. A uniform mesh size is chosen,
with 1µm element size. Such a fine grid is necessary in order to solve the thin

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78 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

thermal boundary layer surrounding bubble interface. As boundary conditions,

pressure is fixed at all boundaries except for the axis. The fluid flow is laminar
and gravity effects are neglected. All vapor and liquid properties are considered
constant at saturation temperature. Initial bubble size is large enough to neglect
vapor saturation temperature rising due to pressure jump across interface, then
saturation temperature is equal for both phases. Initial pressure and velocity fields
are zero. Initial temperature is saturation temperature for the bubble, while liquid
is superheated at a temperature T∞ = Tsat + 5 o C.
A thin thermal boundary layer is placed around the interface on liquid side.
Since the simulation starts at a t = t0 , when R(t0 ) = R0 , a thermal boundary
layer has been developing around the bubble since the beginning of heat-transfer-
controlled growth stage. Temperature field around the bubble at t = t0 can be
extrapolated from Scriven solution as a function of spatial coordinate r and time.
The thickness of initial thermal layer δT is defined as:

δT = r(T = Tsat + 0.99(T∞ − Tsat )) − R0 (17)

Great attention has to be paid to initial thermal boundary layer position. Analytical
initialization suggests thermal layer to begin at r = R0 . Nevertheless, in those
cells which interface is less aligned with grid (close to π/4 and 3/4 π), cells
centroids are located at r > R0 . Then, in those cells, thermal layer intersects
bubble interface, leading to a faster initial growth rate than analytical. To avoid
this effect, thermal boundary layer is initialized with a bit of misplacement, about
1-2 cells, outside bubble interface.
Three different fluids are tested. Water at atmospheric pressure, HFE-7100 at
0.52 bar, both with β = 15.1 and δT = 7 µm and R134a at 0.84 bar, with β = 9.34
and δT = 11 µm. The choice of each system pressure is done in order to have
similar growth constants for the fluids.
During the whole simulation, bubble shape remains spherical. At initial stage
of this work, this was proved not to happen using Youngs method for evaluating
interface curvature. Moreover, growth was too fast due to high convective heat
transfer led by unreal velocities related to errors in curvature calculation. Figure 2
shows bubble radius evolution obtained through HF method compared to analytical
solutions, for all the fluids. Numerical data show good agreement√with analytical
results. For each fluid, bubble numerical growth rate follows a t proportional
law, as it should be from Eq. (16). However, this does not happen during initial
growth phase, in a more evident way for HFE-7100 and R134a. This initial phase
can be meant as a settlement phase, in which thermal boundary layer arranges to fit
interface position. This settlement is reflected on numerical growth rates lower than
analytical ones at the beginning of the simulations. As detected by Kunkelmann
and Stephan [17], liquid thermal conductivity is the parameter that rules the length
of this thermal layer settlement phase. The higher is liquid thermal conductivity,
the faster is thermal layer arrangement. For this reason numerical bubble growth
rate deviation from analytical curve is more evident for refrigerant fluids and the
most for HFE-7100, which has the lowest thermal conductivity.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 79

0.5

0.4

0.3
Radius [mm]

0.2 Water, analytical

Water, numerical
HFEŦ7100, analytical
0.1 HFEŦ7100, numerical
R134a, analytical
R134a, numerical
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Time [ms]

Figure 2: Vapor bubble radius over time for analytical and numerical solutions.

6 Conclusions
The main objective of this work was to implement the Hardt and Wondra
[8] evaporation model in a finite-volume framework, in order to simulate a
vapor bubble growing in superheated liquid for some working fluids. Bubble
shape is computed in implicit way through VOF scheme and an interface
reconstruction algorithm has the task to compute interface curvature. Accurate
curvature computation is fundamental in order to correctly account for surface
tension effects, leading to physical consistent interface shapes. This objective
is reached implementing Height Function algorithm, which evaluate curvatures
through derivatives of a color function obtained integrating volume fraction field.
Inviscid static drop test case assesses HF performances compared to the widely
used Youngs algorithm. Inaccuracies in terms of errors in velocity fields and
pressure jump over interface scale with second order to mesh element size.
Isothermal bubble rising test cases show good agreement of HF numerical results
with experiments for Re ≤ 20, with errors in numerical Reynolds number
lower than 5%. HF algorithm coupled with evaporation model leads to excellent
agreement of vapor bubble numerical growth rate compared to analytical solutions.
The success of the simulations is related to correct treatment of initial thermal
boundary layer. Fine grid resolution and proper boundary layer placement are
necessary to obtain exact bubble growth rate.

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80 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

References
[1] Juric, D. & Tryggvason, G., Computations of boiling flows. Int J of
Multiphase Flow, 24, pp. 387–410, 1998.
[2] Welch, S.W.J. & Wilson, J., A volume of fluid based method for fluid flows
with phase change. J of Computational Physics, 160, pp. 662–682, 2000.
[3] Son, G. & Dhir, V.K., Numerical simulation of film boiling near critical
pressures with a level set method. J of Heat Transfer, 120, pp. 183–192, 1998.
[4] Youngs, D.L., Time-dependent multi-material flow with large fluid distortion.
Numerical Methods for Fluid Dynamics, eds. K.W. Morton & M.J. Baines,
Academic Press, pp. 273–285, 1982.
[5] Hernandez, J., Lopez, J., Gomez, P., Zanzi, C. & Faura, F., A new volume of
fluid method in three dimensions-Part I: Multidimensional advection method
with face-matched flux polyhedra. Int J for Numerical Methods in Fluids, 58,
pp. 897–921, 2008.
[6] Malik, M., Sheung-Chi Fan, E. & Bussmann, M., Adaptive VOF with
curvature-based refinement. Int J for Numerical Methods in Fluids, 55, pp.
693–712, 2007.
[7] Cummins, S.J., Francois, M.M. & Kothe, D.B., Estimating curvature from
volume fractions. Computers and Structures, 83, pp. 425–434, 2005.
[8] Hardt, S. & Wondra, F., Evaporation model for interfacial flows based on
a continuum-field representation of the source terms. J of Computational
Physics, 227, pp. 5871–5895, 2008.
[9] Brackbill, J.U., Kothe, D.B. & Zemach, C., A continuum method for
modeling surface tension. J of Computational Physics, 100, pp. 335–354,
1992.
[10] van Leer, B., Towards the ultimate conservative difference scheme. V. A
second-order sequel to Godunov’s method. J of Computational Physics, 32,
pp. 101–136, 1979.
[11] Issa, R.I., Solution of the implicitly discretized fluid flow equations by
operator-splitting. J of Computational Physics, 62, pp. 40–65, 1985.
[12] Schrage, R.W., A theoretical study of interphase mass transfer. Columbia
University Press: New York, 1953.
[13] Bhaga, D. & Weber, M.E., Bubbles in viscous liquid: shapes, wakes and
velocities. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 105, pp. 61–85, 1981.
[14] Hua, J., Stene, J.F. & Lin, P., Numerical simulation of 3D bubbles rising
in viscous liquids using a front tracking method. Journal of Computational
Physics, 227, pp. 3358–3382, 2008.
[15] Plesset, M.S. & Zwick, S.A., The growth of vapor bubbles in superheated
liquids. J of Applied Physics, 25, pp. 493–500, 1954.
[16] Scriven, L.E., On the dynamics of phase growth. Chemical Engineering
Science, 10, pp. 1–13, 1959.
[17] Kunkelmann, C. & Stephan, P., CFD simulation of boiling flows using the
Volume-of-Fluid method within OpenFOAM. Numerical Heat Transfer, Part
A, 56, pp. 631–646, 2009.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 81

An experimental study of burnout and flow

instability in sub-channels with subcooled void
at low pressure
V. Chatoorgoon
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, University of Manitoba, Canada

Abstract
An experimental study was undertaken to rationalize data obtained from
previous experiments where the bundle was heated electrically until CHF
occurred, destroying ultimately the test bundle. (We term this ‘burnout’ from
here on). The bundle exit temperature was always subcooled; hence, the channels
contained only subcooled void preceding ‘burnout’. This study was undertaken
to perform controlled experiments leading up to, but not including, the burnout
power. Just prior to ‘burnout’ microscopic flow oscillations were exhibited
between sub-channels. This was an interesting finding, as while the burnout
power (especially for these bundles under sub-cooled boiling conditions) cannot
be determined consistently with good accuracy through analytical methods,
numerical methods for predicting the onset of flow oscillations are more accurate
and well established. A stability analysis of the sub-channels of the single
bundle, albeit without communication between the channels, was performed.
Surprisingly, the predicted power at the onset of flow oscillations followed
closely the experimental burnout power (of course, the latter was always slightly
greater than the former, as would be expected).
Keywords: CHF, flow instability, subcooled boiling, fuel bundle, low pressure.

1 Introduction
Two-phase flow instabilities have been well researched, both experimentally and
analytically. The analytical methods used for predicting them are also well
established and have been abundantly benchmarked. However, in most reported
experimental or analytical studies, the system considered was in a state of bulk
boiling preceded by some small region of sub-cooled boiling. In all reported

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82 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

cases the sub-cooled boiling region had no more than a minor impact on the
overall system stability.
It is rare when the entire system considered is subcooled and the instabilities
are caused by subcooled void only. It is also rare when the system pressure is
low and near atmospheric. Hainoun and Schaffrath [1] reported a numerical
study of flow instabilities due to subcooled boiling. Their paper investigated
primarily the steady-state pressure-drop versus flow-rate characteristic due to
subcooled boiling. No results of actual flow oscillations, or instabilities, are
presented. The cited reference does allude to subcooled boiling instability
experiments done at Oak Ridge, but those results were not reported. The system
pressure was 1.7MPa. Stoddard et al. [2] studied experimentally and analytically
the onset of flow instability and critical heat flux in micro-channels with
subcooled void at ~1 MPa and found that the onset of flow instability just
preceded CHF. They also reported poor agreement between the measured CHF
values and predicted values from recommended correlations.
Other than those referenced works, no experimental data on the instability of
low-pressure, two-phase systems driven solely by sub-cooled boiling could be
found. The information presented herein could be used to verify void models
and/or validate thermal hydraulic codes. Three low-pressure, subcooled void
driven instability experiments are presented.
The candidate bundle used in this study is labelled bundle ‘M’ for ease of
communication. In previous tests the ‘M’ assembly was subjected to increasing
powers at a constant forced inlet flow rate until burnout occurred. In those tests
burnout invariably occurred before bulk boiling was attained at the bundle exit --
indicating that the exit flow temperature was less than the saturation temperature.
The primary objective of those experiments was to determine the burnout power
and not necessarily to understand the flow dynamics leading up to burnout.
Even though this generic study was conducted at low pressure and with
simulated fuel bundles, the information gathered could provide useful insight
into flow dynamics just before burnout occurs in fuel bundles.

2 Objectives
The objectives of these experiments were to:
(a) Gather data on parallel channel flow instability in a set of electrically-
heated assemblies that would be useful for code validation
(b) Determine the power at the onset of flow instability (OFI)
(c) Determine whether the power at OFI, in a parallel arrangement with
other similar assemblies, is related in any way to the burnout power
obtained in single-assembly tests.
Unlike the burnout tests mentioned above, the ‘M’ assembly in these
experiments was situated in parallel with two other assemblies (labelled the ‘H’
and ‘C’ assemblies). The total flow rate through all three assemblies was
constant.

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3 Test facility
The test loop used is shown in Fig. 1. It consisted of three parallel assemblies
mounted on a common plenum (shown in Fig. 2) that was situated at the bottom
of a large tank. Deionized light water was pumped from a holding reservoir into
the plenum using a centrifugal pump. The coolant was driven upward through
the heater assemblies after which it was returned to a holding reservoir located
adjacent to the 40 hp pump. The flow exiting the heater assemblies was passed
through a heat exchanger situated upstream of the holding reservoir to remove
the added heat. The outlet of each heater assembly was connected to a common
header, which in turn was connected to the heat exchanger inlet piping.

heat
exchanger T

T temperature
T measurement
header
cooling T F flow rate
tank measurement
jacket
P pressure
measurement
T
cooling
line
enclosure
T P
F F
flow control
valve

test
section T reservoir
purification line

T pump
cooling
plenum line

Figure 1: Schematic of flow loop.

TE-1003R TE-1002R TE-1004R

TE-5 TE-6 TE-7 PT-2 TE-1002

Outlet

H M C
DPT-1 DPT-2 DPT-3

TE-1001R
TE-1001
DPT-4 DPT-5 DPT-6
Inlet
TE-2 TE-4
DPT-7
TE-3 PT-1

Figure 2: Details of instrumentation.

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84 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

4 Heater assemblies
Three different types of assemblies were used -- an H assembly, which
comprised 7 finned elements; a C assembly, which comprised 6 finned elements,
and the M assembly, which comprised 4 smooth elements. The tube around each
heater assembly was made of a polycarbonate material and was fabricated
specially for these assemblies. Each assembly was mounted on a spool piece,
which was then mounted directly onto the plenum. All three assemblies were
heated electrically using a DC power source with a total capacity of 1.7 MW.
The H assembly comprised 7 heater elements, each of length 0.6m. It had a
cosine-shaped axial heat-flux profile. The C assembly comprised 6 heater
elements of length 0.6 m. It also had a cosine-shaped axial heat-flux profile.
The M assembly comprised 4 heater elements of length 0.47m. It had a uniform
axial heat-flux profile.

5 Power connections
All three assemblies were connected electrically in a simple parallel
arrangement. This delivered about 56% of the total power to the M assembly,
25% to the H assembly and 19% to the C assembly. This arrangement was
chosen so as to introduce subcooled boiling in the M assembly while maintaining
single-phase flow in the H and C assemblies. The H and C assemblies
comprised indirect heaters whereas the M assembly was heated directly. The
power distribution between the assemblies varied slightly with the applied
power.

6 Instrumentation
The test facility was instrumented to measure coolant temperature, pressure,
pressure-drop and assembly power. The flow rates through the H and C
assemblies were deduced from DP cell pressure-drop measurements across the
inlet of each assembly. These inlet DP cells were previously calibrated against
known flow rates. An independent verification of the flow rate was also
obtained from an energy balance applied across the assembly.

6.1 Steady-state flow rate

Steady-state flow rates in the three assemblies were determined as follows:

 Total loop flow rates were obtained from the FT-2 and FT-5 flow
meters.
 Flow rates into the H and C assemblies were deduced from pressure-
drop measurements obtained across the inlet end plates and also from an
energy balance across each assembly.
 Flow rate through the M assembly was deduced from an energy balance
across that assembly and also from subtracting the H and C assemblies
flow rates from the total flow rate.

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6.2 Pressure and pressure-drop

The following pressure and pressure-drop measurements were made:

 absolute pressure in the plenum; made with a Rosemount pressure cell.
 differential pressure across each inlet end-plate of the H and C
assemblies; obtained with Sensotec DP cells.
 differential pressure across the inlet spool piece of the M assembly;
obtained with a Sensotec DP cell.
 differential pressure across each assembly, made with a Rosemount DP
cell.

6.3 Transient/oscillatory flow rate and pressure-drop

Transient or oscillatory flow rate was not measured directly because of the
inherent difficulties in accurately measuring an oscillating flow rate. However,
the transient/oscillatory pressure-drop across the H and C inlet end plates (DPT-4
and DPT-6), and the M inlet spool piece (DPT-5), were measured using fast-
response Sensotec DP cells. These fast-acting Sensotec DP cells were
sufficiently sensitive to capture details of the dynamics. The Sensotec DP cell
placed across the inlet spool piece of the M assembly for recording oscillations
in the inlet pressure-drop caused by oscillations in the inlet flow rate would not
necessarily measure pressure oscillations between sub-channels of the M
assembly. However, they were found to provide an indication of such
oscillations. Oscillations in pressure-drop at any given location would indicate
oscillations in the flow rate at that location. The frequency and phasing of the
pressure-drop oscillations could be translated into a corresponding frequency and
phasing of flow rate oscillations. The measured pressure-drop values could be
compared directly with numerical predictions of pressure drop response. If they
matched well, the corresponding calculated flow rates would be deemed realistic.

6.4 Temperature

The following temperatures were measured:

* inlet temperature to the plenum.
* inlet and outlet temperature of each bundle using thermocouples and
RTDs.
* outlet temperature of all four inner channels of the M assembly using
thermocouples.
* temperature in the outlet header using a thermocouple and RTD.

6.5 Assembly power

The assembly power was determined by measuring the current through each
assembly and the voltage drop across each assembly. From the known resistance
of the assembly and the measured voltage drop, a direct value of the applied
power to each assembly was derived. An indirect value applied power was also
deduced from an energy balance. The measured pressure-drop across each inlet

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86 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

end plate yielded a corresponding flow rate from the calibration curves.
Combining this with the measured inlet and outlet temperatures from each
assembly, the assembly power was calculated from the standard formula,
.
Power  m C p (Tout  Tin ) (1)
.
where m is the mass flow rate, C p is the specific heat and ( Tout  Tin ) is the
difference between the outlet and inlet temperatures. Of course, Eq. (1) is only
strictly valid for single-phase flow. When two-phase flow occurs at the outlet,
an error is introduced that is dependent on the energy content of the vapour.

7 Measurement uncertainty and errors

Precautions were taken to reduce experimental uncertainty and measurement
errors. Due to brevity of space, this information is available, but omitted here.

8 Data acquisition system

A PC-based Data Acquisition System (DAS) and a Noise Analysis System
(NAS) were used to collect, process and store the measured data. The DAS was
used for recording steady or quasi-steady data while the NAS was used for
recording unsteady, transient data. The NAS was developed for collecting data
up to frequencies of 1kHz. The pressure-drop versus flow-rate characteristic of
the inlet end plates of the H and C assemblies and the inlet spool piece of the M
assembly were programmed into the DAS. Thus, direct values of flow rate were
obtained from the DP cells connected across the H and C inlet end plates and the
M inlet spool piece. Conversion of the raw data into the required engineering
units was also performed automatically by the DAS. Further processing of the
results into useful graphical displays was done using spreadsheet software.

9 Experimental procedure
9.1 Stability tests

The purpose of these tests was to examine the stability characteristics of the M
assembly with sub-cooled void while the H and C assemblies were with single-
phase conditions throughout. Specifically, the intent was to determine the M
assembly power at the onset of flow instability (OFI). For this reason, the H and
C assemblies were heated with only 25% and 19% respectively of the total
applied power while the M assembly received the remaining 56%.
Three stability tests were done, all with a constant plenum temperature of
30oC. Commencing at zero power and a pre-set inlet flow velocity to the M
assembly, the total power applied to all three assemblies was increased in
increments of about 25kW until significant void (determined visually) was
noticed in the outer channels of the M assembly. All the system parameters
(temperature, pressure, pressure-drop, flow rate, current and voltage) were

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continually recorded by the DAS from the start of each test. The NAS data
collection was activated and synchronized with the DAS when the total applied
power reached 100 kW. The scan rate on the DAS was every 2 seconds. The
scan rate on the NAS was every 0.01-second for the duration of the experiment.
The onset of nucleate boiling (ONB) was deduced (approximately) by
listening for the change in sound emanating from the assemblies. (The onset of
nucleate boiling on the inner channels of the M assembly could not be
ascertained by this procedure as the sound from those channels was inaudible.)
After each power increment the system was allowed time to settle down to a new
steady state. This was determined by observing the M assembly outlet
temperature on the DAS and waiting for it to become constant. After OSV was
deduced to be attained in the M assembly, the total power increments were
reduced to ~10 kW until the M inlet spool-piece pressure drop, monitored
continually on an oscilloscope, showed small-scale oscillations. Thereafter the
total power increments were reduced to about 5 kW, or less, until flow
oscillations or instability was clearly evident on the oscilloscope.
The onset of flow oscillations (OFO) is distinctly different from the onset of
flow instability (OFI). The former precedes the latter slightly. The OFI point is
defined as that point where the oscillation amplitudes begin to diverge. Once the
OFI power was determined, further increases in the total power were
discontinued to protect the assemblies. After allowing sufficient time for data
collection, the total power was reduced in preparation for the next test. The inlet
velocity to the M was reset to a different value and the experimental process
repeated. Three tests were done corresponding to average inlet velocities in the
M assembly of 3.36, 2.43 and 1.09 m/s. The average velocity was determined by
dividing the net flow rate through the M assembly by the product of the net flow
area and the inlet flow density. For inlet velocities of 2.43 and 1.09 m/s, the
repeatability of the experiments was assessed and confirmed. After flow
instability was identified in the first power sweep, the total power was reduced
briefly and increased again until OFI reoccurred. It was found that diverging
flow oscillations appeared exactly at the same power (i.e. within 1–2 kW) as was
obtained in the first sweep. This confirmed that the experiments were repeatable
and the results were reproducible. During the tests, the test-section was also
continuously filmed using two video cameras. The flow oscillations were,
therefore, captured on film.

10 Experimental results
A summary of the test conditions at OFI in the M assembly, for the three tests
performed, are given in Table 1. The onset of flow instability (OFI) is defined as
that point where the oscillation amplitudes began to diverge with time, as
inferred from the inlet pressure-drop oscillations. These oscillations may not
have been noticeable with the naked eye, but they were measurable. The onset
of flow instability for the M-assembly inlet spool piece for the three tests is
shown in Figs. 3-6. Also shown is the inlet end-plate pressure drop for the H and
C assemblies.

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A cautionary note on comparing the magnitudes of the pressure-drop

oscillations of the M-assembly inlet spool piece with the H and C assemblies’
inlet end plate; the M-assembly inlet spool piece inherently had a low-pressure
drop due to its open area. Thus, small-scale oscillations do not necessarily mean
low amplitude flow oscillations. Flow oscillations between the inner and outer
channels of the M assembly would induce oscillations in the inlet spool piece
when the conditions and channel geometry are unequal. Since the inner and
outer channels of the M were different, with different powers and flow
conditions, any oscillations between the inner and outer channels would also
induce oscillations in the flow within the inlet spool piece. Hence, the pressure
oscillations across the M inlet spool piece recorded by the Sensotec DP cell are a
result of the inner channel dynamics as well as the coupled dynamics between
the M assembly and the H and C assemblies.
Figs. 3-5 show that the inlet flow to the H and C assemblies always oscillated
in phase – an expected result since both assemblies were always with single-
phase flow. Therefore, the H and C assemblies behaved, as expected, as a single
assembly. With the apparent exception of the 3CH5 test, which is discussed
subsequently, Figs. 3 and 4 show that, for the 3CH3 and 3CH4 tests, the M inlet
spool piece pressure drop is almost, but not exactly, 180 degrees out of phase
with the H and C assemblies’ inlet end-plate pressure drop. However, the

3CH3
4 16
H(outer) and
Inlet End-Plate Pressure-

Pressure-drop of and C
C(inner)
drop of M Inlet Spool

3 11
Inlet End-Plate

2 M Inlet 6
(kPa)

(kPa)

Spool

1 1

0 -4
Time (s)
113 115 117 119 121 123

Figure 3: Onset of flow instability for test 3CH3.

3CH4
15
H(outer)
Pressure-drop (kPa)

10 and
Inlet End-Plate

C(inner)
5

0
M Inlet
104 Spool 109 Time (s) 114
-5

Figure 4: Onset of flow instability for test 3CH4.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 89

3CH5
0.28 3
M Inlet Spool Pressure-

Pressure-drop of H and
M Inlet 2.5
0.23

Inlet End-Plate
drop (kPa) Spool
2

C (kPa)
0.18
1.5
0.13 H and C 1
0.08 0.5
Time (s)
8 10 12 14 16 18

Figure 5: Onset of flow instability for test 3CH5 (130.7 kW).

periods of oscillation are equal. This indicates that the M assembly, for the
3CH3 and 3CH4 tests, behaved almost like a ‘single’ entity. Because the phase
difference was slightly less than 180o, this indicates the possibility of some
dynamic motions within the M assembly itself. If the M assembly behaved
perfectly like a single entity, then its response would have been exactly 180o out
of phase with the H and C assemblies’ inlet pressure-drop oscillations. It was
already established that the H and C assemblies behaved like a single entity. The
lowest velocity test (3CH5) shows a different behaviour from the 3CH3 and
3CH4 tests (Fig. 5). Like before, Fig. 5 shows that the H and C assemblies’ inlet
pressure oscillations were always in phase with each other. However, the period
of oscillation of the H and C assemblies has now doubled (~ 0.40 second) to
about twice the period of oscillation of the M assembly. A plausible explanation
is not obvious, but this result indicates that some dynamic motions may be
occurring within the M assembly, especially at this lower flow rate.
The inlet flow oscillations in the M-assembly inlet spool piece (Fig. 5) at OFI
clearly show two oscillation frequencies -- one with a period of about 0.2 second
and the other with a period of about 2.0 seconds. There is no noticeable flow
oscillation in the H and C assemblies in Fig. 5. It is possible that they were too
small to be picked up at this power (130.7 kW in the M assembly).
Because the H and C assemblies always acted in phase and exhibited the
same period, while the period of the oscillation in the M inlet spool piece was
half the period of the oscillations in the H and C assemblies, this observation
indicates that the M assembly behaved like multiple channels with phase
differences. No other explanation is evident. Figs. 3-5 show evidence of two
oscillation periods in the M assembly -- one of about 0.2 second and the other of
about 2.0 seconds. However, the dominant mode seems to be the 0.2-second
period. The period of oscillation in the H and C assemblies is about 0.4 seconds.
A plot of the M-assembly power at OFI versus average inlet velocity is shown
in Fig. 6. Also shown is the burnout power obtained in previous burnout tests. It
is noteworthy that the three OFI data points fall very close to the burnout data,
suggesting a connection between burnout power and OFI power. It seems very
plausible that in the single M-assembly burnout tests flow oscillations, and/or

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90 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

flow instability, were a precursor to burnout. Fig. 6 presents the OFI data in the
Np
non-dimensional form of versus N s where N p and N s are the well-
Ns
known Zuber and subcooling numbers respectively. The OFI data is
Np
approximated well by  0.46 .
Ns

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Np/Ns

0.5
0.4
0.3
130 140 Ns 150 160

Figure 6: Np/Ns versus Ns for the M assembly.

A plot of the M-assembly power at OFI versus average inlet velocity is shown
in Fig. 7. Also shown is the burnout power obtained in previous burnout tests. It
is interesting that the three OFI data points fall very close to the burnout data,
suggesting a connection between burnout power and OFI power. It seems very
plausible that in the single M-assembly burnout tests flow oscillations, and/or
flow instability, were a precursor to burnout.

800
700
600
y = 123.44x + 40.634
Power (kW)

500
400
300 y = 133.92x - 14.508
200
100
0
0 2 4 6
Avg. Velocity in M Assembly (m/s)

Figure 7: OFI power versus average inlet velocity for the M assembly.

Fig. 8 shows the comparison between burnout data and numerical prediction
of incipient flow oscillations in the sub-M-assembly channels. The trend is
similar, with the instability predictions slightly under the burnout data.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 91

700
600
500
Power (kW)
400
300 Instability
200 Burnout
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Avg. Velocity in M (m/s)

Figure 8: Comparison between burnout data in the M assembly vs. prediction

of incipient flow oscillations using an instability numerical
program (SPORTS).

11 Conclusions
M-assembly Stability Tests
The following were the findings of this study:
(a) Nucleate boiling precipitated flow oscillations. (b) Oscillations occurred
between sub-channels of the M assembly, as well as between the M assembly
and other assemblies.
(c) The onset of flow oscillations and instability (OFI) just preceded the single-
assembly burnout, indicating a possible connection between burnout and OFI.
(d) If (c) is true, conditions just before burnout may be predictable through a
numerical stability analysis of the assembly sub-channels.
Np
(e) OFI occurred at an  0.46 . This may be useful for scaling the data for
Ns
pressure, velocity and sub-cooling effects.
(f) The close proximity of the OFI data to the single-assembly burnout data
suggests that the burnout power is not significantly affected by the presence of
other parallel assemblies.
It is unknown at this time whether points (b) and (c) would apply to CHF in
fuel bundles, and whether flow oscillations between channels would occur and
influence CHF. Further studies need to be undertaken to confirm whether this
finding is generally applicable, or whether it is just a unique characteristic of this
bundle geometry.

Acknowledgements
Sincere thanks are expressed to Dr. N. Popov for supporting this generic study
and to Dr. H. Rummens for her invaluable technical expertise in designing the
experiment. The experimental work was performed while at the Chalk River
Laboratories of Atomic Energy of Canada, Ltd. (AECL-CRL). The experimental

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92 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

data presented in this paper are shared with permission from AECL-CRL. The
interpretations of the data are those of the author.

References
[1] Hainoun, A., Schaffrath, A., 2001. Simulation of sub-cooled flow instability
for high flux research reactors using the ATHLET code, Nucl. Eng. &
Design, 207, p. 163-180.
[2] Stoddard, R.M., Blasick, A.M., et al., 2002. Onset of flow instability and
critical heat flux in thin horizontal annuli, Experimental Thermal and Fluid
Science, Vol. 26, Issue 1, April, p. 1-14.

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 Section 2
Turbulent flow
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 95

Transition length between water and air-water

flows on stepped chutes
A. L. A. Simões2, H. E. Schulz1,2 & R. M. Porto2
1
Nucleus of Thermal Engineering and Fluids,
School of Engineering at São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Brazil
2
Department of Hydraulics and Sanitary Engineering,
School of Engineering at São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Brazil

Abstract
This study presents the steps followed to obtain mathematical models for the
length of the transition region between the “full-water” and “full-mixed” flows in
stepped spillways. This transition length is defined here as the distance along the
flow, parallel to the pseudo-bottom, starting at the end of the “full-water” region
and ending at the beginning of the “full-mixed” region. The definition is
proposed based on experimental profiles of the surface obtained with an acoustic
sensor in a stepped chute, which allows one to locate adequately the minima and
maxima of the profile. A set of profiles obtained for different flow conditions is
shown, and a comparison between predicted and calculated transition lengths is
made. Experimental data and theoretical predictions superpose adequately for the
present set of data.
Keywords: air-water flow, aeration, transition length, stepped spillways.

1 Introduction
For the design of stepped chutes it is necessary to know the behaviour of the air-
water mixture along the flow. In many cases it is necessary to build bottom
aerators that must be conveniently placed, for which the position of the inception
point is needed (the section where the air begins to be captured by the water at
the upper surface). It is also necessary to know the length of the black water
region (upflow of the inception point), and the length along the flow needed for
the air to travel until the bottom of the channel (downflow of the inception
point). This length is here called “transition length”, and is defined as the

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96 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

distance, parallel to the pseudo-bottom, which starts at the end of black water
region and finishes at the beginning of the full-aerated region. The present
analysis is valid for skimming flows.
It is generally accepted that skimming flows, as occur in smooth chutes or
spillways, consists of three regions: (1) single-phase flow (water); (2) partially
aerated flow, and (3) air-water two phase flow (Cain and Wood [5]). Similarly,
these regions are also observed in stepped chutes, and their quantification is
relevant, being motivated by the need of protection of the spillways from
possible damages caused by cavitation. This study presents a mathematical
model for the transition length in stepped spillways.

2 Theoretical formulation
Two formulations are presented to obtain predictions of the Transition length.
The first one considers classical conservation principles, and the second
considers an approximation based on analogies with basic transport equations.

2.1 Equation based on conservation principles (Model 1)

In this approximation, the principles of conservation were written in the Eulerian

and integral forms. The control volume chosen has two input surfaces (section 1
and the free surface, through which air is captured), and one output surface
(section 2), as shown in fig. 1. It is assumed that the main transport of mass,
momentum and energy occurs through sections 1 and 2, as shown in the
sequence. For steady state calculations, the integrations are performed over the
areas of sections 1 and 2.

Figure 1: Control volume.

2.1.1 Conservation of mass

The mass conservation equation for steady flow is:

 1v1dA  mSurf   2v2dA (1)

1 2

, v, and A represent the densities, velocities and areas considered in the

problem. The subscripts “Surf”, 1 and 2 indicate the upper surface, and sections

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 97

1 and 2, respectively, while m represents the air mass flux. Because this flux is
much lower than those given by the integrals on surfaces 1 and 2, its influence is
considered here as composing the corrective factor of the flux on section 2.
As 1, is constant, but 2 varies along A2, we have:

  2v2 dA
1  v1dA  1V1 A1 and 2
  2V2 (2)
1 A2
The use of average values imposes a corrective factor (0), which also
accounts for mSurf of eqn (1), furnishing

0  2V2 A2  1V1 A1 (3)

Defining C as the volume fraction occupied by the air, the density of the
mixture () is usually presented as:

2 C g
 2  C  g  (1  C ) 1   (1  C ) for  (1  C ) (4)
1 1
Substituting 4 into 3, and using A=Bh, leads to:
V2 1
 (5)
V1 0 (1  C )h *
where h* = h2/h1.

2.1.2 Conservation of momentum

The momentum equation for steady flow is given by:

F    1v1v1dA    2v2v2 dA   11V12 Bh1  1  2V22 Bh2 (6)

1 2

 is the Boussinesq coefficient, and ω1 in section 2 is a weighting factor which

takes into account the fact that ρ  ρ 2 . The control volume has a lateral
trapezoidal form, as shown in fig. 1. ω2 is defined as the fraction of this area
occupied by water (ideally corresponding to the lower triangle in the figure). It is
assumed that the mixture at the remaining fraction of the trapezoid (ideally the
upper triangle) is ρ 2 , defined by eqn (5). The force F acting on the control
volume is expressed as F=Fw+Fp+F, where Fw is the weight, Fp is the force due
to pressure and F is the force due to the bottom shear stress. The three forces are
given, respectively, by:

Fw 
(h1  h2 )
2

BL1 g 2  (1  2 )(1  C ) sin   (7a)

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98 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Fp1  Fp 2 
1 g
2

B h12  (1  C )h22 cos  (7b)

F   o BL (7c)
The effects of shear stresses on the walls and the free surface were not
considered. Combining eqns (5), (6) and (7), solving them for L/h1, defining the
nondimensional parameters L* = L/h1, and Fr1=V/(gh1)1/2, leads to:

 1 
1 1

1
0 (1  C )h * 2 Fr1
2 2

1  (1  C )h *2 cos  
L*  (8)
(1  h*)
2 Fr12

2  (1  2 )(1  C ) sin  
f
8

The shear stress was obtained from the Darcy-Weisbach equation, and is
related to the friction factor f at the bottom of the channel as:
o
f  (9)
1
1V12
8
2.1.3 Conservation of energy
The energy equation for steady flow is given by:

 p   p 
Q  W    1  e1  1 v1dA  E Surf    2  e2  2 v2 dA (10)
1  1  2  2 
Q is the heat transfer across the control surfaces, W is the power transferred
due to shear forces, E is the contribution due to the air flow through the
Surf
surface (neglected here in relation to the other parcels), and e=gz+v2/2+u.
Eqn (10) is then represented as:

 v3 pv 
Q  W   1   gz1v1  1  u1v1  1 1 dA 
1 
2 1 
(11a)
 v3 
   g 2 z 2 v2   2 2   2 u 2 v2  p2 v2 dA
2  
2
The integrals at sections 1 and 2 are represented, in the next equations, by I1
and I2, respectively. Using mean values, a Coriolis coefficient c1 must be used
for section 1, and p1=1gh. In section 2 a new weight coefficient 3 is used
(similar to the Coriolis coefficient), z2=0 and p2 is assumed to be p2=4 ρ 2 , gh,
where ρ 2 is the mean value of 2 and 4 is an adjusted constant.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 99

V13
I1  g L sin   h1 cos  V1 A1   c1 A1  u1V1 A1 (11b)
2
4 cos  V23
I2  g  2 h2V2 A2  3  2 A2   2 u 2V2 A2 (11c)
2 2
Combining eqns (3), (5), (10) and (11):

 V2  V2 h 
hp  0 Lsen  h1 cos     c1 1    3 2  4 cos  2  (12)
 2g   2g 2
Where hp, known as “head loss”, is given by:

Q  W r  1 u1V1 A1   2 u 2V2 A2
hp   (13)
g  2V2 A2
The head loss may be simplified to a punctual loss, so that hp=KFr12h1/2,
where K is a constant. Writing then eqn (12) in nondimensional form, and
solving it for 1  C , results:
1
 2 L * sen 
 0  
3  Fr12  (14)
(1  C )  h*
0  2  h* 
  2  0  4  cos   0 c1  K 
 Fr1  2  
The set of eqns (8) and (14) allows to obtain L*, and is here named “Model
1”. In this study a least squares adjustment of the constants was made using a
nonlinear procedure.

2.2 Analogy with basic transport equations (Model 2)

Schulz and Simões [3] presented an alternative analysis of the transition region
also considering the volume of fig. 1. The authors considered that: 1) the rate of
formation of voids in the water, indicated by c , is proportional to the water flow
rate that crosses the volume, q; and 2) c is also proportional to the slope of the
surface, dh/dx. Joining both proportionalities, it leaded to:
dh
c  K q (15)
dx
K is a proportionality factor. The dimensions of the variables are: |h|=m, |x|=m,
|q|=m2s-1,| c |=s-1, |K|=m-2. As mentioned by Schulz and Simões [3], eqn (15) is
similar to the basic equations used in Transport Phenomena for mass and heat

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100 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

transfer, because it involves a first order derivative. Assuming c, q and K as

constants, the integration of this equation, from x=0 to x=L, produces:

L
Kq
h2  h1  (16)
c
Although very simple, eqn (16) produced a correlation coefficient of about
0.73 (considered acceptable) when compared with the experimental data
described in section 3. It was then “allowed” for one of the constants to vary. K
was chosen, and the following general form was proposed:
K   i qh  i (17)
i

i are constants. Eqns (15) and (17) were then rearranged to:
d qh 
c   i qh  i (18)
i dx
To obtain an adequate solution, it is necessary to conveniently truncate the
series in eqn (18). For i=0, the solution is eqn (16) (acceptable). In this study we
used i=1, which leads to:

L
0
qh2  qh1   1 qh2 2  qh1 2  (19)
c c
This equation was compared with the measured data, together with an
alternative semi-empirical form, in which all parcels have independent
coefficients, that is,
L  1qh2   2 qh1  3 qh2    4 qh1   5
2 2
(20)
i are constants. Eqn (20) has the same form of eqn (19), which is the reason of
using it here. It is obviously expected that the last equation furnishes a better fit
to experimental data, because it involves five adjustment constants (the former
involves only two). Eqn (19) is named here Model 2a and eqn (20) is named
Model 2b.

3 Experimental results
Experiments were conducted in a channel of the Laboratory of Environmental
Hydraulics, in the School of Engineering at São Carlos (fig. 2a). The channel
was 5 m long and 20 cm wide, allowing adjustments of the slope angle between
0o and 45o. In this study  = 45°. The height of the steps was s = 5 cm. The flow
rate was controlled upstream by a sluice gate, and measured with an
electromagnetic flowmeter. The profiles of the free surface were obtained
positioning an ultrasonic sensor in 40 locations along 3.5 m of the channel. The
sampling frequency adopted for the depth measurements was 50 Hz, and the
sensor was maintained 120 s at each position to obtain representative data for the

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 101

depths. A typical mean profile obtained in this study is shown in fig. 2b. This
figure also shows the plot of the analytical solution for the single phase region
(indicated by S2, as obtained by Simões et al. [4]), and the minimum and
maximum positions that limit the transition region.

.
Figure 2: (a) Stepped chute and (b) experimental profile. The transition
length is the distance between the minimum and maximum points
of the surface profile.

3.1 Comparison with literature

The position of the inception point and the length of the transition region were
here obtained from the measurements, as indicated in fig. 2b. A comparison was
made with a prediction for the position of the inception point suggested by Boes
and Hager [2]. Following a translation of the origin similar to that proposed by
Boes [1], and using the measured points to adjust the theoretical curve, the
difference between the positions of the measured and predicted inception points
corresponds roughly to the transition length. The difference occurs because Boes
and Hager [2] considered the full mixed region, while here the beginning of the
transition region is considered.

3.2 Measured and predicted transition lengths

Figs 3, 4 and 5 show all the surface profiles measured in the present study. It is
shown that the minima and maxima of the different profiles are well defined in
most of the experiments, which points to the adequacy of this methodology. In
some profiles the measurements are somewhat sparser, like shown in figs 5n
(minimum) and 5o (maximum), which introduce errors in the evaluation of L, h1
and h2, but even so allowing to observe the transition region.
The proposed models for the transition length involve sets of constants that
must be adjusted. For eqns (8) and (14) (Model 1), a nonlinear least squares
adjustment using the set of experimental data furnished: c1 = 3.61; 1 = 1.44; 3
= 0.042; 1 = 0.086; K = 0.17; 2 = 1; f = 0.0; 0 = 0.056; 4 = 0.91. It must be
said that other constants may also produce good adjustments, and that the
physical principles used to derive the equations imposed the definition of this set
of constants. The superposition between model and experimental data is shown

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102 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

0.6 0.6
 [-]

 [-]
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2
Experimental profile Experimental profile
Analytical solution Analytical solution
Exp. 2: q = 0.252 m2 /s, h(0) = 10.3 cm (a) Exp. 3: q = 0.229 m2 /s, h(0) = 10.1 cm (b)
0 0
0 5 10 H [-] 15 0 5 10 H [-] 15

0.6 0.6
 [-]

 [-]
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2
Experimental profile Experimental profile
Analytical solution Série2
Exp. 4: q = 0.362 m2 /s, h(0) = 10.6 cm (c) Exp. 5: q = 0.239 m2 /s, h(0) = 8.7 cm (d)
0 0
0 5 10 H [-] 15 0 5 10 H [-] 15

Figure 3: Experimental profiles and analytical solutions for runs 2 through 5.

in fig. 6a. As can be seen, the general trend of the experiments was captured by
the model.
The convenience of a more restricted set of constants was one of the reasons
for the search of an alternative quantification (Schulz and Simões [3]). Applying
the least squares method to eqn (19) (Model 2a), the following constants were
obtained: 0/ c =290.7, 1/ c = -2290.1. As can be seen in fig. 6b, also this
equation follows the general trend of the experimental data.
Finally, applying the least squares method to eqn 20 (Model 2b), the
following constants were obtained: 1=789.12, 2=-976.5, 3=-10610.5, 4=
17265.15, 5=0.1923. Considering the number of constants, Model 2b (five
constants) lies between Model 1 (nine constants) and Model 2a (two constants).
Fig. 6c shows that it reproduces well the experimental data, and that it may be
considered in further studies for the quantification of transitions lengths.
The correlation coefficients between measured and predicted values were:
Model 1 = 0.94, Model 2a = 0.90, and Model 2b = 0.97.

4 Conclusions
Governing equations were derived for the calculation of transition lengths
between full-water and full-mixed regions in stepped spillways. Two main
procedures were followed: 1) using conservation principles, and 2) using an
analogy with basic transport equations. The second procedure furnished an
equation with two adjustment constants, which was modified, involving then five
constants. The three predictions were compared with experimental data obtained

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 103

0.6 0.7
 [-]

 [-]
0.4 0.5

0.2 0.3
Experimental profile Experimental profile
Analytical solution Analytical solution
Exp. 7: q = 0.252 m2 /s, h(0) = 8.9 cm (e) Exp. 8: q = 0.037 m2 /s, h(0) = 2.7 cm (f)
0 0.1
0 5 10 H [-] 15 0 20 40 H [-] 60

0.7 0.6
 [-]

 [-]
0.5 0.4

0.3 0.2
Experimental profile Experimental profile
Analytical solution Analytical solution
Exp. 9: q = 0.037 m2 /s, h(0) = 2.4 cm (g) Exp. 10: q = 0.159 m2 /s, h(0) = 5.8 cm (h)
0.1 0
0 20 40 H [-] 60 0 5 10 H [-] 15

0.6 0.6
 [-]

 [-]

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2
Experimental profile Experimental profile
Analytical solution Analytical solution
Exp. 14: q = 0.304 m2 /s, h(0) = 8.9 cm (i) Exp. 15: q = 0.280 m2 /s, h(0) = 8.7 cm (j)
0 0
0 5 10 H [-] 15 0 5 10 H [-] 15

0.6 0.6
 [-]

 [-]

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2
Experimental profile Experimental profile
Analytical solution Analytical solution
Exp. 16: q = 0.133 m2 /s, h(0) = 4.6 cm (k) Exp. 17: q = 0.244 m2 /s, h(0) = 7.2 cm (l)
0 0
0 5 10 H [-] 15 0 5 10 H [-] 15

Figure 4: Experimental profiles and analytical solutions for runs 7 through

10, and 14 through 17.

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104 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

0.6 0.6
 [-]

 [-]
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2
Experimental profile Experimental profile
Analytical solution Analytical solution
Exp. 18: q = 0.216 m2 /s, h(0) = 7.4 cm (m) Exp. 19: q = 0.137 m2 /s, h(0) = 4.1 cm (n)
0 0
0 5 10 H [-] 15 0 5 10 H [-] 15

0.6 0.6
 [-]

 [-]
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2
Experimental profile Experimental profile
Analytical solution Analytical solution
Exp. 20: q = 0.180 m2 /s, h(0) = 6.8 cm (o) Exp. 21: q = 0.198 m2 /s, h(0) = 7.1 cm (p)
0 0
0 5 10 H [-] 15 0 5 10 H [-] 15

Figure 5: Experimental profiles and analytical solutions for runs 18 through

21.
1.5 1.5
L [m] - Experimental
L [m] - Experimental

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
L [m] - Theoretical (a) L [m] - Theoretical (b)
1.5
L [m] - Experimental

1.0

0.5

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
L [m] - Theoretical (c)

Figure 6: (a) Model 1 (eq. (8) and eq. (14)); (b) Model 2a (eq. (19));
(c) Model 2b (eq. (20)).

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 105

in a stepped chute inclined in 45o. The equations were adjusted using a set of
data obtained for 16 different experimental conditions, in which the flow rate and
the opening of the sluice gate were changed. Predicted and measured values
showed adequate superposition for the three models. The best superposition was
obtained for the second modified model.

Acknowledgements
The authors are indebted to FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do
Estado de São Paulo), CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de
Nível Superior) and CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento
Científico e Tecnológico), for financial support of this study.

References
[1] Boes, R.M. (2000). Two phase flows and energy conversion in large stepped
channels. PhD Thesis. ETH Zurich, Zürich Switzerland [in German].
[2] Boes, R.M., Hager, W.H. (2003). Two-phase flow characteristics of stepped
spillways. J. Hydraulic Eng. 129(9), pp. 661-670.
[3] Schulz, H.E.; Simões, A.L.A. (2011) “Alterative equations for transition
lengths in aerated flows: analogies with basic equations of transport
Phenomena”, Lab. of Reology and Turbulence, School of Engg. at São
Carlos, Univ. of São Paulo, LTR Report I/I/11, (vertedoresemdegraus.
blogspot.com;stoa.usp.br/ltr/files/) [in Portuguese].
[4] Simões, A.L.A.; Schulz, H.E.; Porto, R.M. (2010) “Stepped and smooth
spillways: resistance effects on stilling basin lengths” Journal of Hydraulic
Research 48(3), pp.329-337.
[5] Cain, P.; Wood, I.R. (1981) Instrumentation for aerated flow on spillways.
ASCE, J. Hydraulic Eng. 107, No HY11.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 107

Experimental measurements of macro-particle

dispersion in grid turbulence and application to
a stochastic numerical model for solid body
turbulent diffusion
A. Joly1, F. Moulin2, S. Cazin2 , A. Astruc2 & D. Violeau1
1 Saint-Venant
Laboratory for Hydraulics, Université Paris-Est, France
2Institut de Mécanique des Fluides de Toulouse, Université de Toulouse
INPT, France

Abstract
The transport of solid bodies (e.g. algae, debris or sediment grains) along a
coastline is a necessary consideration for the sustainable management of beaches
and coasts, including any structure built along the shoreline. The use of a stochastic
transport model allows to take into consideration a wide scale of physical
processes, such as the current around a coastal structure, the turbulence generated
by the flow and the effects of inertia and drag of each body. In order to validate
the developed model, in view of industrial applications, a set of experiments was
performed. The objective of the experiments was to validate to numerical model
in isotropic turbulence. The experiment consisted of oscillating grid generated
turbulence, inside which spherical particles were released. Measurements were
done using PIV to quantify the turbulence and video particle tracking to measure
displacement. The experimental result were then compared to various numerical
simulations.
Keywords: particle diffusion, stochastic transport, isotropic turbulence, oscillating
grid, particle image velocimetry, video particle tracking.

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108 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

1 Introduction
The transport of solid bodies (e.g. algae, debris or sediment grains) is a reoccurring
problem for many industrial structures built along the shore line interested in
the sustainable management of said coast. Currently most numerical models of
solid body behaviour along a shoreline focus on the growth and evolution of an
population (or ensemble) of bodies. These models require large time scales (days–
months) and are relevant for large-scale areas (10–100 km), for example see [1]
or [2] for algal blooms (a population of solid bodies). But these models prove
ineffective when designing civil engineering works necessary for the sustainable
management of coastal industrial structures. These problems require smaller scales
of investigation (10 m–1 km and 1–24 h) as the motion of a body will be affected by
tides, waves, and diffusion due to turbulence (see [3]). The model presented in [4]
develops a stochastic approach for predicting the trajectory of individual particles.
To validate this model, a set of experiments were done. In the first instance particles
were released in static water of different densities; this was done to test the settling
body velocities, as well as validate the particle tracking protocol. Finally particles
were released into semi-isotropic turbulence, created using a pair of oscillating
grids. Turbulent properties were quantified using PIV and LDV 2D measurements,
and particle displacement statistics were measured using video particle tracking.

2 The particle transport model

The numerical particle transport model used in this paper is a stochastic model.
It is divided into three stages. First the instantaneous local (at the emplacement
of the particle) fluid velocity components (Ui ) are calculated, using a stochastic
model developed by [5]. It is then used to solve for the body velocity components
(Vi ), using the momentum equation. These are then integrated to give the position
of the body (Xi ), which is assumed to be isotropic (e.g. spheres):

1
dUi (t) = − Ui dt + Ci dt + BdWi (t) (1a)
T
1
dVi (t) = M̌ dUi + (Ui − Vi ) dt + gˇi dt (1b)
τpart
dXi (t) = Vi dt (1c)

Where dWi (t) represents a Wiener process; the other coefficients are defined by
the following equations:

1 k
T = 1 (2a)
2 + 34 C0 ε
2m
τpart = (2b)
ρf SCD (Re) |Ui − Vi |

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 109

m=m+M (2c)
ρf Ω + M ρf Ω + M
M̌ = = (2d)
m m+M
m − ρf Ω
gˇi = gi (2e)
m
1 ∂P 1
Ci = − − Ui (2f)
ρf ∂xi T


B = C0 ε (2g)

For which ρf is the fluid density, k is the turbulent kinetic energy, ε is its
dissipation rate, Ui are the mean fluid velocity components, P is the mean fluid
pressure, m is the mass of the body, M is the magnitude of the added mass tensor,
equal to 12 ρΩ for a sphere, S is the cross-sectional area of the body, Ω is the area of
the body, gi are the components of gravity acceleration, CD drag coefficient (for
a sphere [6] provides an empirical solution as a function of the Reynolds number
Re = |Ui − Vi | D/ν), D is the sphere diameter, and finally C0 = 2.1.
As can be seen from the coefficients in equation 1a this model requires
characteristic flow variables (P , Ui , k and ε) to be input to solve for the
instantaneous local fluid velocity. These values are usually solved using another
numerical model. It should also be noted that the two characteristic time (T and
τpart ) can vary greatly in time, space and from each other, making the resolution
of equations 1 difficult (see [4]). Finally this model will be compared to two other
numerical models: the model presented in [3], where the particles are transported
using Brownian motion and none of the solid body dynamics are considered, and
the model presented in [7] where the inertia of each particle is ignored. Focus
will later be placed the impact of modeling solid body dynamics, and in particular
inertia.

3 Settling velocities
This first experiment was undertaken as a mean of testing the particle tracking
protocol, and to serve as a reference for particles released in semi-isotropic
turbulence. To record the trajectories of the different settling particles, two cameras
were placed perpendicular to each other, with a tank filled with water at their
focus point. The tank was tall enough to ensure that particles reached their settling
velocities before entering the cameras’ field of vision. The effects of parallax were
taken into account and calibrations were done before hand, allowing to compute
the particle positions from pixels to millimeters.

x(mm) z1 (mm)
Camera 1 : = αy y(mm) + βx = αy y(mm) + βx
x(pixels) z1 (pixels)
(3a)

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110 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Table 1: The diameters and densities of the Nylon Polyamide PA 6,6 particles
released into the fluid.

Diameter D Standard Mean body Standard

(mm) Deviation density ρs Deviation
(%) (kg/m3) (%)
20 0.254 1129 0.0740
10 0.508 1128 0.301
5 1.02 1115 0.125
2 2.54 1062 2.42

0.5

V
√set
gD
0

0.95 1 1.05 1.1

ρs
ρf

Figure 1: Dimensionless settling velocities against different particle fluid density

ratios. “ ” is the analytical solution (equation 4) plotted with its
95% confidence interval error bars and “ ” are the experimental
measurements.

y(mm) z2 (mm)
Camera 2 : = αx x(mm) + βy = αx x(mm) + βy
y(pixels) z2 (pixels)
(3b)

The bodies used are spheres with diameters D and densities ρs , presented in
table 1. They were released into two different fluid densities, ρf = 1000 and
1085 kg/m3 . Using equation (1b) it is possible to calculate the settling velocities
of the bodies released in the fluid:

dXz |m − ρf Ω| 2 |m − ρf Ω|
Vset = = gz (4)
dt (m − ρf Ω) ρf SCD (Re)

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 111

linear
actuator
100 cm

Particle
release 25 cm
S=

100 cm
10 cm

Dist =
grids
60 cm

15 cm 2 cm H = 10 cm
x
100 cm z y
x
(a) Side view (b) Plan view

Figure 2: Dimensions for the turbulence generating system. The origin of the axis
is located on the bottom right corner in the center of the lower grid.

Equation 4 is solved by iterations since Re depends on Vset . It should be noted

that for this problem a rising velocity is assumed to be negative. The experimental
values of Vset are then compared to the analytical results, for which the 95%
confidence interval (calculated using the values in table 1) is presented in figure 1.
On figure 1 it is visible that the uncertainties are greater for low density ratios
(ρs /ρf ), but these correspond to the 2 mm diameter particles, for which the density
had the greatest uncertainty (see table 1). In fact results show that for the smallest
density ratio particles are settling, but the solution to the numerical model using
the mean density gives a rising velocity. Nonetheless for large density ratios (with
small particle densities uncertainties) the numerical model predicts the settling
velocities accurately.

4 Turbulence quantification
The experimental device in figure 2 aimed to create near-isotropic turbulence by
oscillating a pair of rectangular grids in a tank of still water. Several operating
scenarios, in terms of oscillating of amplitudes (stroke S) and frequencies (f ) were
tested. The selected scenario, found to be most energetic, had a stroke of 10 cm and
frequency of 1.67 Hz. The fluid velocities were then measured using Particle Image
Velocimetry (PIV), in a 10 × 10 cm window of measurements located in between
the two grids. Using these results the turbulent kinetic energy (k) and its rate
of dissipation (ε) are estimated, see figure 3. Additional two-dimensional Laser
Doppler Velocimetry (2D-LDV) was performed to validate the PIV measurements,
and validate the horizontal isotropy.

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112 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

−0.4 −0.4

−0.35 −0.35
z (m)

z (m)
−0.3 −0.3

−0.25 −0.25

−0.2 −0.2
0.6 0.55 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.6 0.55 0.5 0.45 0.4
x (m) x (m)

Legend: k (m2 /s2 ) Legend: ε (m2 /s3 )

4.2 E −4
4.3 −4
4.5 E −4
4.6 E −4
4.8 E −4
4.9 E −4
5.1 −4
5.2 E −4
5.4 E −4
5.5 E −4
−4

2.3 E −5
2.6 −5
2.8 E −5
3.1 E −5
3.4 E −5
3.7 E −5
3.9 E −5
4.2 −5
4.5 E −5
4.7 E −5
−5
3E

6E

4E

4E

8E

9E
8

7
2
7
1

0
5
0

1
9
6
3
0

5
2
4 .0

2.0

(a) Kinetic turbulent energy (k) (b) Turbulent energy dissipation rate (ε)

Figure 3: Turbulent quantification for double grid generated turbulence with an

amplitude of 10 cm and frequency of 1.67 Hz.

Several papers give empirical formulae to model the turbulent characteristics of

the flow resulting from a single oscillating grid (see [8–11]). Using these formulae,
a crude hypothesis was stated; that the turbulent kinetic energy generated by
each grid can be added. The semi-isotropic nature of the turbulence allows this
assumption to give profile shapes for each turbulent characteristic in accordance
to what can be expected. Constants were then adjusted to correspond to the
constraints of the experiment. This gives the following equations:
 1
1 3 −2 2
Ux
= Uy
= γ1 H 2 S 2 f z −2 + (Dist − z) (5a)
  1
1 3 −2 2
Uz
= γ2 H 2 S 2 f z −2 + (Dist − z) (5b)
1 2   
−2
k= 2γ1 + γ22 HS 3 f 2 z −2 + (Dist − z) (5c)
2
3
γ3 Ux

ε= (5d)
Dist

Where H is the grid mesh size (10 cm), S is the stroke (10 cm), f is the
frequency (1.67 Hz), Dist is the distance between the two grids (60 cm), Ui
are
the root mean square values of the velocity and γi are constants equal to 0.199,
0.252 and 5.05 respectively. 2D-LDV measurements have allowed to conclude

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 113

−0.6 −0.6
Dist

Dist
−0.5 −0.5
z

z
−0.4 −0.4

0 1 2 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
×10−2 ×10−3
k ε
(a) (b)
S2f 2 S2f 3

Figure 4: Vertical profiles for the turbulent kinetic energy and its dissipation.
S = 10 cm and f = 1.67 Hz. “ ” are the experimental values averaged
along the horizontal axis and “ ” is the empirical profile.

that Ux
= Uy
, but the constants γ1 and γ2 prove that the turbulence is not
fully isotropic, but since their ratio is approximately 80%, the turbulence is semi-
isotropic. In figure 4 the empirical and experimental profiles for the turbulent
energy and its dissipation are plotted. These empirical values are in accordance
with the measurements, and will therefore be used within the numerical model
(equations 1 and 2) to calculate particle displacement statistics.

5 Particle displacement statistics

The particles described in table 1 were then released into the turbulence generated
by the experimental setup presented in section 4, at location (50, 50, 85) cm, for
two different fluid densities, ρf = 1000 and 1084 kg/m3 . Three representative
cases will be presented here: 20 mm particles in 1084 kg/m3 fluid, 10 mm particles
in 1000 kg/m3 fluid and 5 mm particles in 1000 kg/m3 fluid. Particle trajectories
were recorded in a similar fashion to section 3. Statistics were then computed
on the displacements over time of these particles (as the particle velocities were
not measured). These statistics were also computed using the model presented
in equations 1 and 2, for which the boundary conditions were provided by the
empirical model in equations 5. Furthermore these numerical and experimental
results where compared against two other numerical models; Brownian motion as
described by [3] and an inertia free model presented by [7].
Figure 5 plots probability density functions for the horizontal and vertical
displacements (Xhor and Xvert ) of solid bodies in semi-isotropic turbulence. In
this figure plots are associated with three characteristic numbers: Nr which is the
number of experimental results, ρs /ρf which gives the density ratios and D/λl
which shows the ratio of the particle diameter. The coefficient dt, which appears

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114 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

15 6
pdf × Vset

pdf × Vset
10 4

5 2

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
|Xhor | Xvert
dtVset dtVset
ρs D
(a) Nr = 105, = 1.047, = 0.424
ρf λl
10 4
pdf × Vset

pdf × Vset
5 2

1
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
|Xhor | Xvert
dtVset dtVset
ρs D
(b) Nr = 178, = 1.13, = 0.212
ρf λl
4
4
pdf × Vset

3
pdf × Vset

2 2

1
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
|Xhor | Xvert
dtVset dtVset
ρs D
(c) Nr = 354, = 1.12, = 0.106
ρf λl

Figure 5: Displacement statistics for bodies in grid turbulence of stroke 10 cm and

a frequency of 1.67 Hz. “ ” are the experimental values, “ ” are the
values for the numerical model (equations 1 and 2), “ ” are the values
for the numerical model if particle inertia was ignored [7] and “ ”
are the values for the numerical model for particles following Brownian
motion [3].

in this figure, represents the time step, whereas the large eddy characteristic length
3/4
(λl ) is calculated using this equation : λl = Cµ k 3/2 /ε, with Cµ = 0.09. This
figure shows that the horizontal particle displacement statistics are driven by the
turbulent diffusion, whereas the vertical displacement statistics are driven by the
buoyant forces. Furthermore it should be noted that the numerical model present
in this figure have a few uncertainties associated with their resolutions, the main

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 115

one being that particles are released above the window of measurement, and so
the turbulent properties at the point of release haven’t been validated. Nonetheless
numerical results seem to be in accordance to the experimental results.
The first conclusion that can be derived from figure 5 is that a Brownian
motion model (see [3]) is much too diffusive. [4] shows that the Brownian motion
model would have been in accordance if the turbulence integral scale was much
smaller. This implies that for turbulence of this magnitude, body properties (which
are not considered in Brownian motion) have an impact on particle diffusion.
The next conclusion is that for the largest particles (in figure 5(a)), the model
from equations 1 and 2, seems to underestimate the horizontal diffusion, and
overestimates the mean settling velocities. For smaller diameters (figures 5(b)
and (c)) the model seems to give good results. When considering body properties
([4] and [7] models), it should be noted that particle inertia is most important
in the cases where the particles are large and the density differences are small.
For example, even though the model in equation 1 has difficulties sticking to the
experimental results in figure 5(a), this model was developed under the assumption
that the body was much smaller than the large scales of turbulence, adding inertial
forces gives an improvement to just considering the drag forces (the model in
[7]). These differences are less visible for the vertical displacement, where the
displacement is driven by the buoyant forces. The assumption that the body was
much smaller than the large scale of turbulence was done to keep the bodies
passive; for the larger particles released in figure 5(a) it appears that its size cause
it to affect the turbulence around it, requiring a more developed model such as
Direct Numerical Simulations. When particles are smaller than the large scale
of turbulence, but still of the same order (figure 5(b)), considering inertia gives
an improvement, although considering the particle drag alone also gives a good
estimate (the model in [7]).

6 Conclusion and further work

These experiments on the trajectories of solid bodies in semi-isotropic turbulence
were undertaken to verify and observe the effect of solid body dynamics
within an turbulent flow field. These experiment made it possible to conclude
that the turbulent diffusion of these bodies is dependent on the forces
acting upon it (see equation 1b). Therefore the first conclusion derived from
these experiment is that a Brownian motion, which does not consider body
properties, such as described in [3], might be limited when used in models
developed to improve the sustainability of coastal structures. Furthermore
considering the body’s inertia gives an improvement to just considering drag
forces (as was the case in [7]), but when these differences are most visible
the particles’ sizes will affect the turbulence around them, and results are
only an approximation of the experimental results. Nonetheless for particle
displacement statistics of smaller bodies, the model presented in this paper
(equations 1 and 2) corresponds fairly well to the experimental results. It
has therefore been shown that the model presented in [4] here can be

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116 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

representative of the displacement of solid bodies in a turbulent flow, provided

there is at least an order of magnitude between the large turbulent eddies
characteristic size and the particle diameter. Future validating work will focus on
validating this solid body diffusion model for a more physical flow regime, in view
of being later applied to engineering problems. The next step will then be to repeat
this methodology for a deceptively simple problem of an open channel flow around
a groyne. Finally more complex geometries of real bodies, such as algae, will be
taken into consideration.

References
[1] Salomonsen, J., Flindt, M., Geertz-Hansen, O. & Johansen, C., Modelling
advective transport of Ulva lactuca (L) in the sheltered bay, Møllekrogen,
Roskilde Fjord, Denmark. Hydrobiologia, 397, pp. 241–252, 1999.
[2] Donaghay, P. & Osborn, T., Toward a theory of biological-physical control of
harmful algal bloom dynamics and impacts. American Society of Limnology
and Oceanography, 42, pp. 1283–1296, 1997.
[3] Issa, R., Rougé, D., Benoit, M., Violeau, D. & Joly, A., Modelling algae
transport in coastal area with the shallow water equations. Journal of Hydro-
Environment Research, 3, pp. 215–223, 2009.
[4] Joly, A., Violeau, D. & Minier, J., Modelling of the turbulent diffusion of
algae in a coastal environment through a stochastic method with an exact
integrator. 1st European IAHR congress, Edinburgh, 4–6 May, 2010, 2010.
[5] Pope, S., Turbulent Flows. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2000.
[6] Almedeij, J., Drag coefficient of flow around a sphere: Matching
asymptotically the wide trend. Powder Technology, 186, pp. 218–223, 2008.
[7] Peirano, E., Chibbaro, S., Pozorski, J. & Minier, J.P., Mean-field/PDF
numerical approach for polydispersed turbulent two-phase flows. Progress
in Energy and Combustion Science, 32, pp. 315–371, 2006.
[8] De Silva, I.P.D. & Fernando, H.J.S., Oscillating grids as a source of nearly
isotropic turbulence. Physics of Fluids, 6(7), pp. 2455–2464, 1994.
[9] Cheng, N.S. & Law, A.W.K., Measurements of turbulence generated by
oscillating grid. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 127(3), pp. 201–208,
2001.
[10] Al-Homoud, A. & Hondzo, M., Energy dissipation estimates in oscillating
grid setup: LDV and PIV measurements. Environmental Fluid Mechanics, 7,
pp. 143–158, 2007.
[11] Holzner, M., Liberzon, A., Guala, M., Tsinober, A. & Kinzelbach, W.,
Generalized detection of a turbulent front generated by an oscillating grid.
Experiments in Fluids, 41, pp. 711–719, 2006.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 117

Methodology to determine residence time

distribution and small scale phenomena in
settling tanks
T. Karches & K. Buzas
Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering,
Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary

Abstract
Hydraulic residence time is a crucial parameter of any wastewater treatment tank
planning, operation and optimisation. Calculation of the residence time
distribution at every point within the tank gives information about the dead-
zones and short circuits and well-operating zones. Using the advective-diffusive
transport equation supplemented with a scalar source term local mean age
(LMA) can be detected if the flow field is given. Combining LMA with a tracer
study the exact residence time can be determined. This method supports problem
detection in a small wastewater treatment plant (2 dead zones and one short-
circuiting path were detected) and also gave us better understanding of the
operation of settling tanks.
Keywords: CFD, LMA, residence time, settling tank design.

1 Introduction
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in wastewater treatment processes has a
significant role in recent years. Several studies demonstrate that CFD is an
effective tool in design (Greenfield [8]), optimization (Bratchley et al. [3]) and
operation (Brouckaert and Buckley [4]) Furthermore CFD studies revealed that
with an extensive knowledge of fluid flow not only the hydraulic performance of
e.g. an oxidation ditch could be improved (Yang et al. [17]) but we could have a
closer look into the biological processes, too (Bartrand et al. [2]) For a few
decades researchers used to focus only on the biology and chemistry in
wastewater treatment, and hydraulics was mostly neglected.

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118 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

According to ATV-A131 standard [1] the settling tanks have been handled by
black box model, of which key parameter is hydraulic residence time. Most cases
use a constant residence time – despite the fact that there is a distribution of
residence time – calculated by t =V/Q, where V is the volume of the settling tank
in m3 and Q is the influent wastewater volume flux in m3/s.
Residence time distribution (RTD) can be calculated using tracer study both
experimentally and numerically (Gentric [7]). The field measurement based on
the idea that a certain amount of LiCl is emitted to the wastewater tank and the
concentration as the response function was measured as the function of time at
the outlet. LiCl is a conservative material that never constituent of raw
wastewater. The measured concentration data show how fast the particles go
through the system, therefore this is useful in determining whether there are short
–circuits or dead-zones and gives information how the wastewater tanks operate.
If we know the flow, velocity and pressure fields, furthermore turbulence
parameters, the tracer study can also be carried out numerically. If the tracer is
injected at a short time interval, small concentrations will appear at the outflow
where the rounding error’s order of magnitude is close to the detected
concentration. Eliminating this uncertainty the tracer is emitted to the inflow
continuously and the response function is a cumulative function of concentration,
which shows how fast the original fluid replaced by the tracer.
Numerical hydrodynamics should be completed with multiphase modelling in
order to describe the behaviour of wastewater (and components) in the treatment
process. Many efforts have been made, generally using particle tracking method
(Saul and Stevin [14]), but when there is a strong coupling between fluid flow
and the secondary phase, Eulerian-Eulerian multiphase model is more suitable
(Ta et al. [16]).
Other approach to detect the spatial distribution of the fluid particles’ age is
the Local Mean Age (LMA) theory. LMA is used basically in ventilation
techniques to describe mixing phenomenon of the air (Simons et al. [15]), but
this method can be applied to water flow, too. Using the convection-diffusion
scalar transport equation with zero-order kinetics the mean age of water can be
calculated at each point in the tank and the computation time is less than in the
RTD method. Furthermore, with LMA method reveal the problematic zones in
the wastewater tanks and the geometry could be reconstruct or new boundary
conditions could be set.
The theory section describes the mathematical background of this study. The
results section presents a case study, where RTD and LMA methods were
applied in a small wastewater plant in Sarisap, Hungary.

2 Theory of numerical methods

For the description of the fluid flow the conservation equations for mass and for
the momentum has to be solved (Foias et al. [9]).

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 119

Conservation of mass

 
    v   0 (1)
t
Conservation of momentum

  v    
     vv   p        g  F (2)
t
 
where p is the static pressure, g is gravitational body force, F is external
body force and  is stress tensor, what can be written in form of:

    
    v  v T     vI  ,
2
(3)
 3 
where μ is molecular viscosity and I is the unit tensor.
Closure for the partial differential equation system is the k-ε turbulence
model, where one equation is solved for the turbulence kinetic energy (k), see in
eqn (4) and one for the turbulent dissipation (ε), see in eqn (5). This model
assumes isotropic turbulence (Launder and Spalding [12]).
  k     t  k 
t

x j
  ku j  
x j
  
k
   Gk  Gb   (4)
  x j 

       t   
t

x j
  u j  
x j
  

 
  x j  (5)
 2

  C2  C1 C3 Gb
k   k

where Gk is generation of the turbulent kinetic energy due to the mean velocity
tensor and calculated as:

Gk   t S 2 (6)

S is the deformation tensor

S  2 S ij S ij (7)

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120 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

μt is the eddy viscosity

k2
 t  C  (8)

Here Cμ is a function of the mean strain and rotation rates, the angular
velocity of the system rotation and the turbulence fields. Gb is generation of
turbulent kinetic energy due to the buoyancy. Model constants are:

C1ε=1.44, C2ε=1.9, σk=1, σε=1.2

For the LMA calculation an additional convection–diffusion scalar transport

equation needs to be solved:

 
     v     S (9)
t
where ρ is the fluid density, φ is the local mean age of the fluid v is the fluid
velocity, Γ is the diffusion coefficient, S is the source term of the scalar. S is
taken as equal to 1 and for the diffusion term in turbulent flows:
 eff
 , (10)
 SC
where μeff is the turbulent viscosity and σSC is the Schmidt number. In the
simulation it has a constant value of 0.7.
Assuming steady state condition eqn (9) can be simplified as:

   eff 
   v      1 (11)
  SC 

The boundary condition for eqn (11) is a zero value at the inlet and a zero
gradient at the outflow boundary (Chanteloup and Mirade [6]).
For describing the different phases’ behaviour Fluent Mixture model [10] was
used. Continuity equation takes into account a mass averaged velocity,
momentum equation sums up the individual momentum for all phases and a
volume fraction as a scalar variable is introduced which can be calculated by
dividing the secondary phase volume in respect with the total volume. Mixture
model uses a so-called slip velocity, which is the velocity difference between the
secondary and primary phase (Manninen et al. [13]).
The above mentioned equations – eqns. (1), (2), (4), (5), (11) and multiphase
model – should be discretized and solved on a predefined mesh. For that second
order discretisation scheme was used on all equations to reduce numerical
diffusion and for the pressure-velocity coupling, the SIMPLE (Semi-Implicit
Method for Pressure Linked Equations) scheme was required.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 121

3 Results and discussion

Study site was a small municipal wastewater treatment plant about 2000 PE in
Sarisap, Hungary. The wastewater tank consists of two parts, one is the aeration
tank with cylindrical form and a cone shaped settling tank as the figure 1 shows.
The applied mesh is built with tetrahedral elements with approx. 550 000 cell
number and 107 000 node number. Size function was used where significant
gradients in flow field variables may occur, at the inflow, outflow and at the
inner pipes. Boundary condition was a constant volume flux (185 m3/d due to the
85% cumulative frequency of the inflow water) at the inlet, an atmospherical
pressure at the outlet. In the aeration tank air source term is built in the model to
assume the effect of the aeration on the mixing. At the surface was the outflow
of the air due to a negative source term to satisfy the continuity.

Figure 1: Aeration and settling tank geometry 3D Cartesian coordinates (left)

and applied mesh 2D Cartesian coordinates (right).

As the solution converged, tracer was injected to the tank, replacing the
original fluid and the outflow volume fraction of the tracer was detected. In the
field study LiCl was discharged, which concentration was measured in the
effluent water during five days. According to the literature (Buttz and Daigger
[5]) five days the 95 percent of the LiCl added must be measured in the samples.
The measured data can be transformed to a variable, which can be compared to
the numerical results.
C (t )
E (t )  
(12)

 C (t )dt
0
t
F (t )   E (t )dt (13)
0

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122 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

E(t) is the normalised concentration response function and F(t) is the

cumulative response function, which comes from the numerical model. Figure 2
shows the measured and calculated data (Karches and Melicz [11]).
From the F(t) the average residence time is:

t   1  F (t )  dt (14)
0
Solving eqn (14), the average residence time from the measured data is
around 40 h, from the numerically calculated data it is 45,3 h. In a previous study
(Karches [11]) it is revealed that there was a hole between the aeration and the
settling tank, therefore a small amount of fluid could escape faster than it was
planned and diminish the residence time. The V/Q ratio is 48,7 h, which is close
to the model result.

Mass fraction [-]

1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2 measured calculated

0.1

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

time [h]

Figure 2: RTD study measured and calculated data which represents the mass
fraction of the tracer at the outlet boundary.
When the flow field is given, LMA calculation (solving the eqn. 11) can be
made separately. LMA predicts the average time which is needed to reach that
point in the wastewater tank. Figures 3 and 4 show the distribution of the local
fluid age at different sections. It can be seen that there are several zones where
the fluid age is much higher than in the other zones. Because of the high fluid
age the dissolved oxygen level decreases, anaerobic zones could appear in the
aeration tank, which has a direct negative effect on the wastewater effluent
quality. If a particle reaches the high fluid age zone, remains there for a long
time, but not forever due to the turbulence. In the settling tank, because of the
bad design, the fluid uses only a small volume, the residence time is not
sufficient for the proper settling and the fact was confirmed by the LMA
calculation. Another interesting fact is that aeration does not cease the dead-
zones, probably because of the low intensity of the air inflow.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 123

While RTD calculation predicts the occurrence of dead-zones, LMA shows

the location, spatial dimensions of them. The problem of the dead-zone could be
solved if the flow direction would not be the normal direction of the inlet
boundary, but under an angle e.g. 60°. The settling problem could be solved if
the outflow would be at the margin of the settling cone, because the particles
path would be longer and there will be more time for the separation.

Figure 3: Local mean age of the fluid at z=1m plane. The dark colour
represents the high water age. Scale is in second.

Figure 4: Local mean age of the fluid at XZ plane. The scale is in second.

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124 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

4 Conclusion
This study focused on the hydraulic aspects of a wastewater tanks. With the help
of CFD the turbulence flow dynamics could have been predicted in a small
wastewater treatment plant. Multiphase modelling was required on describing
the aeration and carry out the RTD study with which could predict the average
residence time in the wastewater tank and have impressions whether there are
short-circuits and dead-zones. CFD flow field evaluation using velocity vectors,
streamline imaging helped us to find location of the hydraulic phenomena but
these effects on the residence time was not calculated. Local mean age of fluid
particle is the link between the hydraulics and the biological processes. We find
zones in the aeration tank, where the fluid’s age was extreme high which could
cause high ammonium concentration in the effluent. In the settling tank the
residence time was not enough for the sedimentation process which results high
suspended solid concentration in the effluent. With numerical simulation not
only the problem detection is possible, but extensive knowledge of the fluid flow
and residence time could help us to understand better the biological processes,
too.

Acknowledgements
This work is connected to the scientific program of the “Development of quality-
oriented and harmonized R+D+I strategy and functional model at BME” project.
This project is supported by the New Hungary Development Plan (Project ID:
TÁMOP-4.2.1/B-09/1/KMR-2010-0002

References
[1] ATV-DVWK Arbeitsblatt-A-131. GFA, Hennef, 2000.
[2] Bartrand, T.A., Farouk, B., Greene D.J., Haas C.N., Liberti L., Notarnicola
M. and Santoro D., Use of CFD for wastewater disinfection process
analysis: E.coli inactivation with peroxyacetic acid (PAA). International
Journal of Chemical Reactor Engineering Vol. 3:A46, 2005.
[3] Bratchley E., Do-Quang Z., Janex M.L., Laine J.M. and Savoye P., Impact
of water quality and reactor hydrodynamics on wastewater disinfection by
UV, use of CFD modeling for performance optimization. Water Science
and Technology Vol. 38 No. 6 pp. 71-78, 1998.
[4] Brouckaert C.J. and Buckley C.A., The use of Computational Fluid
Dynamics for Improving the design and operation of water and wastewater
treatment plants. Water Science and Technology Vol. 40 No. 4-5 pp. 81-90,
1999.
[5] Buttz J.A. and Daigger G.T. Upgrading wastewater treatment plants.
Technomic Pub Co Vol 2. pp. 13-53, 1998.
[6] Chanteloup V. and Mirade P-S. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
modelling of local mean age of air distribution in forced-ventilation food
plants. Journal of Food Engineering Vol. 90 pp. 90-103, 2009.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 125

[7] Gentric C., Leclerc J.P., Moullec Y.L. and Potier O. Flow field and
residence time distribution simulation of a cross-flow gas-liquid wastewater
treatment reactor using CFD. Chemical Engineering Science Vol. 63
pp. 2436-2449, 2008.
[8] Greenfield P.F., Howes T., Johns M.R., Keller J. and Wood M.G.
Computational fluid dynamic modelling of wastewater ponds to improve
design. Water Science and Technology Vol. 31 No. 12 pp. 111–118, 1995.
[9] Foias C., Manley O. Rosa R. and Temam R. (2001) Navier-Stokes
equations and turbulence Cambridge Books Online pp. 1-3.
[10] Fluent 6.3 Users Guide. Ansys Inc., USA
[11] Karches T. and Melicz Z., Problem detection in a small wastewater
treatment tank with the tool of computational fluid dynamics. 9th
international Congress on Advances in Civil Engineering.KTU, Trabzon,
Turkey, 27-30 Sept. 2010.
[12] Launder B.E. and Spalding D.B. The numerical computation of turbulent
flow. Computer methods in applied mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 3
Issue 2. pp. 269-289, 1974.
[13] Manninen M., Taivassalo V. and Kallio S. On the mixture model for
multiphase flow. VTT Publications 288, Technical Research Centre of
Finland, 1996.
[14] Saul J. A. and Stovin R.V. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) particle
tracking approach to efficiency prediction. Water Science and Technology
Vol.37. Issue 1 pp. 285-293, 1998.
[15] Simons MW., Waters J. R. and White P. R. S., Local mean age of air:
predictive techniques compared. Building Services Engineering Research
and Technology Vol. 20. No. 4211-218, 1999.
[16] Ta CT, Beckley J., and Eades A. A multiphase CFD model of DAF process.
Water Science and Technology Vol. 43 No 8 pp. 153-157, 2001.
[17] Yang Y., Wu Y., Yang X., Zhang K. and Yang J. Flow field prediction in
full-scale Carrousel oxidation ditch by using computational fluid dynamics
Water Science and Technology Vol. 62 No 2 pp. 256-265, 2010.

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 Section 3
Bubble and drop dynamics
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 129

Heat and mass transfer in evaporating

turbulent drop-laden flow
R. Groll
Center of Applied Space Technology and Microgravity,
University of Bremen, Germany

Abstract
This work deals with the computational modelling of the mass transition of
evaporating liquid drop-laden gas flows. In the present study the evaporation
model due to Abramzon and Sirignano (1989) has been extended by introducing
an additional transport equation for a newly defined quantity a, defined as the
phase-interface surface fraction. This allows the change in the drop diameter to
be quantified in terms of a probability density function. The source term in the
equation describing the dynamics of the volumetric fraction of the dispersed phase
αD is related to the evaporation time scale τΓ .
Keywords: Euler/Euler approach, Euler/Lagrange approach, gas/liquid flow,
evaporation model, heat and mass transfer, volume and surface fraction.

1 Introduction
The dimensionless numbers characterizing the heat and mass exchange process are
Nusselt number N u and Sherwood number Sh. Several models (e.g. Renksizbulut
and Yuen [1] and Park et al. [2]) are based on the correlation model of Ranz and
Marshall [3] and have been developed to model the parameters. The evaporation
rate model of Abramzon and Sirignano [4] considers additionally the latent
heat flux of the evaporated liquid leaving the droplet. The correct capturing of
the gas phase humidity requires the liquid vapor mass ratio Y , influenced by
convective, conductive, turbulent and thermal diffusive effects, to be computed
from an appropriate transport equation in addition to the equation governing the
temperature field T .
In an evaporating process the mass transfer rate on the drop surface depends on
the drop size. The polydispersed spray consists of drops with different diameters.

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130 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

1.2
diameter pdf
1

0.8
f(Dp)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 Dp/D32 1.5 2

Figure 1: PDF of a normalized particle drop diameter in a polydispersed spray.

To determine the mass transfer, i.e. the evaporation rate for such a case, the drop
diameter distribution of the spray is necessary. Using the following approach
based on a particle diameter probability density function (PDF) (see Fig. 1 for
its graphical representation):

 2
Dp D2
Dp π Dp −π
4 2 9 Dp − 9 π 2p
f = e E(Dp ) with f (Dp ) = π 2 e 16 D32 (1)
E (Dp ) 2 E (Dp ) 8 D32

depending on the Sauter mean diameter,

 
E Dp3 6ᾱD ā ᾱ
D32 =  2  = ⇔   =   (2)
E Dp ā πE Dp2 π
6E Dp3

with the volumetric fraction α and the newly defined variable ā being the phase-
interface surface fraction,
Vliquid Aphase interface
α= a= (3)
(Vliquid + Vgas ) (Vliquid + Vgas )

the mass transfer rate are calculated as shown in the further work. The expectation
values of the squared and cubic diameters in terms of the Sauter mean diameter
only, result from this modelled PDF (eq. 1), e.g. Groll et al. [5]:
2   16 2   16 3
E (Dp ) = D32 E Dp2 = D E Dp3 = D (4)
3 9π 32 9π 32
A time dependent relation has to be defined to calculate the change of the drop
diameter when simulating motion of a polydispersed phase. The change of the
expectation value of the diameter squared is presumed to be constant in accordance

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 131

to the d2 -law (Kastner [6]):

d  2
E Dp = −Γ. (5)
dt
Integration of this equation results in the time-dependent solution for the drop
diameter: 
Dp (t) = Dp2 (0) − Γt. (6)

Substitution of the expectation value with the given density function definition

d  2 16 d 2 32 d 9π Γ
−Γ = E Dp = D = Ḋ32 D32 ⇒ Ḋ32 = − (7)
dt 9π dt 32 9π dt 32 D32
reveals that the deviation of the Sauter mean diameter depends on the evaporation
constant of the d2 -law. Based on this formulation, the following equation has been
derived:


d  3 16 d 3 16 2 d 2 3
E Dp = D32 = Ḋ32 D32 + D32 D32 = − ΓD32 . (8)
dt 9π dt 9π dt 2

With this expression, the time-dependent change of an expected drop volume is

defined. The outcome of the last equation is used for the determination of the mass
transfer of a drop with the expected mass m̄p :

dm̄p π d   π
= ρD E Dp3 = − ρD D32 Γ. (9)
dt 6 dt 4
Based on the evaporation model due to Abramzon and Sirignano [4], the mass
transfer rate at the surface of a drops cloud representing a function of the modified
Sherwood number Sh∗ and the mass transfer coefficient BM is to be determined
by using the following equations:

ṁ = πD21 ρC Dαβ Sh∗ ln (1 + BM ) (10)

The definitions of the Sherwood number and its modification and the mass
transfer coefficient are given in Section 3. By equalizing the PDF-dependent
mass transfer rate and the modelled mass transfer rate, the evaporation factor
Sh∗ ln (1 + BM ) in the model of Abramzon and Sirignano [4] is defined as:
π D
ρ D32 Γ = −ṁp = ṁ = πD21 ρC Dαβ Sh∗ ln (1 + BM )
4
D21 ρC
⇒Γ=4 Dαβ Sh∗ ln (1 + BM ) . (11)
D32 ρD

In accordance to the d2 -law, the evaporation constant should be independent of

the particle diameters. This fact brings an additional constraint to the expectation
values of the probability function: D21 /D32 =const. The given PDF fulfills this

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condition as follows:
   
D21 E D2 E D2 8
= = . (12)
D32 E (D) E (D3 ) 3π
With the proposal of Abramzon and Sirignano, the time-dependent modelling
of the drop diameter probability function is closed. Combining this information
with the relation of the change of the specific volume α and the specific surface a,
described in section 2, the transport equations are developed.

2 Evaporation progress

The model developed serves for calculation of the evaporation rate of spherical
water drops. Water is a liquid dispersed phase, which satisfies the d2 -law (e.g.
Kastner [6]). Keeping in mind the definition of the life time of a drop T and its
diameter loss rate, it is known, that each drop with a diameter
1
Dp < (ΓT ) 2 (13)

is evaporated completely. To determine the number of the evaporated drops in a

cloud, the probability density function has to be integrated in the following way:
1
(ΓT
 )2
f (Dp ) dDp . (14)
0

Consequently, the time change of the particle number is obtained as follows:

 1

(ΓT
 )2
9π ΓT 
dn̄  n̄  n̄ − 16 2
= − lim   
f (Dp ) dDp  = lim e D
32 −1 (15)
dt T →0 T T →0 T
0

 n̄   9π Γ
= lim emT − 1 ; m=− 2 (16)
T →0 T 16 D32
 n̄  1

= lim (1 + mT ) mT ·mT − 1
T →0 T
 n̄  9π Γ
= lim mT = n̄m = − 2 n̄.
T →0 T 16 D32

The time change of the volumetric fraction ᾱD is calculated by using the results
represented by Eqs. (8) and (15):
dᾱD π   d π d  3
= E Dp3 n̄ + n̄ E Dp
dt 6 dt 6 dt
π 16 3 9π Γ π 3 45 ΓᾱD
=− D32 · 2 n̄ − n̄ · ΓD 32 = − π 2 (17)
6 9π 16 D32 6 2 32 D32
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 133

The time change of the Sauter mean diameter (Eq. 2) consists of the deviations
of the volumetric fraction and the surface fraction:



6 dᾱD dā 1 dᾱD 1 dā
Ḋ32 = 2 ā − ᾱD = D32 − (18)
ā dt dt ᾱD dt ā dt
Utilizing the results following from the Eqs. (7) and (17), the change of the
surface fraction can also be formulated in terms of the evaporation constant and
the Sauter mean diameter:
1 dā 1 dᾱD 1 dD32 9π Γ dā 9π Γ
= D − =− 2 ⇒ =− 2 ā. (19)
ā dt ᾱ dt D32 dt 8 D32 dt 8 D32
The source terms of the α-equation (Eq. 17) and the a-equation (Eq. 19) stay in
following relationship:
1 dᾱD 5 1 dā
= · . (20)
ᾱD dt 4 ā dt
Obviously, the source terms in both transport equations can be formulated in
terms of the same parameter: τΓ (Eq. 23). With the definition of the particle
diameter probability density function as the starting point, the evaporation process
is finally modelled by the following two transport equations:
    5
∂t ρD ᾱD + ∂j ρD ᾱD < uD j >
D
= − ρD τΓ−1 ᾱD (21)
4
    D −1
∂t ρD ā + ∂j ρD ā < uD
j > D
= −ρ τΓ ā (22)

The convective transport in both equations is defined by the volume-fraction-

weighted averaged particle velocity < uD D
i > (e.g. Politis [7]). The first equation
(Eq. 21) originates from the well-known mass balance of the dispersed phase with
a mass transfer defining source term. The second equation (Eq. 22) governs the
surface fraction of the dispersed phase, being the synonym for the cloud surface
per volume. The evaporation time scale τΓ , the source terms of this evaporation-
describing two-equation model depend upon, reads:

−1 2
dā 8 D32
τΓ = −ā = (23)
dt 9π Γ

Accordingly, the transport of both quantities αD and a depends on the

evaporation constant Γ, which is given by the d2 -law. Introducing the definition
of the evaporation constant, the final expression serving for the determination of
the evaporation time scale is given by:
2
D32 ρD −1
τΓ = [Dαβ Sh∗ ln (1 + BM )] . (24)
12 ρC
By solving the equations of the α-a-model the evaporation rate of a spray
stream can be quantified. In such a way, the mass balance of a two-phase flow
is completely satisfied.

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134 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

3 Radiation, heat and mass transfer

In accordance to the transport of the absolute humidity Y the density of the
continuous phase consisting of the vapor and the carrier gas phase (p.e. air)
changes depending on that value:

ρvapor ρair
ρC = = . (25)
Y 1−Y
D
The radiative heat flux per volume q̇rad , absorbed by a particle, is defined in
terms of its surface area per volume a, the absorption coefficient of the dispersed
phase D
abs and the difference of the fourth powers of the absolute temperatures.
 C 4 D 4

D
q̇rad = aD
abs σ (T ) − (T ) , Dabs = abs = 0, 92
water
(26)

with the Stephan-Boltzmann constant σ = 5, 67051 · 10−8 W/(m2 K). This term
represents an additional source term in the equation of thermal transport. Due to
the equivalence of emission and absorption coefficients, the radiative flux can take
negative values, if the dispersed phase is on the higher temperature level compared
to the continuous one.
As defined in the evaporation model of Abramzon and Sirignano [4], the heat
transfer at the surface of an evaporating drop depends on the latent heat L(T D ),
the temperature difference and the mass transfer ṁ
   
cDp T −T
C D  D
QL = ṁ −L T . (27)
BT

The heat transfer coefficient BT is to be computed from the “Abramzon and

Sirignano”-model algorithm. By utilizing Eq. (21), this heat source term can be
expressed in terms of τΓ in a volume specific way.
Using the following definition of the evaporation enthalpy

−1
R0 1 1 psat (Tref )
∆hv = vapor − ln (28)
M TD Tref psat (T D )

the heat, which is used for the evaporation process, can be subtracted from the heat
of the continuous phase. The temperature Tref denoting the gas temperature near
the drop surface is formulated by the 1/3-law (Hubbard et al. [8]):
  1
Tref = T D + Ar T C − T D with Ar = . (29)
3
The final two equations completing the Euler/Euler computational scheme are
those governing the thermal transport between the phases being represented by the
particular set of temperature equations. The liquid mass leaving the droplet in the
evaporation process influences strongly both the heat and mass transfer between
the phases. This process is accounted for by the Spalding heat and mass transfer

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 135

coefficients BT (Eq. 27) and BM (Eq. 23). This algorithm for their determination
is pointed out by the evaporation model proposed by Abramzon and Sirignano [4].
The relative humidity 0 ≤ φ ≤ 1 is defined by the ratio of the vapor mass ratio
to its maximum: φ = Y /Ysat . The mass transfer per surface of a cloud of spherical
particles
ṁ Sh  
= ρC Dαβ BM with AO = π E Dp2
AO E (Dp )
⇒ ṁ = ρC πD21 Dαβ ShBM (30)

depends on the Sherwood Number Sh and the mass transfer coefficient BM :

Ysat − Y∞ Ysat Y∞
BM = = − (31)
1 − Ysat 1 − Ysat 1 − Ysat
The heat flux
   
QL = NuπD21 λC T C − T D − ṁ L T D (32)

depending on the Nusselt number N u can also be defined in terms of the heat
transfer coefficient BT and the liquid temperature dependent latent heat L(T D ):
 C     
p T −T
cD D
p T −T
cD C D  D
BT = ⇒ QL = ṁ −L T . (33)
QL /ṁ + L (T D ) BT

Utilizing the heat flux definition given by Eq. (32), the mass transfer rate
formulae can be finally written as a function of the Nusselt number

λC
ṁ = πD21 NuBT . (34)
cD
p

In such a way, the mass transfer from the liquid to the gas phase can be
determined modelling the Nusselt number N u and the Spalding Heat transfer
coefficient BT with the evaporation model of Abramzon and Sirignano [4].

4 Computational results and discussion

The flow configuration simulated of a turbulent, gas/liquid channel flow, being
discretized for the quarter channel, is considered. Similar as in the particle-laden
cases, a three-dimensional solution domain was adopted. The results obtained by
the Euler/Euler computational model were compared with the results obtained
by an Euler/Lagrange method (e.g. Sommerfeld et al. [9]) solving the transport
equations of the carrier phase (Euler framework) and individual tracking of the
droplet parcels (14.800 trajectories were introduced into the flow field displayed
in Figs. 2–4.
The boundary conditions of the flow configurations considered (channel
dimensions, bulk Reynolds number, turbulence intensities,. . . ) correspond to the

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136 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

geometry used for the experimental investigation of the particle-laden flow by

Kulick et al. [10]. Instead of solid particles, the flow was laden with droplets
characterized by their uniform distribution along the entire inlet cross-section. This
flow configuration (no experimental data for the evaporation process exist) with the
mass loading of the liquid phase being set to Z = 1% is simulated, corresponding
to a dilute liquid/gas two-phase flow. As already noted, the present evaporation
model was assessed by contrasting the Euler/Euler results to the results of the
Euler/Lagrange method exclusively.
Figs. 2–4 show some selected results obtained by both approaches. In order to
provide the fully-developed flow and turbulence conditions, a completely saturated
gas phase (relative humidity was taken to be 100%, outside the left boundary of
Fig. 2) was computed over the duct length of 260h = 5.2m (h-channel half-
width), prior to the onset of the evaporation process. The liquid phase evaporation
was introduced by heating the duct walls (in such a way the temperature derivative
corresponding to the difference between 353K prescribed at the inlet cross-section
- x = 0 - and the constant wall temperature of 368K was imposed, Fig. 2) causing
a decrease in the relative humidity, Fig. 2. The temperature range (T < 100o C)
was chosen to prevent complete evaporation. The work focused primarily on
the evaporation process due to concentration gradient. The temperature range
prescribed corresponds to the high saturation pressure derivative dpsat /dT (i.e.
dYsat /dT ).
A somewhat slower penetration of the heat flux into the flow core (Fig. 2,
lower), obtained by the Euler/Lagrange method in conjunction with original
evaporation model of Abramzon and Sirignano [4] implemented in the AVL
SWIFT commercial flow solver, causes weaker temperature gradients in this
region, leading to a less intensive evaporation process, a fact represented by a
slightly higher vapor concentration (weaker decrease from the initial 100%, Fig. 2
lower). Fig. 3a shows the isolines of the relative Reynolds number (important
for the determination of the drag force relaxation time scale τp in the volume
fraction weighted momentum equation for the continuous phase) based on the

0.02
926
84528

0.015 0.714286 0.678571

71 6

0.7
0.8928 0.821429 0.785714 5
Y

0.01 57 0.857143
0.005 0.9
0.96

28
57
1
42

0
5.2 5.6 6 6.4 6.8 7.2 7.6 X 8 8.4 8.8 9.2 9.6 10 10.4

0.02
0.9 0.775681
39 0.857787 0.693575
0.015 89
4
0.775681
0.93 0.857
Y

0.01 989 787

4 0.7
75
0.9 68
0.8

0.005 39 1
57

89
4
78

0
7

5.2 5.6 6 6.4 6.8 7.2 7.6 X 8 8.4 8.8 9.2 9.6 10 10.4

Figure 2: Comparison of the relative humidities obtained by the present

Euler/Euler scheme (upper) and the Euler/Lagrange method (lower).

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 137

a)
0.02 12.8255 0.02
11.1379
7.08776
0.015 0.015 0.0897333
3.71263 0
1.68756 0.179467

5.73771
0.337512 0.5384
0.01 0.01
Y

Y
1.01254 0.8076
0.987067

1.35005
2.02507

2.02507
0.005 1 63 0.005
2.7001 376 512 12 1.05832
3.0 7 3.7
3.3
0 0
0 0.05 0.1 Z 0.15 0.2 0 0.05 0.1 Z 0.15 0.2

b)
0.02 0.96646 0.02 1.30568 1.57434
0.498675 1.03703
0.264783 0.701211
0.186819
0.015 0.147837 0.015
0.49972
0.108855
0.01 0.01
Y

Y
0.069873
0.365393
0.0480359 0.323451
0.005 0.005
0.0374476 0.30505
7
0 0
0 0.05 0.1 Z 0.15 0.2 0 0.05 0.1 Z 0.15 0.2

c)
0.02 0.028363 0.02 0.0328638 0.02 0.0
29 807 0.0 328638
0.146188 0.00815613 0. 47688
05 4
0.015 0.234558 0.015 0.0130977 0.0 75
42 71
0.38184 0.0 74 4
0.0279222 18 0.02 68
0.529121 03 298
0.01 0.01 92 07
Y

0.735316 Y 0.0427468
0.912054 0.0575714
0.005 0.005
1.08879
1.23607 444
0.0674545
0 1.32 0
0 0.05 0.1 Z 0.15 0.2 0 0.05 0.1 Z 0.15 0.2

Figure 3: Isolines of a) Reynolds number Rerel , b) mass transfer coefficients BM

and c) time scale of evaporation τΓ across the duct at two selected
longitudinal locations x/h = 20 (left) and 140 (right) obtained by the
present Euler/Euler scheme.

0.02
0
0.015 5.714
9.8 9.2 29E-0
857 8.5 7.1 5
714 7.8
Y

0.01 50 1E- 428

35 05 3E- 57 6E-
0.005 E- 05 14 05
05 E-
05
0
5.2 5.6 6 6.4 6.8 7.2 7.6 X 8 8.4 8.8 9.2 9.6 10 10.4

0.02

0.015
8.35 9.2
4.6 857
714 6.5 428 2.7 1E-
85
Y

0.01 E -0 E-0 07
1.11 6 6 6E 71
429E -06 E-0
0.005 -05 6
1.3E-05
0
5.2 5.6 6 6.4 6.8 7.2 7.6 X 8 8.4 8.8 9.2 9.6 10 10.4

Figure 4: Droplet diameter (upper) and volume fraction αD (lower) isolines

obtained by the present Euler/Euler scheme.

velocity difference |
uC −
uD | and droplet diameter Dp in the right top quarter of
the duct cross-section at two selected longitudinal locations. The results confirm
the general reduction of the Reynolds number due to the droplet evaporation
(diameter reduction and consequently the volume fraction αD reduction, Fig. 4).
This tendency is particularly pronounced in the near-wall flow regions. Fig. 3b
displays the evolution of the mass transfer coefficients BM in the Abramzon and
Sirignano evaporation model. This coefficient, representing indeed a measure of
the vapor fraction being absorbed by the surrounding gas phase, increases due
to warm up of the gas phase. The ratio of the droplet surface to the droplet

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138 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
2y/H

2y/H
0.4 0.4

verd. 0,10 mm verd. 0,10 mm

0.2
verd. 0,05 mm 0.2
verd. 0,05 mm
0,10 mm 0,10 mm
0,05 mm 0,05 mm
0 0
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2
Nu* : x/H=20 Nu* : x/H=90

Figure 5: Modified Nusselt-number at two selected locations: x/h = 20 and 90.

volume increases by the droplet diameter reduction. Due to the temperature raise,
resulting in the intensification of the evaporating process, the time scale of the
evaporation is decreasing, Fig. 3c. Fig. 5 illustrates the influence of the evaporation
(non-evaporating liquid phase was also computationally simulated) and droplet
diameter (two different Dp -values were analyzed: 50 and 100 µm) on the Nusselt-
number redistribution across the channel. Whereas no significant changes in the
Nusselt-number behavior in the case without evaporation (symbols) are noticed,
the modified Nusselt number exhibits a decrease in the region with the dominating
influence of the small droplets (near wall) if the evaporation is accounted for
(lines). In contrast, the increasing effect of the modification (in terms of the
Reynolds number, Fig. 3a) is pronounced in the flow core.

References
[1] Renksizbulut, M. & Yuen, M.C., Experimental study of droplet evaporation
in a high-temperature air stream. ASME Journal of Heat Transfer, 105:384–
388, 1983.
[2] Park, T.W., Aggarwal, S.K. & Katta, V.R., Gravity effects on the dynamics
of evaporating droplets in a heated jet. Journal of Propulsion and Power,
11(3):519–528, 1995.
[3] Ranz, W.E. & Marshall W.R., Evaporation from drops: parts I & II. Chemical
Engineering Progress, 48:141–146, 173–180, 1952.
[4] Abramzon, B. & Sirignano, W.A., Droplet vaporization model for spray
combustion calculations. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 32:1605–1618, 1989.
[5] Groll, R., Jakirlić, S. & Tropea, C., Comparative study of Euler/Euler and
Euler/Lagrange approaches simulating evaporation in a turbulent gas liquid
flow. Int. J. for Num. Meth. in Fluids; 59:873–906, 2009.
[6] Kastner, O., Theoretische und experimentelle Untersuchungen zum
Stoffübergang von Einzeltropfen in einem akustischen Rohrlevitator.
Dissertation, Technische Fakultät der Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 2001.
[7] Politis, S., Prediction of Two-Phase Solid-Liquid Turbulent Flow in Stirred
Vessels. PhD Thesis, Imperial College London, 1989.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 139

[8] Hubbard, G.L., Denny, V.E. & Mills, S.F., Droplet vaporization - effects on
transient and variable properties. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 18:1003–1008,
1975.
[9] Sommerfeld, M., Kohnen, G. Qiu & H.H., Spray evaporation in turbulent
flow: numerical calculations and detailed experiments by phase-doppler
anemometry. Revue de Institut Francais du Petrole, 48(6):677–695, 1993.
[10] Kulick, J.D., Fessler, J. & Eaton, J.K., Particle response and turbulence
modification in fully developed channel flow. J. Fluid Mech., 277:109–134,
1994.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 141

Investigating the influence of fines in

fluidized bed reactors using 3D ECT images
C. Rautenbach, M. C. Melaaen & B. M. Halvorsen
Institute for Process, Energy and Environmental Technology,
Telemark University College, Norway

Abstract

Electrical Capacitance Tomography (ECT) has become a useful measurement

tool in process technology applications, especially in fluidized bed research. The
ECT system is neither intrusive nor invasive which make the system practically
viable for monitoring the internal flow behaviour in a fluidized bed. The sensor
is placed on the outside of the non-conductive experimental reactor thus making
implementation very convenient. ECT also presents user friendly equipment that
is safe and easy to use compared to some of the other tomographic modalities
currently available.
There has been postulated that the insertion of fines into a powder will give more
uniform flow behaviour in a fluidized bed. Smaller and more evenly distributed
bubbles are observed. These conditions lead to better mixing of gas and solids in a
fluidized bed and thus improving the reactions in the reactor. These phenomena
have been investigated in the present study using ECT and a reconstruction
program developed in the present study. This reconstruction program created
three dimensional images of the fluidized bed reactor under consideration. The
reconstructions allow the user to get a three dimensional visual image of the flow
behaviour inside the experimental reactor without disturbing the flow. Bubble-
and bed characteristics of several powders with different percentages of fines
were investigated. The volume, location and shape of individual bubbles were
studied and thus the average bubble size, volume and frequency of a particular
experimental set up was calculated. These quantities are of great importance for
numerous industrial applications. Applications of these results are in almost all
fields involving fluidization. The research is part of ongoing global research in
optimizing and understanding fluidized beds better.

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142 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

The results are given, and its concluded that the insertion of fines into a powder
would have the effect of smaller bubbles and cause Geldart type D powders to be
less prone to slugging behaviour.
Keywords: fluidization, ECT, fines, bubble characteristics.

1 Introduction
Process tomography has been used to visualise internal flow behaviour of
numerous industrial processes [1]. In the past intrusive techniques were used in
an attempt to visualise flow processes that would otherwise not lend it self to be
studied visually. The problem with such intrusive measuring techniques is that
they alter the normal flow behaviour of the process. Doubts thus arises whether the
recorded data is an accurate reflection of how that process would otherwise behave,
react or change. In fluidized beds the flow behaviour is of great importance.
The better a rector can be understood the better predictions can be made of its
behaviour. Optimizing these reactors’ mixing capabilities increases production
and thus cost effectiveness. Better modeling and non-intrusive measurements of
bubbling behaviour, mixing and circulation properties can have a drastic impact
on optimizing fluidized bed reactors. With this in mind the influence of fine in a
fluidized bed reactor was investigated in the present study using the ECT system
and a reconstruction program developed for the present study.

1.1 The ECT system

A two plane ECT system was used in the present study. It consists of two arrays
of electrodes and each array contains twelve electrodes. In Figure 1(a) a schematic
drawing of the ECT sensor is given. The location and size of the electrodes
were designed by Process Tomography Ltd. [2]. The sensor is covered by a
grounded screen to protect the electrodes from external noise because the sensor
operates with a soft field and is very susceptible to external interference. The non-
invasive neither intrusive nature of the sensor can be observed in Figure 1(b).
The electrodes are placed on the circumference of the experimental tower and
thus does not influence the internal flow behaviour. The ECT system produces a
cross-sectional image showing the distribution of electrical permittivities of the
content of the experimental tower from measurements taken at the boundary of
the vessel [3]. The capacitance reading is taken between each set of electrodes and
thus n/2(n − 1) different capacitance values are recorded in one measurement,
where n is the number of electrodes. These measurements are interpreted and
illustrated as a colourful image using a reconstruction algorithm provided by
Process Tomography Ltd. [2]. An example of an image depicting the solid fraction
distribution in a fluidized bed is given in Figure 2(b). The resolution of the image
is usually relatively low but can be sampled at high sample rates. Off-line image
processing can also improve the quality of the image dramatically [4].
The measuring planes are situated at two different locations. One at height of
156.5 mm and the other at a height of 286.5 mm above the gas distributor. The

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(a) (b)

Figure 1: A not to scale drawing of the two plane ECT system utilised in the
present study. (a) The two measuring planes of the system are indicated
together with the electrodes and earthed guard screen. (b) The ECT
system together with the experimental tower, acquisition system and the
computer recording the data.

lower plane will be called plane one and the upper plane, plane two (refer to
Figure 1(a)). Even though the ECT system calculates averages, the data that are
obtained are viewed as a slice through the bed at the center of each sensor. Plane
one and plane two is thus located at the center position of the electrodes (refer to
Figure 1(a)).
The obtained image consists of pixels and each pixel represents an average
solid fraction value. The average is taken over a rectangular volume equal to
9.77×10−7 m3 [3]. A 32×32 pixel image is produced and the pixels that falls
outside the circular tower will assume zero values (refer to Figure 2).
Theoretically, the more electrodes one uses the smaller the electrodes become
and the more dominant the background noise can become. Thus a trade of has to
be made so that the electrode is not too small but also not too large. When the
electrodes are too large the resolution of the produce image will be very low. The
system with twelve electrodes can capture up to a hundred 32×32 matrix maps
of solid fractions per second and increasing to two hundred frames per second for
an eight electrode sensor [3]. Practically between six and sixteen electrodes are
normally used [2].

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0.6
5

Bed diameter (pixels)

0.5
10 Bubble
0.4
15

0.3
20

0.2
25
Fluidized particles
0.1
30

5 10 15 20 25 30
Bed diameter (pixels)

(a) (b)

Figure 2: (a) A cross-sectional view of the ECT sensor together with the 1024
pixels created by the reconstruction program and (b) a cross-sectional
image of the experimental tower indicating the solid fraction values
inside the tower at a particular plane. Red indicates particles at minimum
fluidization conditions and blue indicates air.

1.2 Experimental set-up and procedure

This system also requires calibration. First the tower is left empty so that just air
is present. The ECT software then calibrates this as the low permittivity material
(the blue colour in Figure 2(b)). Then the tower is filled with the powder that is
investigated and the ECT software calibrates this as the high permittivity material
(the red colour in Figure 2(b)) [2]. This provides the reconstruction algorithm
the necessary boundary conditions to accurately represent the permittivities in-
between these two extreme values.
A series of four powder and powder mixes were used during the present study.
The characteristics of the investigated powders are presented in Table 1. For
convenience abbreviations will be used in the figures and they are as follows: the
mixture containing fifty percent 100–200µm powder and fifty percent 400–600µm
will be called ‘mix 1’ and the mixed powder containing eighty three percent of
the 750–1000µm powder and eight and a half percent 400–600µm and 100–
200µm powder respectively will be called ‘mix 2’. The mean particle diameter
was calculated using the surface-volume mean diameter and is defined as
1
dsv =
, (1)
i i /di
x

with xi the mass fraction of the particular particle size and di the particular
particle size. The minimum fluidization velocity (umf ) was determined using
either pressure drop measurements or the standard deviation of the average solid

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Table 1: Relevant parameters of the powders used in the present study.

Powders used Mean particle Solid fraction umf

size (dsv ) [µm] (
s ) [-] [m/s]

100–200µm 153 [5] 0.68 0.022

400–600µm 482.9 0.68 0.21 [6]

750–1000µm 899.15 0.67 0.42 [6]

mix 1 : 50% 100–200µm,

50% 400–600µm 265.58 0.66 0.037

mix 2 : 8.5% 100–200µm,

8.5% 400–600µm,
83% 750–1000µm - 0.7 0.27

fraction measurements or both [4]. Both methods are acceptable and the values
obtained agrees significantly.
Gas was fed into the 10.4cm experimental tower through a porous plate
distributor. Air was used as fluidizing fluid and all of the powders mentioned in
Table 1 were made from glass with a density of 2485kg/m3.
After calibration a set of experiments were conducted each at a different
superficial velocity, u0 . After several measurement at different superficial
velocities have been made for one powder the tower was emptied and the same
procedure was followed with one of the other powders under consideration.
Starting with calibration and ending with the actual measurements. All of the
measurements made in the present study were taken over a 60s period. According
to Makkawi and Wright this is an acceptable experimental span and will produce
stable and reliable results [3].

1.3 The reconstruction program

The commercial code MATLAB was employed in developing the reconstruction

program. For each experiment where 60s of data were recorded a series of 6000
images were produced. These images were organised and sorted and then it was
read in, one by one, into the reconstruction program. For each image (which can
be viewed as a ‘slice’ through the reactor) bubbles were recognised, labeled and
saved. Information about the bubble diameter, location and shape were also stored
into a growing data structure. Then the next image was read in and the same was
done except now it was compared to the previous image. By doing this the program
could connect these separate images to produce a three dimensional image of

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bubbles and other phenomena in a fluidized bed. Quantities like the bubble volume
and height could also be determined that would otherwise have been impossible
by just using separate images.
The two planes of the ECT system also make it possible to correlate velocities.
This could not be done in the present study because of the dramatic changes
the fluidized bubbles go through from one measuring plane to the other. Bubble
coalesce and split before they reach the second measuring plane. This makes
tracing a single bubble no trivial task. If the 6000 recorded images were to be
placed one after the other a time stacked image will be produced. This is because
it is only time that separates one image being recorded from the next. To convert
the time stacked images into a three dimensional image in space only the bubble
velocity was needed. Equations predicting the bubble velocity were used to get
a semi-empirical estimation of the bubble velocity as described by Kunii and
Levenspiel [7]. These equations required the bubble diameter (bd ) as independent
variable and the values that were obtained from the reconstruction program was
used for this parameter. To estimate the bubble diameter the mean diameter of all
the ‘slices’ of a single bubble was calculated by the program and then the mean
of all the bubbles mean diameters were calculated to produce the representative
average bubble diameter for a particular experiment.
To determine the bubble velocity three expressions were used that give
estimations of the bubble rise velocities in bubbling beds. The bubble velocity
for a single bubble is given as
1/2
ubr = 0.711 (gbd ) , (2)

according to the Davidson and Harrison model [8]. For bubbles in a bubbling bed
the Davidson and Harrison model states

ub = uo − umf + ubr , (3)

with uo the superficial velocity and umf the minimum fluidization velocity. The
second equation covers all the particles size distributions, Geldart A to D, and
takes the reactor’s diameter into account. This equation was proposed by Werther
[7] and is expressed as

ub = ψ (uo − umf ) + αubr , (4)

where ψ is the fraction of visible bubbles and α compensates for the differences
between a single rising bubble and bubbles rising in a bubbling bed. Empirical
estimations for these quantities are described by Kunii and Levenspiel [7]. Kunii
and Levenspiel proposed the third correlation and is based on experimental data of
Geldart B particles in a tower with a diameter less than one meter. This correlation
is expressed as
 
1/2
ub = 1.6 (uo − umf ) + 1.13bd d1.35
t + ubr , (5)

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with dt the tower diameter [7]. According to Kunii and Levenspiel equations (3) to
(5) must be calculated and the larger value must be used as the bubble rise velocity,
ub . This procedure was followed in the present study.

2 Results and discussion

To present the result in a clear way a velocity coefficient, vc , was introduced. This
dimensionless quantity made it possible to plot most of the obtained data of a
particular parameter in one figure. The coefficient used is defined as

ub − (uo − umf )
vc = √ , (6)
gdt

where ub is the bubble rise velocity, uo is the superficial velocity, umf is the
minimum fluidization velocity and dt is the experimental tower diameter.
In Figure 3(a) the bubble diameter ratio as a function of the velocity coefficient
is given and all the data obtained, from both plane one and plane two, followed
the same trend. A quadratic fit was also made and presented along with the data.
The data and thus the quadratic fit seem to be independent of the height above the
distributor. This might seem in contradiction with equation (7) but this apparent
independence of z is merely an effect of the velocity coefficient.
Numerous experimental correlations have been developed over the years to
estimate the bubble size in a fluidized bed and mainly for small experimental
towers with Geldart B particles [7]. One such a correlation is given by Werther
for Geldart B particles that is fluidized through a porous plate distributor and is
expressed as [7]
1/3 1.21
bd = 0.853 [1 + 0.272 (u0 − umf )] (1 + 0.0684z) [cm], (7)

where z is the height above the distributor and bd the bubble diameter. Equation (7)
along with data obtained from the 100–200µm powder are given in Figure 3(b).
From Figure 3(b) the correlation between the experimental data and equation
(7) is inadequate. One trivial explanation for this inadequate correlation might
be because of the definition of the average bubble diameter in the present study
(refer to Section 1.3). Usually the bubble diameter, bd , is defined as the diameter
of an equivalent sphere having the same volume as the actual bubble [8]. With the
ECT system and the reconstruction program this definition was impractical for the
present study. The operating condition of equation (7) is given as follows

dt > 20cm, 1 ≤ umf ≤ 8cm/s,

100 ≤ dp ≤ 350µm, 5 ≤ uo − umf ≤ 30cm/s.

These operating conditions thus does not cover all the parameters of the 100–
200µm powder experiments’ operating condition and thus discrepancies could be
expected.

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148 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

0.45
100Ŧ200Pm at plane1
Quadratic fit
0.4 mix1 at plane1 (refer to Table 1)
mix2 at plane1 (refer to Table 1)
750Ŧ1000Pm at plane1
0.35 100Ŧ200Pm at plane2
mix1 at plane2 (refer to Table 1)
t
Diameter ratio: b /d
d

mix2 at plane2 (refer to Table 1)

0.3
750Ŧ1000Pm at plane2

0.25

0.2
2
dr = 2*vc Ŧ 0.0091*vc + 0.0013
0.15

0.1
0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.4 0.42 0.44
Velocity coefficient: u Ŧ(u Ŧu )/sqrt(gd )
b o mf t

(a)

0.6
Equation (7) at plane1
0.55 Equation (7) at plane2
100Ŧ200Pm at plane1
0.5 100Ŧ200Pm at plane2

0.45
t
Diameter ratio: b /d
d

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1
4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Excess velocity: u Ŧu [cm/s]
o mf

(b)

Figure 3: (a) Dimensionless velocity coefficient against the dimensionless

diameter ratio, dr , for both plane one and plane two. A quadratic fit to
the data is also given along with its equation. (b) Theoretical equation
(7) against the 100–200µm particles data.

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Ŧ4
x 10

100Ŧ200Pm at plane1
Cubic fit
mix1 at plane1 (refer to Table 1)
mix2 at plane1 (refer to Table 1)
750Ŧ1000Pm at plane1
Average bubble volume [m ]

100Ŧ200Pm at plane2
3

2
mix1 at plane2 (refer to Table 1)
mix2 at plane2 (refer to Table 1)
750Ŧ1000Pm at plane2

Vb = 0.034*v3c Ŧ 0.027*v2c + 0.0072*vc

Ŧ 0.00064
1

Slugging
0
0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.4 0.42 0.44
Velocity coefficient: u Ŧ(u Ŧu )/sqrt(gd )
b o mf t

Figure 4: Average bubble volume, Vb , as a function of the velocity coefficient for

both plane one and plane two.

From Figure 3 it is not trivial to observe the influence of fines on a powder.

Nevertheless the equation produced by the quadratic fit might be a useful tool in
determination of the bubble diameter or of the velocity coefficient, depending on
which experimental data are available. Overall the fines caused a smaller average
bubble diameter which in turn caused a lower bubble rise velocity and thus low
velocity coefficient values (refer to Figure 3(a)).
In Figure 4 the average bubble volume is given as a function of the velocity
coefficient.
Again very similar behaviour is observed from all the recorded data at plane one
and plane two. A cubic fit was found to give a good estimation to all the recorded
data points at velocity coefficient values less than 0.38. At velocity coefficient
values greater that 0.38 some of the average bubble volume data deviate from
the cubic trend. These deviations occurred for all of the data recorded at plane
two and for the 750–1000µm powder at plane one as well. These deviation is
suspected to be an indication of the onset of the slugging regime. Slugs will cause
a lower bubble rise velocity and high average bubble volumes. This is clear in
Figure 4 from the higher values of the average bubble volume that was observe for
the 100–200µm powder and the mix 1 powder at plane two and the 750–1000µm
powder at plane one. The mix 2 powder’s data at plane two reached a maximum
average bubble volume at a velocity coefficient value of about 0.35 and then
decreased. This effect is attributed to segregation effects in the bed due to the large
particle size distribution that is present. As the superficial velocity is increased

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150 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

the bed mixes better and thus the bed behaviour can change as is observed with
the mix 2 powder. The average bubble volume for the mix 2 powder thus stayed
low compared to the case where just the 750–1000µm powder was present. It is
difficult to observe but the same evidence is present in Figure 3(a). When just the
750–1000µm powder was fluidized; evidence of slugging behaviour occurred even
at plane one. The presence of smaller particles or fines in a powder results in an
overall smaller average bubble. The last data point of the 750–1000µm powder had
a lower velocity coefficient and a lower average bubble volume. This is attributed
to a slug that collapsed because of instabilities in the forces that keep the slug’s
shape. This topic is part of on-going research and is not part of the present study.

3 Conclusion
The influence of fines in powders used in a fluidized bed has been investigated. A
range of different powders and powder mixtures have been used and these powders
were mainly from the Geldart group B. The effect of the fines in powders have
been studied by means of the bubble behaviour in the fluidized bed. Using an ECT
(Electrical Capacitance Tomography) system data were obtained from a fluidized
bed in operation and a reconstruction program developed for the present study
was used to calculate characteristics of the bubbles in the bubbling bed. These
characteristics were the bubble diameter and volume.
From the result it can be concluded that the insertion of fines into a powder has
the effect of smaller average bubble sizes in the fluidized bed. This was observed
in both the data obtained for the bubble diameter and volume. It was also evident
that fine cause a powder that is prone to slugging to require much larger superficial
velocities before signs of slugging set in. This was observed in Figures 3(a) and 4.
Fines is thus desirable in Geldart type D particles as it suppresses the slugging
behaviour that these particles would usually exhibit and instead causes smaller
bubbles that would lead to better mixing of the bed content.
Finally, two expressions were correlated using the experimental data. For the
diameter ratio the expression is given as

dr = 2vc2 − 0.0091vc + 0.0013, (8)

where dr is the dimensionless diameter ratio (bd /dt ) and vc is the velocity
coefficient (equation (6)). The expression for the average bubble volume is

Vb = 0.034vc3 − 0.027vc2 + 0.0072vc − 0.00064, (9)

where Vb is the average bubble volume. Deviation from these correlations seem to
appear with the on set of the slugging regime. As long as the bed is in the bubbling
regime these correlation should given an accurate estimation of the fluidized bed
behaviour. Whether these equations are generally adequate is not yet clear and
further research is needed to validate these empirical correlations.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 151

References
[1] Qiu, C., Hoyle, B.S. & Podd, F.J.W., Engineering and application
of dual-modality process tomography system. Flow Measurement and
Instrumentation, 18, pp. 247–254, 2007.
[2] Process tomography Ltd., 86 Water Lane, Wilmslow, Cheshire. SK9 5BB, UK,
PTL300-TP-G ECT system, Operation manual, 2003.
[3] Makkawi, Y.T. & Wright, P.C., Electrical capacitance tomography for
conventional fluidized bed measurements-remarks on the measuring
technique. Powder Technology, 148, pp. 142–157, 2004.
[4] Makkawi, Y.T. & Wright, P.C., Fluidization regimes in a conventional
fluidized bed characterized by means of electrical capacitance tomography.
Chemical Engineering Science, 57, pp. 2411–2437, 2002.
[5] Jayarathna, S.A., Recommendation of a model for simulating and analysis
of the influence of particle size distribution on the simulations of bubbling
fluidized beds. Master’s thesis, Telemark University College, 2008.
[6] Rautenbach, C., Modelling of flow through porous packing elements of a CO2
absorption tower. Master’s thesis, Stellenbosch University, 2009.
[7] Kunii, D. & Levenspiel, O., Fluidization Engineering second edition.
Butterworth-Heinemann series in chemical engineering: Oxford, U.K., 1991.
[8] Davidson, J.F. & Harrison, D., Fluidized particles. Cambridge University
Press: Cambrige, U.K., 1963.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 153

Experimental study of multiphase flow

in a model gearbox
V. Chernoray1 & M. Jahanmiri1,2
1
Division of Fluid Dynamics, Department of Applied Mechanics,
Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden
2
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,
Shiraz University of Technology, Iran

Abstract
This study concerns dynamics of a two-phase flow around a rotating solid body.
Under consideration is a model of a gear wheel in a gearbox which rotates and is
partially submerged in oil. The flow of interest is complex and involves effects
of free surface dynamics, rotation, and formation of bubbles and drops.
Occurring flow regimes include laminar, transitional and turbulent. The major
focus of the investigation is on details of the developed flow, and the purpose is
validation of numerical methods developed for design and optimization of such
components. Current experiments are performed in a test rig which is modelling
a generic simplified gearbox with a single isolated rotating wheel. The flow
measurements are carried out by using particle image velocimetry (PIV) and the
test rig is specially designed for this purpose with the optical access maximized.
The flow similarity with respect to a real gearbox is fully maintained and the
working fluid is a transparent mineral oil. The PIV measurements are performed
at four different rotation speeds for two different wheel configurations in order to
cover a spectrum of operational conditions needed for numerical modelling. The
emphasis is on the result of experiments on a smooth wheel. The measurements
are providing velocity distribution around the wheel and details on bubble and
drop distribution.
Keywords: bubble and drop dynamics, rotating wheel, splash, surface tension,
gear box, PIV measurements.

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154 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

1 Introduction
Multiphase flows are present in numerous engineering applications. For better
development of applied methods used in prediction and optimization of
engineering flows a deep understanding of underlying flow phenomena is
crucial. Nevertheless it is known that obtaining knowledge on complex
multiphase flows occurring in industrial processes [1] is often a challenging task
where both numerical simulations and experimental investigations can be very
demanding.
Gear lubrication is a significant concern in a wide range of industries which
use a power transmission. SAAB Powertrain Sweden is developing
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models for predicting and optimizing the
oil flow around rotating components in gearboxes. The main objective is to
optimise the losses in a gearbox and thereby decrease the fuel consumption and
exhaust emissions of vehicles. Furthermore, an effective lubrication reduces the
operating cost of a gearbox not only by improving the efficiency of
transmissions but also by prolonging the component lifetime. Increasing the
efficiency of gearboxes has a great market potential not only in the vehicle
industry but also in many other industries where the power transmission is used
such as the pulp industry, mining industry, wind and hydropower industry.
The gearbox optimization is rather complex problem since in a gearbox the
oil is used not only to reduce the friction between the gearwheels but also acting
as a cooling fluid. This means that both the oil amount and the oil flow have to
be optimised. The numerical prediction of the oil flow in a gearbox is not a
trivial task and reliable measurements for validation of CFD models are required.
There are surprisingly few studies which are focussing on the actual details of
the gearbox flow. The oil and airflow related losses are contributing to the so-
called load-independent spin power losses which include the air windage, oil
churning, inertial power loss from an impinging oil jet (for the case of jet
lubrication), fluid trapping and squeezing between meshing gear teeth, rotating
seals, and bearings [2]. Further discussion on importance of these losses can be
found in several recent works devoted to the gearbox efficiency [3–5]. A
particular insight into the fluid mechanics of gearboxes is attempted only in a
fewer works. In papers [6–8] the studies were performed by using CFD and in
papers [9, 10] the CFD was used in combination with experiments. However the
experimental data available in these works are very limited.
Current experimental study was initiated in order to complement the above
research. The investigation is performed by using PIV and the flow similarity
with respect to a real gearbox is maintained.

2 Experimental set-up
The gearbox model with single rotating wheel is shown in Fig. 1. The test rig is
representing a simplified model of a gearbox. The major idea is to isolate the
splash effects from the wall effects and for this purpose the box size is enlarged
as compared to the real gearbox. The rig is specially designed for using PIV

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 155

which means that the optical access to the flow is maximized. The dimensions of
the box are 0.82×0.52×0.32m3.The gear wheel is made interchangeable and the
wheel rotation speed can be varied to investigate different operational conditions.
The wheel models are produced by stereo lithography method and used wheels
have diameter of 0.22 m and thickness of 28 mm. Two wheel configurations are
used, a flat wheel, which can be seen in figure, and a spur gear wheel with 67
teeth.

Figure 1: Model gearbox and gear wheel. showing the experimental

configuration and position of the CCD cameras.

Two-dimensional, two-component PIV measurements (2D-2C) are reported

in this paper. The laser plane was positioned at wheel symmetry plane (midpoint
of the wheel thickness) and perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The camera
fields of view are depicted schematically in Fig. 2. Each of two cameras was
adjusted for own field of view for easiness of obtaining repeatable experiments.

Figure 2: Camera fields of view in relation to the wheel.small FOV is

50×50 mm2 and large FOV is 250×250 mm2.

The optical axis of camera is normal to the plane of the light sheet. The
camera fields of view are 50×50 mm2and 250×250 mm2. To obtain the flow
information around the other half of the wheel the wheel rotation direction was

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156 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

changed. Due to the flow symmetry this was equivalent to moving the field of
view to other side of the wheel.
The CCD cameras have resolution of 2048×2048 pixel (LaVision Imager pro
X 4M) with 7.4×7.4 µm2 pixel size. The laser is pulsed dual-cavity Nd-YAG
laser with 400 mJ/pulse at 532 nm (Spectra-Physics). The thickness of the light
sheet was approximately 5 mm. The flow was seeded with fluorescent particles
(PMMA Rhodamine B) with diameter of1-20 µm and density of 1.5 kg/m3. The
fluorescent light from particles is separated by a low-pass filter.
The working fluid is a transparent synthetic oil which has same viscosity at
room temperature as gearbox oil at design temperature. In this way the Reynolds
number similarity with a real gearbox is maintained.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Oil splash visualizations

The complexity of the flow in the model gearbox can be understood from
visualizations presented in Fig. 3. The flow is visualized for a single smooth
wheel rotated at rates from 50 to 700 rpm, which corresponds to Reynolds
number range from 3000 to 40000.This operating range is representative for a
city car driving cycle.
Figure 3 shows that the flow is divided into two parts, below and above the
oil surface. In the upper part, the flow is governed by the interplay between the
rotational inertia, gravity, surface tension, and viscous shear forces. In the below
part the same forces except the surface tension are of importance. At low rotation
rates (50 rpm) the flow is laminar in both of these parts and the two fluid phases,
oil and air, are distinctly separated. The flow problem in this case can be
compared to a laminar rotating drum problem [11]. As rotational rate increases,
the volume flow of the oil elevated by the wheel increases, and the streams of the
oil flowing down from the wheel are also becoming stronger. The oil jet
impinging into the oil pool results in air entrainment into the oil in the form of a
void. With increased jet momentum, the void grows in size until it becomes
unstable and collapses, and the mixing of the two fluids occurs with the
formation of bubbles in the oil. The physical mechanism of air entrainment by a
liquid jet is described in detail by Soh et al. [12].
The jet entrainment can either be laminar or turbulent, as our PIV data show,
and the particular case depends on the flow Reynolds number. The laminar jet is
undergoing the laminar-turbulent transition after the entrainment into the oil
pool. In either case the entraining jet is creating the turbulence in the oil pool. As
also shown by PIV measurements at 100 rpm (Re=6000) the laminar-turbulent
transition of the boundary layer on the submerged wheel surface occurs.
Due to further increase of the oil stream elevation with increased rotation rate
(150 rpm), the stream length increases and the pinch-off of the oil jet occurs,
which caused by the Rayleigh-Plateau instability. At rotation rate of 150 rpm the
inertia and shear forces become large enough to transport the oil beyond the
topmost wheel point which leads to the formation of a secondary oil stream on

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50 100

150 200

300 700

Figure 3: Smoothwheel at rotation rates of50, 100, 150, 200, 300,

700 rpm.Rotation direction is counter-clockwise, Re=3000-40000.

the left side of the wheel. This stream has larger velocity as compared to the
primary stream since the wheel tangential velocity vector on this side is directed
downwards, so the inertial and gravity forces acting in same direction
downwards and accelerating the stream. At 150 rpm rotation the secondary
stream is having a larger momentum as compared to the primary stream and
causes a deeper stream entrainment into the pool which in turn leads to the
formation of a larger amount of air bubbles to the left of the wheel. At rotation
rate of 200 rpm the oil film leaves the wheel surface on the topmost point of the
wheel. At this rotation rate the oil film thickness increases and the inertial force
overcomes the viscous forces. At 300 rpm the oil splashes are becoming strong
enough to reach the top and side walls of the surrounding box. At 700 rpm the oil
splashing flow is so strong that the oil from the top wall is running in all
directions and the oil streams can be observed on the front window of the box.
These streams are responsible for a significant optical distortion seen on picture.

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3.2 Air bubble visualizations

The air bubbles in the oil pool are primarily generated by the entraining oil jets.
The process of bubble creation was discussed in previous section. In current
section the bubble distributions are considered.
In Fig. 4 raw PIV images are presented which are showing the bubbles around
the wheel at different rotation rates. Each of visualizations is composed of two
images which were taken at different experimental runs, i.e. not simultaneously.
The bubbles are uniformly lighted up by the fluorescent light emitted from the
seeding particles and due to this appear as contours. This method of bubble
visualization is commonly called as planar fluorescence for bubble imaging
(PFBI) and the main advantage of PFBI that it can be applied in flows with large
void fractions of bubbles, up to 5-6% [13].
As seen in Fig. 4the air bubbles of various sizes are generated in the oil. The
bubble generation starts form rotation rates of 100 rpm, and the concentration of
bubbles increases with increased rotation rate. In Fig. 4 one can observe a variety
of bubble shapes from nearly spherical to elongated, aerofoil-like shapes. The
elongated bubbles are visible near the vicinity of the wheel where the counter
action of the inertial/shear forces and the buoyancy acting on bubbles leads to
their stretching.
The bubble occupation regions are also varying with the rotation rate. At 200
rpm the splash and bubble creation occur primarily near the wheel centre plane
and the bubble layer is localized around this plane. The bubble occupation zone
is limited to the region near the wheel. At higher rotation rates the splash streams
are becoming more spread so the bubble generation zone increases and the
bubble occupation zones also extend significantly. The oil motion leads to
further distribution of the bubbles so they are occupying the entire pool. After a
longer time interval the large bubble void fraction in the oil pool created far too
large obstruction of the light path so the image quality decreased drastically. To
overcome this effect, for rotation speeds of 400 and 1200 rpm the measurements
were performed only during a short time interval after the transient start of the
wheel.
At 400 rpm one can observe big bubbles which are rising up on the sides of
the wheel. As one can expect these bubbles are not following the wheel rotation
but inducing the vertical velocity and turbulence in the fluid [14] and acting as
obstacles for the sidewall boundary layers on the wheel. The lifespan of the
biggest bubbles is of the order of seconds and the smallest bubbles are remaining
in the pool for significantly longer time, of order of 1 hour. As one can expect
the smallest bubbles are following the flow streamlines very well.
For each rotation rate there is an own equilibrium state between the rate of
bubble generation and the rate of bubble escape from the bath. Increased rate of
the bubble generation leads to a larger bubble void fraction in the pool which in
turn increases the rate of bubble merging and escaping. Of great interest is to
study this process in detail which is planned in our future work.

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100

200

400

1200

Figure 4: Air bubbles around the flat wheel at rotation rates 100, 200, 400,
1200 rpm. Wheel rotation direction is counter-clockwise. Note the
elongated bubble shapes close to the wheel, and increase of bubble
concentration at increased rotation rates.

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3.3 Velocity fields

The mean velocity fields around the wheel obtained at different rotation rates are
presented in Fig. 5. One should notice that in this figure the velocity of the flow
in the upper part (above the oil surface) has to be considered only as a qualitative
result. Due to the fact that in the region above the oil surface the PIV technique
is applied to the oil drops instead of the seeding particles, and presence of strong
non-uniformities of illumination intensity and multiple light scattering, the
reliability of the data is poor. From other hand the top part of the flow is of
minor interest since the motion of the oil droplets is relatively simple and
described by ballistic parabolic trajectories.
From Fig. 5 it is clearly seen that as the rotation rate increases the viscosity-
dominated flow is changed to the flow with dominated inertial forces. As a
consequence, the characteristic scales of the flow change. For the bottom part the
characteristic scale is the thickness of the boundary layer. The thickness of the
boundary layer decreases with increased inertial forces. For the top part the
characteristic scale is the flying distance of the oil droplets. The flying distance
increases with increased inertial forces since the initial velocity of the oil drops
leaving the surface of the wheel increases.

50 100

200 400

Figure 5: Contours of average velocity magnitude at rotation rates of 50, 100,

200, and 400 rpm.

Analysis of the boundary layer profiles on the wheel surface has revealed that
the boundary layer is laminar at 50 rpm, transitional at 100 rpm and turbulent at
rotation rates above 200 rpm.
The breakdown of the oil jet which is emitted from the surface of the wheel
and enters the pool is illustrated in Fig. 6 for case of 100 rpm rotation rate. One
can observe that the initially laminar jet undergoes the instability phase and
become turbulent. At higher rotation rates the oil jets entering the pool become
turbulent nearly immediately after the entrance.

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Figure 6: Instantaneous velocity vector field showing the oil jet entrainment
and breakdown. 100 rpm case.
In fact for successful description of the multiphase flow the phases involved
have to be discriminated. Ideally for each phase the velocity and the void fraction
have to be determined. Among the methods which are commonly used for the
discrimination of the bubble phase, see [13–19], none is offering a good enough
reliability of the bubble recognition in the case of significantly irregular bubble
shapes and high degree of mutual bubble overlap. This means that in our case the
bubble discrimination appeared to be a non-trivial task. From other hand the
fluid phase discrimination was performed successfully by using common PIV
processing methods. The processing steps involve use of very strict settings for
the peak ratio criteria (peak ratio 2) and for the median filter criteria (1 r.m.s. of
the neighbours). As a result the most of the slow bubbles and bubble shadowed
zones were removed from the velocity fields. The result was further improved by
applying a3σ threshold to the time-series of images and removing the vectors
having far too small or excessive amplitudes as compared to other vectors in the
same time-series. A typical result after the processing is illustrated in Fig. 7. The
figure shows that the largest and slowest bubbles as well as the bubble shadows
are successfully removed from the velocity field. The smallest bubbles follow
the oil flow very well and are preserved.

Figure 7: PIV vector field combined with a raw image demonstrating that the
slow-moving bubbles and the bubble shadows are not contributing
to the velocity field. Every second vector is shown; case of 200 rpm
rotation rate.

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3.4 Comparison with spur gear wheel

Flow around a spur gear wheel has its own peculiarities. The air is trapped
between the teeth of the wheel, see Fig. 8. The volume of the trapped air
increases with increased rotation rate. Also, the splash strength increases
significantly since larger amount of oil is dragged in the teeth pockets. From
other hand, for the submerged part of the wheel the fluid in the pockets between
the teeth is moving with same velocity as the wheel itself. Due to teeth the
boundary layer developed on the wheel surface is undergoing transition to
turbulence quicker. The scaling of the boundary layer thickness is shown in
Fig. 9 in comparison to smooth wheel.

50 100

200 400

Figure 8: Air bubbles betweenthe teeth and in the vicinity of a spur

gearwheel at rotation rates 50, 100, 200, and 400 rpm.

Figure 9: Boundary layer momentum thickness for flat and spur gear
wheelsshown in normalized coordinates.

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4 Conclusions
Flow around a single rotating wheel within a modelled gearbox is investigated
by means of visualizations and PIV. Two-component PIV velocity
measurements were successfully performed for several different rotation rates of
the wheel. The results of study demonstrate that the flow around the wheel is
very complex. The rotation of the wheel results in elevation of the oil by the
wheel and creation of the streams of the oil ejecting from the wheel, i.e. the oil
splash. The streams can break-up and lead to formation of oil drops. With
increased rotation rates the splashed oil streams start to agitate the surface of the
oil pool and collide with the gearbox walls. The oil streams entering the oil pool
lead to generation of air bubbles in the oil. The penetration of the oil jets into the
oil bath and motion of the air bubbles are creating turbulence in the oil.
The splash increases with increased rotation rate due to increased role of
inertial forces. From other hand, for the flow inside the pool the prevalence of
the inertial forces over the viscous forces leads to thinner boundary layers and
more and more confined regions of induced flow very close to the wheel.

Acknowledgements
Authors would like to thank SAAB Powertrain, Sweden for providing the
experimental rig and financial support for this project. Many thanks to Ehsan
Sistani for taking part in the experiments.

References
[1] Honkanen M., Eloranta H., and Saarenrinne P. Digital imaging
measurement of dense multiphase flows in industrial processes. Flow Meas.
Instrum. 21, pp. 25–32, 2009.
[2] Petry-Johnson T.T., Kahraman A., Anderson N.E., Chase D.R. An
experimental investigation of spur gear efficiency, ASME J. Mech. Des.
130, 062601, 2008.
[3] Changenet C., and Velex P., A model for the prediction of churning losses
in geared transmissions-preliminary results, ASME J. Mech. Des. 129,
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[4] Eastwick C.N., Johnson G. Gear windage: a review, ASME J. Mech. Des.
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[5] Höhn B.-R., Michaelis K. and Hinterstoißer M. Optimization of gearbox
efficiency. Goriva i maziva 48 (4) 441–480, 2009.
[6] Al-Shibl K., Simmons K., and Eastwick C.N. Modelling windage power
loss from an enclosed spur gear. Proc. I Mech E, Vol. 221, Part A: J. Power
and Energy, 2007.
[7] Hill M.J., Kunz R.F., Noack R.W. Long L.N., Morris P.J., Handschuhk
R.F. Application and validation of unstructured overset CFD technology for
rotorcraft gearbox windage aerodynamics simulation. In proc. of American
Helicopter Society 64th Annual Forum, Montreal, Canada, 2008.

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[8] Lemfeld F., Fraňa K., Unger J., Numerical simulations of unsteady oil
flows in the gear-boxes, J. Applied Science in the Thermodynamics and
Fluid Mechanics 1, pp. 27–32, 2008.
[9] Moshammer T., Mayr F., Kargl K., and Honeger C. Simulation of oil flow
in gear box housing, SAE Int., 2006-01-1574, 2006.
[10] Li L., Versteeg H.K., Hargrave G.K., Potter T., and Halse C. Numerical
investigation on fluid flow of gear lubrication, SAE Int., 2008-01-1650,
2008.
[11] Hasan N., Naser J. Determining the thickness of liquid film in laminar
condition on a rotating drum surface using CFD. Chem. Eng. Sci. 64,
pp. 919–924, 2009.
[12] Soh W.K., Khoo B.C., Yuen W.Y.D. The entrainment of air by water jet
impinging on a free surface, Exp. Fluids 39, pp. 496–504, 2005.
[13] Akmetbekov Y.K., Alekseenko S.V., Dulin V.M., Markovich D.M.,
Pervunin K.S. Planar fluorescence for round bubble imaging and its
application for the study of an axisymmertric two-phase jet. Exp. Fluids 48,
pp. 615–629, 2010.
[14] Riboux G., Risso F., Legendre D. Experimental characterization of the
agitation generated by bubbles rising at high Reynolds number, J. Fluid
Mech. 643, pp. 509–539, 2010.
[15] Sridhar G., Ran B., Katz J. Implementation of PIV to multiphase flow.
Cavitation and Multiphase Flow Forum ASME-FED-Vol. 109, pp. 205–
210, 1991.
[16] Dehaeck S., van Beeck J.P.A.J., Riethmuller M.I. Extended glare points
velocimetry and sizing for bubbly flows. Exp. Fluids 39, pp. 407–419,
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[17] Hassan Y.A, Blanchat T.K., Seeley Jr. C.H., Canaan R.E. Simultaneous
velocity measurements of both components of a two-phase flow using
particle image velocimetry. Int. J. Multiphase Flow 18, pp. 371–395, 1992.
[18] Honkanen M. Turbulent multiphase flow measurements with digital particle
image velocimetry: Application to bubbly flows. MSc thesis, Tampere
University of Technology, 2002.
[19] Lindken R. and Merzkirch W. A novel PIV technique for measurement in
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 165

Experimental analysis of two-phase flow in

domestic central heating systems:
micro bubble characteristics
A. M. Fsadni1, Y. T. Ge1 & A. G. Lamers2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brunel University, UK
2
Spirotech bv, The Netherlands

Abstract
Domestic central heating systems result in micro bubble nucleation and
detachment at the boiler wall due to the presence of supersaturated conditions in
the system. Such conditions originate due to the widespread use of untreated tap
water in such systems and due to the air leakage into the system’s closed loop
circuit during the daily thermal cycling. The presence of air bubbles in such
systems results in a number of undesired effects such as corrosion, blockages,
noise and the filling of radiators with air due to the deposit of the micro bubbles
in the radiators. As a result, a loss in the heat transfer area of the radiator occurs
thus resulting in an inefficient use, consequently increasing the carbon footprint
of such widely used systems. Therefore, the capture of micro bubbles at the exit
point of the boiler should result in improved system efficiencies. A
comprehensive knowledge of the expected bubble production rate and bubble
size is important for an efficient deaeration system. To date, no studies have been
published on the fundamentals of bubble production and size in wet central
heating systems, therefore, the importance of this paper for the building services
industry. Experimental results on a test rig incorporating a typical 19 kW (rated)
domestic gas fired boiler show typical micro bubble production rates ranging
between 0.03 to 0.47 litres of nitrogen gas per hour with a shift in the system
heating load. An analysis of the expected bubble diameters was done at different
system conditions. Bubbles with average diameters within the range of 0.13 and
0.39 mm were observed. A comparison with Winterton’s finite angle force
balance model resulted in reasonable predictions.
Keywords: micro bubbles, supersaturated solutions, central heating, dissolved
gasses, space heating.

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166 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

1 Introduction
Micro bubble formation is a phenomenon affecting a number of industries,
including the food, pharmaceutical, building and chemical industries. Bubble
nucleation finds its origins in the presence of superheated or supersaturated
solutions. In a domestic central heating system micro bubble formation is the
result of water supersaturated with dissolved nitrogen gas, consequently, leading
to bubble nucleation on the boiler wall. The use of the term boiler for a standard
domestic central heating unit could suggest that some form of boiling takes place
in the system’s primary heat exchanger, consequently leading to the formation of
bubbles through superheat. However, under no operating conditions does the
phenomenon of flow boiling or sub cooled flow boiling take place in a domestic
central heating unit. This is necessary so as to avoid excess noise originating
from the boiler unit and to prevent excessively high exit temperatures thus
ensuring the safe operation of the system within the domestic environment.
Micro bubble nucleation is solely attributed to the presence of gas super
saturation levels in the water flowing in the system’s closed loop circuit. Long
term tests have shown that such systems could result in saturation ratios as high
as 1.2 at the boiler wall conditions. Such conditions are present during cold start-
ups and after the system filling with tap water. Air is mostly absorbed in the
system during the cold cycle. At low temperatures, water can absorb the highest
quantity of dissolved gasses [1, 2]. In most systems this occurs during night time
when the system’s boiler shuts off.
Data on micro bubble characteristics in central heating systems is important
as a good knowledge of bubble sizes and their distribution is essential for an
efficient passive deaeration process. Passive deaerators are more efficient in
capturing larger sized bubbles. Deaeration is an important feature of such
systems as bubbles accumulate in radiators and result in cold spots, thus reducing
the heat transfer area of the radiator and the overall system efficiency. Bubbles
are also known to result in unwanted noise, blockages and corrosion. Domestic
central heating systems amount to 16% of the carbon dioxide emissions in the
UK [3] and consequently an optimised system performance should have
significant environmental benefits. The widespread use of domestic central
heating systems was also highlighted by Spreitzer et al. [4] who state that almost
all residential buildings in Germany make use of a wet central heating system
which results in circa 40% of the primary energy consumed in Germany.
Furthermore, Sauer et al. [5] also state that central heating systems are
responsible for 70% of all domestic emissions in Germany.
A bubbly flow in the circuit’s forward flow line results from the detachment
of micro bubbles from the boiler wall into the system. Bubbly two-phase flow is
characterised by the presence of bubbles of maximum size much less than the
containing vessel or duct. The bubbles are dispersed in a continuous liquid phase
[6]. From our test results no micro bubbles were observed on the return line to
the boiler, thus suggesting that micro bubbles dissolve, are deaerated or rise to
high points in radiators or vessels while flowing through the system. The analogy
between this present study and theories developed for the prediction of bubble

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diameters in two-phase fully developed turbulent bubbly flow in ducts extended

this study to the consideration of the two known models for predicting bubble
sizes, these being the Hinze [7] approach as adapted by Winterton and
Munaweera [6], and the Winterton and Orby [8] approach. However, these
studies are based on experimental data obtained through the artificial insertion of
micro bubbles in the flow.
In this paper we will investigate the phenomenon of micro bubbles in wet
domestic central heating systems. The average bubble diameters, size
distributions and bubble production rates at typical primary heat exchanger
saturation ratios will be investigated.

2 Theory
2.1 The solubility of gasses in liquids and supersaturated solutions

Fogg [9] states that the solubility of gases in a liquid is a property of a gas
dependent on its partial pressure and on the temperature as well as the nature of
the liquid phase. In fact, for most gas-liquid systems there tends to be a linear
variation of solubility with the partial pressure as this approaches zero. When
defining the solubility of gases, Young et al. [2] highlight the point that the
distinction between vapor-liquid equilibria and the solubility of gases in liquids
is arbitrary and often the distinction between the two is not clear. This issue
arises from the general inability to rigorously distinguish between a gas, a vapor
and a liquid. However, Gerrard [1] defines gases as all the elements and
compounds having a boiling point at 1 atm less than 13oC. Gas solubility data at
standard atmospheric and volumetric conditions is available through a number of
publications [2].
Jones et al. [10] defines a supersaturated solution in relation to quantifying
the tendency of a system to produce bubbles. They refer to the saturation data as
a function of the temperature for the system. A solution could go into the
supersaturated state through the increase of its temperature. In fact, point A in
fig. 1 represents a saturated solution at a temperature TA with a saturation mole
fraction amounting to Xb. When the temperature of this solution is increased to
TB, the solution would be in its supersaturated state while still retaining the
previous mole fraction of the dissolved gas content. The desorption of gas from
the water then causes the state of the system to move gradually from point B to
point B’ with a new saturation mole fraction equal to Xi. In view of this the
resultant saturation ratio is defined through the relationship in eqn. (1);

Xb
 (1)
Xi
Furthermore, the super saturation ratio is defined as
   1 (2)

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Our saturation ratio was calculated through the use of eqns. (3) and (4). as
done by Lubetkin and Blackwell [11] who calculated the gas concentration in the
fluid through the use of the Henry’s law as defined by Gerrard [1]. The partial
gas pressure was calculated by subtracting the vapour pressure from the total
dissolved gas pressure.

Cgas  Pg X T (3)

The saturation ratio was calculated through the use of eqn. (1). As shown in
eqn. (4), the ratio of the actual gas concentrations was used where Csat refers to
the maximum gas solubility at the primary heat exchanger wall temperature.

C gas
 (4)
Csat

Figure 1: Solubility of carbon dioxide [10, p.30].

2.2 Bubble size prediction

Research in bubble nucleation and growth in supersaturated solutions is not

widespread and consequently the number of studies available is limited to very
specific and theoretical systems. A model for predicting the detachment radius of
bubbles originating in supersaturated duct flow is based on the balance of the
drag and surface tension forces acting on the surface of the nucleating bubble on
the primary heat exchanger wall, parallel to the wall surface. Winterton’s [12]
approach for the prediction of bubble detachment diameters is based on this
theory. Other models have been developed for predicting the bubble radii such as
the approach originally suggested by Scriven [13] and later adapted by Jones et
al. [10]. These models are based on the symmetric phase growth controlled by
heat and mass transfer.

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These models were developed for modelling bubble nucleation and require a
comprehensive knowledge of the surface conditions and the bubble nucleating
time. The lack of knowledge with respect to the bubble nucleating time in the
helical coils of the boiler’s primary heat exchanger made this model unusable in
the present study. The model developed by Winterton [12] is based on the
knowledge that bubbles break away from the surface into the flow when the drag
force equals the surface tension force. For a finite contact angle Winterton [12]
derived eqn. (5) for the experimental conditions of the present study.

r  F ( )  0.24
 1 .4  Re
 We 
(5)
Rh
ሺఘ௨మ ஽೓ ሻ
where F(θ) = sinθ0(cos θr – cos θa) and ܹ݁ ൌ .
ఊ
A number of recent studies have adapted the use of the Winterton model with
good results. Amongst these are studies done by Al-Hayes and Winterton [14,
15] and Hepworth et al. [16]. Al Hayes and Winterton adapted the original
Winterton model to include the effect of liquid motion on the bubble growth rate
due to the change in the mass transfer coefficient for the gas entering the bubble
from the bulk liquid. Their final approach is similar to the original Scriven [13]
and Jones et al. [10] models and thus requires a comprehensive knowledge of the
bubble nucleating time.

3 Experimental facility
A schematic diagram of the experimental set up is shown in fig. 2. The test rig
consists of a Valliant eco TEC pro 24 condensing boiler that is connected to
standard 22mm copper tubing which supplies a radiator and a buffer vessel. A
condensing boiler is used as this is mandatory equipment for new buildings in
most European Union member states [3]. Stainless steel sheathed K type
thermocouples are used to measure the fluid temperatures along the circuit
whereas pressure transducers monitor the system pressure. A pressure transducer
monitors the dissolved gas partial pressure in combination with a semi permeable
silicone membrane. The system fluid flow rate is monitored through an
Electromag 500 Series electromagnetic flow meter. A National Instruments
cDAQ-9172 chassis and data modules receive all the signals from the
transducers, thermocouples and the electromagnetic flow meter. The three
system parameters are controlled as follows:
i The system flow rate or velocity is varied through the use of a ball valve
on the supply line. The velocity in the boiler tubes was stepped between a
minimum 0.3 m/s and a maximum of 0.8 m/s. This is equal to a system flow rate
ranging from 4.5 to 12.5 litres per minute. The system pressure was set at 2.75
bars with a saturation ratio of 1.1 at the boiler wall conditions.
ii The system heating load was varied between a minimum of 7.5 kW and a
maximum of 21.5 kW through the step increase in the boiler flame settings. The
heating load is equal to a boiler heat flux ranging between 17 and 50 kW/m2. The

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inlet temperature was maintained at a constant 55oC to ensure sufficient latent

heat recovery through the boiler in-built condenser. The exit temperature ranged
between 65 and 84oC while a system pressure of 2.75 bars (abs) was maintained.
An average saturation ratio of 1.1 at the boiler wall conditions was maintained.
iii Super saturation ratios, ranging between 1 and 1.2 at boiler wall
conditions were achieved through the filling of the top part of the radiator with
nitrogen gas. The system pressure was set at 2.75 bars and a system flow rate of
12.5 litres per minute was maintained.

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of experimental set up.

Standard central heating systems make use of untreated steel radiators and
copper piping. The untreated radiators result in a limited amount of oxidation
due to the dissolved oxygen present in the tap water. The oxidation process
releases iron oxide and some hydrogen gas. The analysis of dissolved gases
through the use of Orbisphere 3655 oxygen and Orbisphere 3654 hydrogen
sensors resulted in very low concentrations of oxygen and hydrogen present in
their dissolved form. In fact both gases were present in concentrations of circa 9
PPB. Therefore, nitrogen is evidently the dominant gas and its properties were
used for the dissolved gas properties in this study. A square sight glass with
internal dimensions of 20x20 mm was used for filming micro bubbles at the exit
line of the boiler. A square section was designed to reduce the distortion as a
result of viewing bubbles through a curved surface. As discussed by Prodanovic
et al. [17], such distortions are due to light refraction. A Vision research
Phantom V5 high speed camera connected to a PC was used to film and store the
video clips. A monozoom (Navitar) microscope lens was used to develop the

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desired magnification and a shutter speed of 30 µs and a frame speed of 100

frames per second were used. Lighting was provided by two high intensity
Everest.VIT ELSV 60 W light sources attached to semi rigid fibre optic light
guides.

4 Image analysis
The video films were converted to image frames saved as ‘tag image file format’
or tiff files using the Phantom Version 606 camera software. The analysis of the
bubble diameters was done manually using the Phantom Version 606 Image
Analysis software using a representative sample of 100 bubbles for each
experimental run [17]. This was done so as to ensure an accurate result due to the
general limitations of the automated image processing software.
The bubble production rates were calculated through the use of the image
analysis software, Image-Pro Plus developed by Media Cybernetics. An average
of 1500 frames were analysed for each experimental run. A macro was written
enabling a series of images to be analysed for in focus bubble counts and
diameters. The macro included the use of a Sobel filter to enable the distinction
between in and out of focus bubbles. The Sobel filter plots the gradient of
intensity change between objects and their background through the extraction
and enhancement of edges and contours. This is done by expressing intensity
differences or gradients between neighbouring pixels as an intensity value.
Therefore, objects that are in focus have sharp edges with a high gradient change
and consequently result in a high intensity values, whereas out of focus objects
do not display such a characteristic. The Sobel filter was used as it is less
sensitive to image noise when compared to other filtering techniques [18].
A typical analysed image is illustrated in fig. 3, where in focus bubbles are
circled. Experimental uncertainties were calculated based on the method given
by Coleman and Steel [19] and estimated as a mean absolute value of 3% for the
manual bubble diameter measurements and 12% for the bubble production rates.

5 Results and discussion

The measured bubble diameters are illustrated in fig. 4. These measurements
have shown an increase in the bubble diameter with an increase in heat flux or

Figure 3: Camera image (post processing – in focus bubbles circled).

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172 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

the corresponding space heating load and a decrease in velocity. Changes in the
super saturation ratios did not result in notable bubble diameter differences.
Bubbles were mostly spherical in shape and therefore, no elongation is attributed
to the surrounding fluid flow. This is in agreement with recent studies done in
bubbly flows [6]. The present study did not permit a real time measurement of
the bubble diameters during their detachment from the heat exchanger wall.
Therefore, the positioning of the sight glass at the exit end of the boiler with
sufficient insulation to ensure adiabatic bulk fluid flow conditions, allowed the
authors of the present study to assume that the observed bubble diameters are
reasonably equal to the detachment diameters. Furthermore, the effects of bubble
coalescence and dissolution during their short time in the bulk fluid flow were
assumed to be at a minimum.

Figure 4: Average bubble diameters with heat flux and velocity in heating
tubes.

Winterton’s finite contact angle model predicts the bubble diameters with
changing system parameters with a mean absolute error of 20%.As illustrated in
fig. 5, all data points fall between ± 30% of the model prediction. With due
consideration to the limitations of studies in two-phase flow as discussed by
Winterton and Munaweera [6] and the general limitations of the present study,
the adapted model predicts the expected bubble diameters reasonably well. The
Winterton model accurately predicts the decrease in bubble diameter with an
increase in bulk fluid velocity for velocities ranging from 0.4 to 0.8 m/s.
However, at a lower velocity the error amounted to 45%. The inclusion of the
Weber and Reynolds number enables the Winterton model to predict the bubble
detachment diameters with changing bulk fluid flow. Similar experimental
results were observed by Al-Hayes and Winterton [14] and in studies done in sub
cooled flow boiling by Prodanovic et al. [17]. Other more recent studies done by
Hepworth et al. [16] suggest that the bulk fluid velocity could increase the
bubble growth rate and consequently lead to higher nucleation rates due to the
liquid motion affecting the mass transfer coefficient for the gas entering the
bubble on the heat exchanger wall. As illustrated in fig. 4, the increase in heat
flux resulted in an increase in the bubble diameter by circa 20%. This is
attributed to the higher boiler wall temperatures resulting in an increase in the
diffusivity of nitrogen moving into the bubbles growing on the heat exchanger

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wall. This trend is not well represented in the Winterton finite contact angle force
balance model. However, a minimal increase in the predicted diameter is
represented through the change in the fluid properties, such as the density,
kinematic viscosity and surface tension. Jones et al. [10] predict a reduced
nucleation time with higher temperature due to the higher diffusivities present at
the heat exchanger wall. However, this is not reflected on the predicted bubble
detachment diameter. Similar trends were reported by Abdelmessih et al. [20] in
flow boiling.

Figure 5: Accuracy plot.

Changes in the saturation ratio did not result in notable differences in the
bubble diameters. A higher gas concentration gradient at the boiler’s primary
heat exchanger wall is expected to result in an increase in the bubble growth rate.
However, the force balance theory seems to dominate and thus a minimal effect
is seen on the resultant bubble diameter. Hepworth et al. [16] reported an
increase in the bubble diameter with an increase in their dissolved gas
concentration. However, higher saturation ratios were present and consequently,
our observed constant bubble diameter with changes in the saturation ratio could
be attributed to the narrow super saturation range present in our system.
The bubble distributions illustrated in fig. 6 illustrate the expected trends as
seen in the experimental mean diameters whereby smaller bubbles make up a
greater percentage of the total bubble count for the lower heat flux levels. Higher
heat flux or heating loads could result in increased saturation ratios present at the
boiler wall and therefore, a higher bubble production rate. However, the higher
percentage of larger bubbles present at high system heating loads would facilitate
the deaeration process through a passive deaerator and therefore at higher loads
systems are expected to deaerate more efficiently. In fact, passive deaeration
systems make use of deaeration chambers where bubbles float up a column
where they are subsequently expelled through a float valve.

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Figure 6: Bubble distribution, volumetric flow and production rate with heat
flux.

Fig. 6 also illustrates the bubble production rate and the volume of air exiting
the heat exchanger. The system bubble production rates range from 800 to 3800
bubbles per second. This corresponds to a gas volume production ranging from
0.03 to 0.46 litres per hour of operation at a constant system flow rate of 12.5
litres per minute. Tests have shown that the bubbles produced do not return to
the boiler. Therefore, such bubbles are expected to dissolve back to the water in
colder regions in the system or rise to high spots such as radiators located on the
higher floors. Continuous system operation would therefore lead to the formation
of a gas filled void at the top part of the radiators, consequently reducing the heat
transfer efficiency, prompting the system user to increase the system operation
time and exit temperature. This results in an increased carbon footprint. The
system could then require the process of bleeding followed by a system re-
pressurisation. No literature sources discussing bubble gas volumes in similar
systems are known to exist. Therefore the possibility of data comparison here is
very limited. However, when considering the total bubble production together
with the boiler area that is under super saturation conditions, the average
nucleation rate amounts to circa 1.3 bubbles/cm2 s. This compares well with
similar studies, most notably that done by Verschaeren on smooth metal heated
surfaces [21].

6 Conclusions
This study has adapted mostly theoretical two-phase studies to more practical
grounds that could lead to a better understanding of the two-phase characteristics
in wet domestic central heating systems. An analysis of the expected micro
bubble diameters has resulted in bubbles with average diameters within the range
of 0.13 and 0.39 mm with changing system parameters. Good predictions were
achieved through the use of Winterton’s finite contact angle force balance
prediction for bubble detachment radii in supersaturated solutions. Tests have
shown that the average bubble diameter decreases with an increase in the bulk
fluid velocity and a reduced heat flux and exit temperature while no change was

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evident with changes in the saturation ratio. An analysis of the typical bubble
size distribution over a range of heating loads and at a typical saturation ratio of
1.1 at the primary heat exchanger wall has shown a larger concentration of
smaller sized bubbles at lower heat flux levels. The system bubble production
rates ranged from 800 to 3800 bubbles per second while the corresponding gas
volume production ranged from 0.03 to 0.46 litres of nitrogen gas per hour of
operation at the minimum and maximum system heating loads respectively.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the Engineering and Physical Science Research
Council, Spirotech b v., The Netherlands for supporting this research work.

Notation
Cgas Gas concentration in system, (standard cm3/Litre Water)
Csat Maximum gas concentration at boiler wall temperature, (standard
cm3/Litre Water)
Dh Helical tube hydraulic diameter, (m)
Pg Partial pressure of dissolved gas and vapour pressure, (Pa)
r Bubble detachment radius, (m)
Rh Helical tube hydraulic radius, (m)
Re Reynolds number, (-)
u Bulk fluid velocity, (m/s)
Xb Bulk gas concentration, (mol/m3)
Xi Saturation gas concentration, (mol/m3)
XT Gas solubility factor, (standard cm3/Litre Water/bar)

Greek letters
α Saturation ratio, (-)
ߛ Surface tension, (N/m)
θa Advancing contact angle, (degrees)
θo Static contact angle, (degrees)
θr Receding contact angle, (degrees)
ν Kinematic Viscosity, (m2/s)
ρ Water density, (kg/m3)
σ Super saturation ratio, (-)

References
[1] Gerrard W., Solubility of gases and liquids, Plenum Press, New York, 1976.
[2] Young C.L., Battino R., Clever H.L., The solubility of gases and liquids –
introductory information, Nitrogen and Air, solubility data series – Volume
10, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1982.
[3] The Building Regulations, Conservation of Fuel and Power – Part L1A,
Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2006.

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176 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

[4] Spreitzer K., Rückbrodt D., Straky H., Observer-based estimation of the
water mass flow through a central heating boiler, Proceedings of the
American Control Conference Anchorage AK, 37, pp. 5054-5059, 2002.
[5] Sauer J., Schmeink C., Wastell D.G., Feedback Quality and
Environmentally Friendly Use of Domestic Central Heating Systems,
Journal of Ergonomics, 50.(6), pp. 795-813, 2007.
[6] Winterton R.H.S., Munaweera J.S., Bubble size in two-phase gas-liquid
bubbly flow in ducts, Chemical Engineering and Processing, 40,
pp. 437-447, 2001.
[7] J.O. Hinze, Fundamentals of the hydrodynamic mechanism of splitting in
dispersion process, AIChE Journal, 1, pp. 289-295, 1955.
[8] Winterton P., Orby P., Bubble size in bubbly flow in ducts and bubble
columns, Proceedings of the 10th International Heat Transfer Conference,
6, pp. 295-299, 1994.
[9] Fogg P.T.G., Some Aspects of the Solubility of Gases in Liquids,
Monatshefte für Chemie, 134, pp. 619 – 631, 2003.
[10] Jones S.F., Evans G.M., Galvin K.P., The cycle of bubble production from
a gas cavity in a supersaturated solution, Advances in Colloid and Interface
Science, 80, pp. 27-50, 1999a.
[11] Lubetkin. S., Blackwell M., The nucleation of bubbles in supersaturated
solutions, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 26, pp. 610-615, 1988.
[12] Winterton R.H.S., Sizes of bubbles produced by dissolved gas coming out
of solution on the walls of pipes in flowing Systems, Chemical Engineering
Science, 27, pp. 1223-1230, 1972a.
[13] Scriven L. E., On the dynamics of phase growth, Chemical Engineering
Sciences, 10, pp. 1-13, 1958.
[14] Al-Hayes R.A.M., Winterton R.H.S., Bubble growth in flowing liquids,
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 24, pp. 213-221, 1981a.
[15] Al-Hayes R.A.M., Winterton R.H.S., Bubble diameter on detachment in
flowing liquids, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 24,
pp. 223-229, 1981b.
[16] Hepworth N.J., Boyd J.W.R., Hammod J.R.M., Varley J., Modelling the
effect of liquid notion on bubble nucleation during beer dispense, Chemical
Engineering Science, 58, pp. 4071-4084, 2003.
[17] Prodanovic V., Fraser D., Salcudean M., Bubble behaviour in sub cooled
flow boiling of water at low pressures and low flow rates, International
Journal of Multiphase Flow, 28, pp. 1-19, 2001.
[18] Image-Pro Plus, Start-Up Guide, Media Cybernetics, 2010.
[19] Coleman, H.W., Steele, W.G., Experimentation and uncertainty analysis
for engineers, 2nd ed., John Wiley& Sons Inc., New York, 1999.
[20] Abdelmessih A.H., Hooper F.C., Nangia S., Flow effects on bubble growth
and collapse in surface boiling, International Journal for Heat and Mass
Transfer, 15, pp. 115-125, 1972.
[21] Verschaeren R., Degassing nucleation sites in water flow under practical
heating conditions, Master in Mechanical Engineering, Technical
University Eindhoven, 2010.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 177

Experimental and computational study of

pressure drop and void fraction
in a bubbling fluidized bed.
C. K. Jayarathna & B. M. Halvorsen
Institute of Process, Energy and Environmental Technology,
Telemark University College, Norway

Abstract
The aim of this work is to study flow behaviour in a fluidized bed with different
mixtures of particles. Mathematical simulation is an alternative way to study the
fluidization behaviour. Experiments are performed in a cylindrical bed with a
uniform air distribution. Spherical glass particles with different mixtures of
particles are used in the experiments. The pressure and void fraction variations
are observed for two different powders and mixtures of the powders. The
commercial CFD code Fluent 6.3 is used for the corresponding simulations.
Eulerian-Eulerian model are used to simulate a multiphase bubbling fluidized
bed. The influence of particle size distribution on the bubble size, pressure and
void fraction variation along the bed has been investigated computationally. The
computational results are compared to the experimental data and the
discrepancies are discussed.
Keywords: fluidized bed, particle size distribution, pressure drop, CFD, fluent.

1 Introduction
Fluidized beds are widely used in industry because of good mixing and large
contact area between phases. It enhances the chemical reactions, heat transfer
and mass transfer. Liquid like behaviour of the bed particles are giving smooth
operation conditions and well mixed beds are obtaining isothermal properties,
hence the operation can be easily controlled.
Particle mixing in a fluidized bed is very much depending on bubble size
distribution and the particle characteristics [1]. The behaviour of particles in

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178 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

fluidized beds depends on a combination of the particle size and density. Geldart
fluidization diagram [2] is used to identify characteristics associated with
fluidization of powders. Geldart Group A particles are easily fluidized and give a
high bed expansion which means high void fraction before bubbles appear. This
type of powders is mostly used as catalyst in fluidization system. Geldart group
B particles give low bed expansion, and bubbles will appear as soon as the gas
velocity reaches the minimum fluidization velocity [3].
Earlier studies have shown that powders with a range of particle sizes cannot
be characterized only based on mean diameter [4–7]. The fluidization properties
are highly influenced of the bulk density and changes in bulk density with the
particle distribution as well. The bubble behaviour and the bubble size depend on
pressure and the void fraction variations along the bed. Pressure readings
conveys the information regarding the hydrodynamics of the fluidized bed,
detecting the regime transitions, to investigate the chaotic behaviour of the
fluidized bed and monitoring the quality of fluidization [1].
In this work the pressure and void fraction variations for different mixtures of
particles are studied.

2 Computational model
Computational studies have been performed on a two dimensional fluidized bed.
The simulations are performed by using the commercial CFD code Fluent 6.3.
The model is based on an Eulerian description of the gas and the particle phases.
The combinations of models used in this work are presented in Table 1.
Jayarathna et al. [7] made a computational study of the influence of particle size
distribution on flow behaviour in fluidized beds and by studying different
combinations of models they concluded that the combination presented in
Table 1 gives the most realistic flow behaviour.

Table 1: Recommended combination of models [10].

Property Model
Drag Syamlal and O’Brien
Granular viscosity Syamlal and O’Brien
Granular bulk viscosity Constant
Frictional viscosity Schaeffer
Frictional pressure Based-ktgf
Solid pressure Ma-ahmadi
Radial distribution
Ma-ahmadi
function
The Syamlal and O’Brien drag model [13] is used to express the solid-gas
interaction. The model is expressed in eqn. (1):

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 
3 s  g  g U g  U s (1)
 sg  C D 2
4vr d s
where εg and εs are the gas and solid fractions, ρg is the gas density, Ug and Us are
the gas and solid velocities and ds is the particle diameter. The terminal velocity
correlation for the solid phase, vr, is a function of void fraction and Reynolds
number [10]. The drag factor developed by Dalla Valle [11] is presented in
eqn. (2):
2
 4.8  (2)
 C D  0.63 
 Re s / v r 


The granular viscosity includes a collisional and a kinetic viscosity term. The
kinetic term is given in eqn. (3):

 s d s  s  s  
1  1  ess 3ess  1 s g 0,ss 
2
 s ,kin 
63ess  1  5  (3)
and the collisional term is presented in eqn. (4):

s
col   s d s  s g 0,ss 1  ess 
4 (4)
5 

where ds es and Θs are the particle diameter, elasticity coefficient and the granular
temperature of solid phase s respectively. The radial distribution function is
presented by g0,ss. The radial distribution function included in the Syamlal and
O’Brien [13] symmetric equation is expressed by Ma and Ahmadi [12].
Two particle phases are included in the simulations of mixtures. Syamlal-
O’Brien symmetric is used to express the particle-particle momentum exchange
[13].

3 Experimental and computational set-up

Experiments and corresponding simulations are performed. The set up is
presented in this chapter.

3.1 Experimental set-up

A lab-scale fluidized bed with a uniform air distribution is constructed. The bed
is cylindrical and is made of Lexan glass. The diameter and the height of the bed
are 0.072 and 1.4 m respectively. The gas flow rate is controlled by a pressure
reduction valve, and measured by a digital flow meter. The pressure can be
measured at eight positions in the bed.
Glass particles with two different mean particle sizes are used in this study.
The particles have the size range 100–200 µm (small particles) and 400–600 µm
(large particles). The particle density is 2485 kg/m3. The bed and particle
parameters are presented in Table 2.

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Experiments have been performed with 100% small particles, 100% large
particles and mixtures of small particles with 20, 40, 50, 60 and 80% of large
particles. The aim is to study how the different fractions of particle sizes
influence on the minimum fluidization velocity and the bed expansion. Before
the experiments with the mixtures started, the powders were well mixed and 2
litres of a compact mixture were weighted and filled into the bed. The void
fractions at start and at minimum fluidization were calculated based on the
weight and the volume.
Table 2: Experimental data.

Bed design
Height 1.4 m
Diameter 0.072 m
Particles (Spherical glass particles)
Density: 2485 kg/m3
Particle 100–200 µm 400–600 µm Mixture
range (small) (medium)
Mean 154 µm 488 µm
particle size
% large 20, 40, 50, 60, 80
particles

3.2 Computational set-up

The simulations are performed with particles with diameters equal to the mean
diameters of the glass powders used in the experiments. The simulations are
performed with mixtures of 0%, 20%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 80% and 100% large
particles. Two particle sizes are used to simulate the mixtures of two powders
with different mean particle size. The simulations are run with the same
velocities and initial bed heights as used in the experiments. Two-dimensional
Cartesian co-ordinate system is used to describe the geometry. The width and the
height of the computational bed are 0.072 m and 1.4 m respectively. A grid
resolution test is performed to find a suitable grid size. The grid is uniform and
the size of a cell is 3x3 mm. The simulations have been run for 7 seconds. The
simulations have been run with different gas flow rates.

4 Results
This chapter presents the experimental and computational pressure fluctuations
and average void fractions variations of the different particles mixtures with
different superficial air velocities.

4.1 Void fraction variations

All the particle samples are having an identical maximum compact volume. The
volume of the particles has expanded when it is filled smoothly in to the

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fluidized bed. Figure 1 shows the void fractions and the compositions of large
and small particles in the mixtures. It is possible to observe that the samples with
only small and only large particles have higher void fractions than the particle
mixtures with both large and small particles. This may be due to the repulsive
forces between the small particles [2]; which means that they are having some
barriers to reduce the voids as shown in Figure 2(a). The large particle cannot
reduce the voids between the particles, because of their geometry as shown in
Figure 2(b). The repulsive forces are not significant for large particles.

Figure 1: Void fractions and compotions of particles.

Figure 2: Possible particles location with two different sizes of particles.

In the mixtures of both small and large particles, lower void fractions are
observed. The lowest void fractions are observed for the mixtures with 50% to
90% large particles. The minimum void fraction is found for the mixture of 70%
large and 30% small particles. That means the mixtures of both large and small
particles are more packed than the mono sized particle samples. There may be

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less space between particles in the mixtures with more large particles than in the
mixtures with more small particles as shown in Figure 2(c) and (d).
4.2 Pressure variation
The pressure (gauge) is measured and calculated at height 3.5 cm, 33.5 cm and
63.5 cm in the fixed bed. Figure 3 shows the experimental and computational
variations in the pressure versus percentage of large particles in the sample at
different heights. The simulations give slightly lower pressure than the
experiments. This may be because the particle samples used for experiments
consist of a wide range of particle sizes while the simulations consider only the
mean particle size to represent each mixture. The pressure along the bed is
decreasing from the bottom to the top due to the weight of the particles above the
measuring point [3].

Figure 3: Pressure variations of the observations and the computations at

three different bed heights. Fixed bed.
Figure 4 shows the total pressure at bed height 23.5 cm as a function of
superficial air velocity for several selected particle mixtures. The figure includes
both experimental and computational results. The curves from the experiments
have steep gradients until they reach very high velocities whereas the gradients
of the curves from the simulations are less steep. In both the experiments and
simulations the total pressure at height 23.5 cm is increasing with increasing
superficial air velocity. This is due to the bed expansion and the change in
bubble distribution in the bed when the velocity is increased. The main
contribution to the variation in pressure is the weight of the particles above the
measuring point. The distribution of voids and bubbles depends on the particle
mixture and the superficial velocity. Bubble distribution for different flow
conditions are further discussed in Chapter 4.3. The 40% experimental curve is
rather flat at higher superficial air velocities which indicates that the average
void fraction in the lower part of the bed is rather constant when the velocity
exceeds about 0.2 m/s.

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Figure 4: Pressure variations of observations and computations with respect

to superficial air velocity at 23.5cm bed height.

4.3 Analysis of fluidized bed behaviour based on simulations

Fluidized bed behaviour is analyzed based on computer simulations for different

particle mixtures. The simulations are performed for different superficial
velocities with the lowest velocity as the minimum fluidization velocity observed
in the experiments. Figure 5 shows the simulated fluidized bed of 100% small
particles for three different gas velocities. No bed expansion is observed at
velocity 0.029 m/s which is the experimental minimum fluidization velocity for
the corresponding particle mixture. The computational minimum fluidization
velocity is observed at superficial gas velocity 0.05 m/s. The bed expands to
almost the double of the initial height when the velocity is increased to 0.307
m/s. It is possible to observe large air bubbles and very high bed expansions for
the samples with 0%, 20% and 40% large particle mixtures as shown in Figure 5
and 6. These particle mixtures give slugging and turbulent beds at high
superficial gas velocities.
Figure 7(a) shows the bed behaviour for a mixture of 50% small and 50%
large particles after 7 seconds. The initial bed height is 0.511 m and the
superficial velocities are varied from 0.039 m/s to 307 m/s. These simulations
are performed for a mixture with a total volume fraction of large and small
particle phases of 0.32 and 0.35 respectively. The initial and boundary conditions
are the same as used in the experiments with the same particle mixture. The
experimental minimum fluidization value for this particle mixture is 0.039 m/s
whereas the minimum fluidization velocity in the simulation is observed at
velocity 0.055 m/s. The deviation can be due to the several different particle
sizes in the real mixture. In the simulation with air velocity of 0.039 m/s the gas
percolates through the void spaces between stationary particles. This means the
bed is at fixed bed conditions. At the next simulation the air flow of 0.045m/s is
used, particles moved apart and they moved in restricted regions. This time the

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Figure 5: Simulated fluidized beds for several superficial air velocities for
small particles.

bed has converted to an expanded bed and it is possible to observe a small

increment of the bed height. The bed starts to fluidized when the air flow is
increased to 0.055m/s. At higher velocities (0.102m/s and 0.143m/s) slugging
started and the bed height is increased further, gas bubbles coalesce and grow as
they rise. Figure 7(b) shows the flow behaviour for a mixture of 60% large
particles. This mixture gives about the same bed expansion and bubble behaviour
as the mixtures with a lower content of large particles. It is also observed that
mixtures of 0%, 20%, 40%, 50% and 60% large particles have about the same
minimum fluidization velocities [14, 15]. This indicates that the smallest
particles in the mixture influence significantly on the flow behaviour even when
the fraction of small particles are lower then the fraction of large particles.
Figure 8(a) and (b) show the flow behaviour for mixtures of 80% and 100%
large particles respectively. These powders give a low bed expansion and smaller
and more isolated bubbles. By studying Figure 8(a), it can be seen that still with
only 20% small particles the flow behaviour are very much influenced by the
small particles. The mixture with 80% large particles has started to fluidize at
velocity 0.080 m/s whereas the 100% large particles start to fluidize at a velocity
above 0.184 m/s.
At slugging conditions bubbles are moving upward by using a zigzag path as
shown in Figure 9. This can be clearly visualized from the computer animations.
All the generated air bubbles at the bottom of the bed are moving into low
pressure zones. Bubbles are moving upward because of the generated highest
pressure at bottom of the bed. When the bed is extremely narrow, bubbles are
having a Zigzag path to escape from the bed as it is having obstacles to move
directly upward.

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(a) (b)

Figure 6: Simulated fluidized beds for several superficial air velocities for
20% (a) and 40% (b) large particle mixture.

(a) (b)

Figure 7: Simulated fluidized beds for several superficial air velocities for
50% (a) and 60% (b) large particle mixture.

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(a) (b)

Figure 8: Simulated fluidized beds for several superficial air velocities for
80% (a) and 100% (b) large particle mixture.

Figure 9: Zig zag bubble leaving pattern.

5 Conclusion
A series of experiments and simulations are carried out. Experiments are
performed in a cylindrical bed with a uniform air distribution. Different mixtures
of spherical glass particles with mean diameter of 154μm (small particles) and
488μm (large particles) are used in the experiments. Corresponding simulations
are performed by using the commercial CFD code Fluent 6.3. In addition to the

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 187

pressure variations along the bed, and void fraction is calculated at minimum
fluidization velocity. The void fractions for only small and only large particles
are higher than for the mixtures of both particles sizes. Lowest void fractions are
observed for the mixtures with 50%-90% large particles.
Fluidized bed behaviour is analyzed based on computer simulations for
different particle mixtures and different superficial velocities. The highest bed
expansion is observed for only small particles and the lowest for only large
particle samples. Big air bubbles and high bed expansion are observed for the
0%, 20%, 40% and 60% large particle mixtures. More isolated and relatively
small bubbles are formed in the fluidized bed with only larger particles. The
fluidization and bubble behaviour are influenced significantly more by the small
particles than then of the large particles in a mixture. At the slugging conditions
bubbles are moving upward by using a zigzag path. According to the
observation, the computational fluidized bed behaviour agrees well with the
experimental data.

References
[1] Bai, B., Ommen, J.R.V., Nijenhuis, J., Coppens, M.O., Characterization of
the void size distribution in fluidized beds using statistics of pressure
fluctuations, Powder Technology, 160, pp 81-92, 2005.
[2] Geldart, D., Gas Fluidization Technology, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 1986.
[3] Kunii, D., Levenspiel, O., Fluidization Engineering, Second Edition,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Newton, US, 1991.
[4] Halvorsen, B.M., Lundberg J., Mathiesen, V. (2008), Computational study
of fluidized bed, Conference on Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and
Thermodynamics, HEFAT 2008, June 30–July 2, Pretoria, South Africa.
[5] Ariyarathna, D.G.A.S.U, Wo, W.J., Halvorsen, B.M. (2008), Verification
of the importance of introducing particle size distributions to bubbling
fluidized bed simulations, SIMS 2008, October 7th-8th, Oslo, Norway.
[6] Wu, W.J., Ariyarathna, D. G. A. S. U., Halvorsen, B. M.(2008),
Experimental study of effects of particle size distribution on bubble
behaviour for validation of CFD modelling of bubbling fluidized bed, SIMS
2008, October 7th-8th, Oslo, Norway.
[7] Jayarathna, S.A., Jayarathna, C.K., Wu, W.J., Halvorsen, B.M., (2008),
Influence of particle size distributions on CFD simulations and experiments
of bubbling fluidized beds. AIChE Annual Meeting 2008, November 16-21,
Philadelphia, US.
[8] Ariyarathna, D.G.A.S.U., Recommendation of a Model for Simulating &
Analysis of the Influence of Particle Size Distribution on the Simulations of
Bubbling Fluidized Beds. In Thesis for the degree of MSc. Ing, pp. 22-46,
2008.
[9] Syamlal, M., The Particle-Particle Drag Term in a Multiparticle Model of
Fluidization., National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA,
1987.

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188 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

[10] Garside, J. & Al Dibuouni, M.R., Velocity-Voidage Relationships for

Fluidization and Sedimentation, I&EC Process Des. Dev., 16, pp. 206-214,
1977.
[11] Dalla Valle, J.M., Micromeritics, Pitman, London, 1948.
[12] Ma, D., Ahmadi, G., Thermodynamical Formulation for Dispersed Multi-
phase Turbulent Flows, Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 16, pp. 323-351, 1990.
[13] Syamlal, M., O’Brien, T.J., A Generalized Drag Correlation for Multi-
particle Systems, Morgantown Energy Technology Center, 1987.
[14] Jayarathna, A.C.K., Experimental and computational study of the effect of
particle size distributions on the flow behaviour in fluidized beds, In Thesis
for the degree of MSc. Ing., 2009.
[15] Jayarathna, A.C.K., Halvorsen, B.M., Experimental and computational
study of minimum fluidization velocity and bed expansion in a bubbling
fluidized bed, SIMS 2009, October 7th-8th, Fredericia, Denmark.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 189

Extension of a model for the distribution of

voidage around bubbles in a fluidized bed
C. Rautenbach, C. Jayarathna, M. C. Melaaen & B. M. Halvorsen
Institute for Process, Energy and Environmental Technology,
Telemark University College, Norway

Abstract
Up to date most models predicting the voidage around bubbles in fluidized beds
assume a simple two-phase flow model. A classic example of a model using this
basic assumption is the Davidson and Harrison bubble model. In more recent
experimental studies it has been shown that there exists a shell of lower voidage
around a bubble in a fluidized bed. Better understanding of these phenomena might
play a significant role in understanding other very important effects associated with
bubbles in fluidized beds. An example of this might be better understanding the
wake of a bubble rising in a fluidized bed and also to better predict mixing in a
fluidized bed. The amount of contact between the gas and the solids in a gas-solid
fluidized bed is paramount for designing an effective fluidized bed reactor.
In the present study a model describing the voidage distribution in front and
behind a bubble in a fluidized bed was reexamined and extended. The model pro-
posed by Buyevich et al. used some basic assumptions and previously derived
models to compose the model. In the present study the model is extended to two
dimensions to give a non-uniform particle distribution around the bubble. Thus
voidage distributions all around the bubble could be determined. This new distri-
bution of the voidage could be used to determine a new form of the bubble surface
and thus a new boundary condition for the fluidized bubble.
The results from the model are compared with simulations carried out at the
TUC in Porsgrunn, Norway. The results are discussed and evaluated.
Keywords: solid fraction, voidage distribution, bubble model, fluidization.

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1 Introduction
1.1 The momentum conservation equation and some basic assumptions

In some special cases the dispersed phase in a gas-solid fluidized bed may be mod-
eled as a dense gas [3]. The model extended in the present study is based on the
closure of the conservation equation for the dispersed phase in a fluidized bed
based on this dense gas assumption. Conservation equations for the mass, momen-
tum and fluctuation energy can be postulated in this manner but for the present
study only the momentum balance is of interest. The conservation of momentum
in the dispersed phase in a fluidized bed can thus be expressed as

ρ1 (φ∂/∂t + φw · ∇) w = ∇P + nf + φρ1 g, (1)

with ρ1 the particle phase density, φ the solid fraction, w the particle velocity,
P the tensor of the particulate stresses and f the interphase interaction force per
particle [3]. The number concentration of particles are represented by n and g is
gravitational acceleration. The averaged values in equation (1), namely the total
volume flux, φw, and the random forces experienced by the particles, f, can be
approximated by φw and f respectfully, given that the fluctuations of these quan-
tities are relatively small [3]. For simplicity of the model these random forces
and the total volume flux was assumed as non-fluctuating quantities. Another sim-
plification proposed by Buyevich [3] is to neglect the quasi-viscous stresses. As a
result the gradient of particle stresses can be written as −∇p1 , where p1 represents
the pressure in the dispersed phase. This approximation resembles the ideal-fluid
approximation given by Euler [3]. The total conservation of momentum can thus
be expressed as

ρ1 (φ∂/∂t + φw · ∇) w = −∇p1 + nf + φρ1 g. (2)

The random forces experienced by the particles consists of three entities namely
the drag force, buoyancy and inertial effects which may originate from several
different origins.
The drag force per particle can generally be expressed as

fd = m [F1 (φ) + F2 (φ)u] u, (3)

with u = v − w and where v is the interstitial velocity. Thus u is the fluid slip
velocity [3]. In equation (3) m represents the particle mass. Several correlations
exist for the prediction of F1 and F2 as a function of the solid fraction, φ, and other
physical parameters. Any adequate drag model can be used and in the present study
the model suggested in the work by Buyevich et al. [2] will be used. The functional
value of F1 will be more significant in the Darcy regime while F2 will be more
dominant in the Forchheimer regime. In the transition from one regime to the other
both terms in the drag correlation will be of importance. For the sake of simplicity
low particle Reynolds number flow was assumed in the present model. Thus only
the Darcy regime will be of importance and thus F2 will be assumed negligible.

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According to Buyevich this correlation for F1 can be expressed in terms of a

self-consistent model for finally dispersed concentrated suspensions and is given
by
9 ρ0 μ 1
F1 = , (4)
2 ρ1 d2p (1 − φ)n

where μ is the fluid viscosity, dp is the effective particle diameter and ρ0 is the gas
density. For this application a value of 52 is assumed for the value of n in equation
(4) which corresponds to a value of 4.5 for the exponent in the Richardson and
Zaki equation [2].
The contribution of buoyancy to the total force experienced by a particle can be
expressed as
4π
fb = − d3p ρ (φ) g, (5)
3
where ρ(φ) = (1 − φ)ρ0 + φρ1 and is representative of the mean density of the
mixture.
The last force to be considered is fluid inertia. This force will be ignored in the
total interphase interaction force and is an acceptable assumption when working
with gas as the ambient fluid [3]. Moreover this force will be much less significant
compared to the influence of the drag and buoyancy forces.
Thus the total random interphase interaction force per unit volume of the mix-
ture without fluctuations can be expressed as

nf = n(fd + fb ) = φρ1 [F1 (φ) + F2 (φ)u] u − φρ(φ)g, (6)

with n representing the number of identical spherical particles per unit volume of
the mixture [3].

1.2 First approximations and closure

Following the procedure outlined in the work by Buyevich et al. [2] the Davidson
and Harrison model [1] will be used as a first approximation for the particle veloc-
ity, w, as well as for the relative interstitial gas velocity, u. According to a simple
filtration model for a homogeneous porous body containing a spherical void in two
dimensions it follows that

2R3 R3 →
−
u = u0 (1 + 3
)cosθ−
→
r − u0 (1 + 3 )sinθ θ , (7)
r r

where R is the radius of a sphere with the same volume as the bubble at a particular
height in the fluidized bed. Equation (7) is written in spherical coordinates where
the radial and angular direction is defined in Figure 1. In the unperturbed dense
phase the interstitial velocity will be given by

u0 = (1 − φ0 )n+1 ut , (8)

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Figure 1: Schematic illustration of the proposed model alongside an image of a

real fluidized bubble.

where ut is the terminal fall velocity of a single particle in a stagnant gas and can
be expressed as
ρ1 2d2p
g. (9)
ρ0 9μ
This particular model will be assumed to be adequate in the present study but
other correlations might produce better results. Further work on this particular
topic is planed in future work. The particle velocity, w, is given by the ideal flow
model around a sphere and is expressed as
 3    
R →
− R3 →
−
w = Ub − 1 cosθ r + sinθ + sinθ θ , (10)
r3 2r3
√
in two dimensions with Ub = 2/3 gR from the Davidson and Harrison model
[1].
The only term in equation (2) that still needs closure is the particulate pressure
term. Different approximations also exist for the particulate pressure. In work done
by Buyevich [4] models are suggested for the closure of the particular pressure. In
the present study the particulate pressure will be assumed to be given by
p1 = G(φ)(φ/υ)T (11)
as described by Buyevich [3]. In equation (11) φ/υ represents the number concen-
tration of particles with υ the volume of a sphere. The function G(φ) describes the
increase of the pressure in a dense gas consisting of hard spheres as compared to
that of a dilute gas [2]. This function is based on a statistical mechanical model of
Carnahan and Starlling [2]. Thus it follows that
1 + φ + φ2 − φ3
G(φ) = . (12)
(1 − φ)3
In equation (11) the ”temperature” of the pseudo-gas is represented by T . Again
different models may be used to model this analogy to a molecular system and in

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 193

the present study it will be assumed to be given by

(φ/υ)T = 6.83 × 10−3 φM 2 φ2 ρ1 u2 , (13)

with  −1
n+1 g 4−φ
M= + ; φ2  = φ2 1 + 2φ . (14)
1 − φ F1 (φ)u (1 − φ)4
In this model for the particular pressure, pulsation energy transfer and work done
in expanding the particle pseudo-gas is ignored. Gradients in time and space of
average variables are also ignored [2]. From literature it is clear that this particular
model is not the best model for predicting the particulate pressure but it will suffice
for now as a good starting point for expanding the existing model described by
Buyevich et al. [2].

2 The Buyevich model

In the original work done by Buyevich et al. [2] only the voidage distribution in
one dimension was described. Thus only the voidage directly in front of and at the
back of the bubble could be predicted. The present study aimed to use the same
basic approach to create a more general model that would be capable of predicting
the voidage all around the bubble, in other words, for all values of r and θ (refer
to Figure 1). As a starting point of the extended model only two dimensions will
be discussed here. The two dimensional solution was found by solving equation
(2) along several different radial lines from the center of the bubble. As an initial
control the results were tested with the results published by Buyevich et al. for the
voidage along the vertical axis of the bubble [2]. This will be the case with θ = 0.
In Figure 2 these results are shown for the voidage distribution in front of and at

Figure 2: The prediction of the Buyevich bubble model with a free bed solid frac-
tion, φ0 , of 0.5 and a bubble radius, R, equal to one. The prediction is
given in front of- and at the back of the bubble.

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194 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

the back of the bubble. In Figure 2 the ξ represents the dimensionless distance and
is defined as ξ = r/R, with R as the bubble radius.
The radius of the bubble will be taken as a sphere with approximately the same
volume as that of the real bubble. In practice it is not always trivial to determine
the radius of this equivalent sphere but the concept will be used in the present
study. Figure 2 is just a control to check that the new two dimensional equations
simplify back to the results obtained by Buyevich et al. [2]. Exactly the same result
is retrieved with a solid fraction equal to 0.5 and a bubble radius equal to one.
Some differences were observed in the prediction at the rear of the bubble. The
results published by Buyevich did not include the particulate pressure term in the
total conservation of momentum equation. In some cases it is acceptable to assume
that this term is negligible but it is clear that this term has a significant effect on
the prediction of the model. In front of the bubble the results of the model seems
fairly physical and is a monotonously increasing function of the solid fraction. The
only effect of neglecting the particulate pressure term here would be a higher solid
fraction at the bubble boundary. At the back of the bubble the particulate terms
causes a very high solid fraction at the bubble interface. Whether this is physical
or not is not clear as a solid fraction of 0.7 seems very high if the free bed solid
fraction is a mere 0.5. Further research on the physicality of this phenomena is
needed.

3 Simulation correlations with the two dimensional model

In an attempt to quantify the results obtained with the model around the bubble,
CFD simulations were used to produce data. The simulation data should give some
indication of the validity of the model in question. The commercial code Flu-
ent Ansys 12.1 was used to perform the simulations. The Eularian approach was
employed and the Syamlal et al. drag model was used to simulate the drag [5]. A
uniform particle size equal to 483μm was assumed and the material was chosen
as glass. This set-up created a fluidized bed with a free bed solid fraction, φ0 , of
0.63. The fluidization medium was modeled as air. All of the simulations carried
out was in a two dimensional rectangular column with a diameter of 23cm.
In Figure 3(a) a bubble is shown that was retrieved using simulations. To pro-
duce a single bubble the bed was modeled to be at minimum fluidization conditions
and then an extra supply of gas was fed into the bed via a jet that was located in
the middle of the bed.
The data was extracted as several points along several radial lines drawn from
the estimated center of the bubble. The radial lines that were investigated are given
in Figure 3(b) and the particular point used are illustrated in Figure 3(c). At each
point the solid fraction was extracted. The data from the extracted points were
compared with the model along each radial line in term of the dimensionless dis-
tance, ξ. The results are given in Figure 4. The radial lines that were investigated
are located at θ = 0, π/6, π/3 and π/2 respectively (refer to Figure 3(b)). The
equivalent spherical bubble radius was taken as 7cm. This is an empirical estima-
tion. A definition for the bubble boundary should also be defined.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 195

Figure 3: (a) A bubble created in a fluidized bed at minimum fluidization condi-

tions, (b) radial lines investigated to quantify the accuracy of the model
and (c) the point at which the void fraction data were extracted.

From Figure 4(a)–(b) it is clear to see that the correlation without the particulate
pressure term provides a much more accurate result. This may be a misleading
result as the value of ξ is strongly connected to what is defined as the bubble
boundary. If the equivalent spherical bubble’s radius was taken as less that 7cm
the correlation with the particulate term might have been a better fit. Simply from
this result it is clear that further research is needed in clearly defining the bubble
boundary.
There were a few unexpected and interesting results from the simulations. First
of all the solid fraction inside of the bubble was much higher than expected. In most
models commonly used, a simple two phase model is assumed. In other words,
there is only a uniform dense phase outside of the bubble and the gas phase inside
of the bubble. All gas in excess of the minimum fluidization velocity is assumed
to pass through the bed as bubbles [6]. This assumption seems to be very crude in
light of the simulations. These phenomena also make it more difficult to define the
bubble boundary. Even at what was assumed to be the center point of the bubble
a solid fraction of 0.12 was observed. From Figure 4 it is clear to see that the first
two data points on each radial line had a some what different gradient than the
other data points. This change in gradient might be an indication of the bubble
boundary, in which case, the new two dimensional model does relatively well in
prediction the boundary. Contrary to the previous published results it seems that
the bubble boundary cannot always be assumed to start at a solid fraction of zero
[2]. As the angle, θ, was tending toward π/2 the model correlation became worse
(refer to Figure 4(c) and (d)). Actually the model predictions depicted in Figure

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196 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Figure 4: Solid fraction distribution along the radial lines (a) θ = 0, (b) θ = π/6,
(c) θ = π/3 and (d) θ = π/2.

4(d) were calculated using the value π/2.1 as the model produced a solid fraction
distribution equal to zero at π/2. This result is unphysical and is a consequence of
the trivial model used to predict the relative interstitial velocity, u. From equation
(7) it is clear to see that the velocity will be zero at π/2 in the radial direction
and when the velocity is modeled as zero it follows that the drag and consequently
the solid fraction will also be modeled as zero. This problem at π/2 raises doubts
about the physicality of the model’s perditions as θ  π/2. This phenomena might
also be the explanation for the relatively bad predictions as θ  π/2 (refer to
Figure 4(c)).
In Figure 5(a) and (b) the same result are show as in Figure 4 but on a bigger
scale.
In Figure 5 is a section of higher solid fraction just adjacent to the bubble bound-
ary. Further research on the physicality of this result is in progress. If it can be
proven that this region of higher solid fraction does indeed exist, it might help
the scientific community understand bubble interaction and coalescence in a more
clear way.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 197

Figure 5: (a) The solid fraction distribution along the radial line at θ = π/3, (b)
the solid fraction distributions along several radial lines and (c) gives the
solid fraction distribution in the rear quadrant of the bubble.

In Figure 5(c) the model predictions for θ = 2π/3, 5π/6 and π are given. In
this quadrant behind the bubble the opposite effect is observed. Adjacent to the
hypothetical bubble boundary a band of lower solid fractions exists. This effect is
again more pronounced for values of θ close to π/2. Whether this is just an artifact
or a real wake effect is not yet clear as no data was acquired in this region.

4 Conclusion
Bubbles in fluidized beds are one of the major phenomena through which mixing
takes place. Better understanding of physical phenomena in and around bubbles
in a fluidized bed is of paramount importance. Knowledge in this regard can help
engineers and scientists to design and develop more effective fluidized bed reac-
tors.
In the present study a model describing the voidage distribution in front and
behind a bubble in a fluidized bed was reexamined and extended. The model

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198 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

suggested is not complete or satisfactory. This work is only the initialization of

a research project to model the flow behavior in and around a bubble in a fluidized
bed. This model, originally suggested by Buyevich et al. [2], might be developed
into a very useful and convenient predictive tool.
Time the model gives very good results in the area close to the front of the
bubble. This was established by using data that was acquired using CFD simula-
tions. Suspected limitations of the models used to predict the relative interstitial
velocities, equation (7), might of been the cause of the inaccuracy of the model at
θ = π/2. Never the less, these problems have the possibility of being addressed in
the future and thus render a very accurate and useful model for predicting the solid
fraction distribution all around a bubble in a fluidized bed.

References
[1] Davidson, J.F. & Harrison, D., Fluidized particles. Cambridge University
Press: Cambrige, U.K., 1963.
[2] Buyevich, Y.A., Yates, J.G., Cheesman, D.J. & Wu, K.T., A model for the dis-
tribution of voidage around bubbles in a fluidized bed. Chemical Engineering
Science, 50(19), pp. 3155–3162, 1995.
[3] Buyevich, Y.A., Fluid dynamics of coarse dispersions. Chemical Engineering
Science, 49(8), pp. 1217–1228, 1994.
[4] Buyevich, Y.A., Particulate pressure in monodisperse fluidized beds. Chemical
Engineering Science, 52(1), pp. 123–140, 1997.
[5] Syamlal, M., Rogers, W. & O’Brien, T.J., Technical note. MFIX Documenta-
tion theory guide, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, Mor-
gantown Energy Technology Center, Morgantown, West Virginia, 1993.
[6] Kunii, D. & Levenspiel, O., Fluidization Engineering second edition.
Butterworth-Heinemann series in chemical engineering: Oxford, U.K., 1991.

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 Section 4
Heat transfer
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 201

Spray quenching of specimen for

ring heat treatment
P. Stark, S. Schuettenberg & U. Fritsching
Research Centre “Distortion Engineering”,
Foundation Institute for Materials Science (IWT), Bremen, Germany

Abstract
The quenching process of metallic workpieces within manufacturing and heat
treatment can be optimized by applying locally and temporally adapted
quenching cooling conditions. Locally variable heat transfer conditions at the
workpiece surface are realizable by the regulation of adjustable and flexible flow
fields on the basis of impinging spray or jet flows. For the analysis of heat
treatment, the heat transfer rates with respect to the applied flow parameters and
their influence on the cooling conditions are described. The simulation is assisted
by experimental analysis of impinging multiphase jets and sprays.
Keywords: spray cooling, quenching, heat treatment, heat transfer coefficient.

1 Introduction
A main step in the manufacturing process of e.g. machine and gear components
is the heat transfer process. Large metallic rings are used in many technical
applications. Due to their function as a main component of bearings high
demands on material quality and precision are made during the production
process. Large distortion and/or shape deviation occur during the process steps
of heating, rolling and quenching that commonly require material allowance to
enable an additional reworking process.
Thus, a new approach to minimize the occurring distortion has been
developed in which the heat necessary for the forming process shall be used to
compensate the distortion during quenching within the hardening process. The
minimization and compensation of workpiece distortion can be realized by
impressing asymmetric cooling conditions by the use of flexible flow fields
based on liquid jets or sprays. Especially the cooling by two phase sprays of gas

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202 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

and liquid, as schematically showed in figure 1, enables to generate specific local

heat transfer conditions on workpiece surfaces. The quenching process in
flexible jet nozzle fields has originally been developed for gaseous flows [1]. But
experimental investigations on relevant parts result in insufficient experiences
because of the limited achievable heat transfer by this quenching method, which
is too low for successful distortion compensation. However, by controlled
quenching in liquid media (such as water or hardening oil) and by means of jet or
spray quenching, the heat transfer process can be heavily intensified and to
generate a much higher distortion compensation potential [2].

Spray nozzle

Ring

Figure 1: Spray quenching of heated rings.

In liquid jet quenching processes, the generated flow velocity on the

impingement area outside a liquid jet should be strong enough to suppress any
boiling phenomena (vapour layer, nucleate boiling) in the impingement region
on the heated surface. Here, pure convective/single phase heat transfer from the
workpiece surface to the incident flow will generate extremely high cooling rates
and thus high heat transfer rates. For the numerical simulation these processes,
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations are done. To achieve accurate
results within the simulation of the heat transfer on the ring segment’s surface,
the complete flow field of the jet array could be rebuilt in a 3D-CFD-simulation.
The chart of figure 2 shows the results of heat transfer coefficient (HTC)
allocations along a vertical scanline through the centres of impinging jets on a
heated ring segment surface. It can clearly be seen that the impinging liquid jet
causes significant higher HTC-profiles (αM ≈ 25 kW/(m²K)) in comparison to the
results of the gas quenching process (αM ≈ 1 kW/(m²K)). The high level of the
local HTC shows the high distortion compensation potential of the liquid jet
quenching process. However, quenching experiments showed that the impressed
local HTC are too high for a useful control of asymmetric quenching conditions.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 203

In consequence, two-phase atomizers instead of single-phase liquid jets are

utilized to allow the adjustment of impressed heat transfer conditions with the
choice of spray parameters (liquid mass flow and gaseous pressure). This
quenching technique enables to set up local heat transfer conditions to generate
HTC results in a useful range between the achievable results for pure gas
respectively liquid quenching processes, as shown in figure 2.

45 Gasabschreckung
Gas quenching
Scanlinie Nozzle / jet
Jetabschreckung
Jet quenching
40 Spray cooling
Sprayabschreckung
3 3
35

αM = 700 – 27.000 W/(m²K)

2
30
z
1
z [mm]

25
2
20
x
Ring segment 15

10
1
5

0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000
Two phase atomizer [Spraying Systems] αM = 990 W/m²K αM = 25.000 W/m²K
Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m²K)]

Figure 2: Heat transfer coefficients for different jet and spray cooling
techniques.
Through the use of multiphase atomizers for impressing intensive but
controlled local heat transfer on surfaces, it is also possible to avoid vapour layer
formation on heated workpiece surfaces [3, 4]. A spray of fine liquid droplets
and an overlaid gaseous flow is impinged on the heated surface. Within this
process, the efficiency of a complete evaporative cooling should be ideally
reached, because the liquid fraction of the spray is restricted so that no closed
liquid film with a vapour layer underneath is built.
For experimental investigations on hot rings, a flexible nozzle field shall be
utilized to create local gradients in heat transfer, so that the occurring internal
stresses lead to a compensation of the distortion while the surface hardness is not
dropping below given requirements. To detect and compare the occurring
distortion of the quenched parts, the shape deviations of the specimens with
respect to the applied quenching conditions are measured through a mechanical
measuring system before and after the cooling process.

2 Methods
2.1 Experimental setup

To analyse the spray cooling process, a twin fluid atomizer with water and air is
used. This nozzle (type: CasterJet, manufacturer: Spraying Systems Co.) is
typically applied for cooling in steel casting processes and is assigned by very

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204 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

high mass fluxes (up to 1600 kg/h) for the liquid phase. The spray pattern of this
atomizer type is a flat-spray cone, which is the optimal geometry for a
homogeneous cooling over the circumference of the given ring segment. A spray
pattern at typical operation parameters (water mass flow 100 kg/h, air pressure
p = 0.3 MPa) and position related to a workpiece surface is shown in figure 3.
The given operation parameters (air pressure and water mass flow) and
especially the operation boundaries are examined and defined in experimental
investigations.
z

Liquid

Gas
Surface

Figure 3: Two phase atomizer arrangement for spray cooling.

For efficient estimation of the spray process, a spray characterization in

combination with evaluation and cooling curve based measurements of heat
transfer coefficients are performed. The spray characterization consists of drop
diameter measurements by using Laser Diffraction Techniques and droplet
velocity examinations done by Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV). The
measurement of liquid mass flux distributions is done by using patternators.
The cooling behaviour of 1/16 segments of a large ring (figure 4) with respect
to the applied spray quenching conditions is investigated experimentally. Both
inside and outside of the ring two spray nozzles are arranged perpendicularly to
the surface, so that the flat spray profile is only widening in the circumferential
direction. The area of impingement is located at half of the ring’s height.
A constant nozzle distant of z = 140 mm provides an overlapping region of about
30% of the width of one single spray cone on both sides of the ring segment. The
ring segment is heated for 90 minutes at Toven = 900°C under ambient
atmosphere. The spray nozzles were activated at t = 0 s as soon when the
specimen is reaching the desired position in the nozzle field. During quenching,
the temperature at different positions inside of the specimen have been measured
through thermocouples (NiCr-Ni, Type K), both in the core (diameter = 1 mm)
and in the near-wall region (diameter = 0.5 mm). The distances from the surface
of the near-wall thermocouples are in the range of 1 - 1.5 mm. The measurement
frequency is 15 Hz.

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Figure 4: Experimental setup for quenching of ring segment with sprays.

2.2 Determination of heat transfer coefficients

The basis for high heat transfer rates in spray cooling processes is a high
evaporation efficiency. It increases for decreasing drop diameters and is often
used in dependency to the Weber number, whereby the drop behaviour during
workpiece surface impact can be characterized and evaluated by approaches of
Bolle and Moureau [5] and Berg [6]:
u2    d
We  (1)

Here, u is the drop velocity [m/s], ρ is the density of the liquid phase [kg/m3], d
is the drop diameter [m] and σ the surface tension [N/m]. For Weber numbers
above 80, a liquid film is built on the heated surface. The film next collapses in a
number of small drops which results in a high heat transfer. For setting up high
evaporation efficiency, it is necessary to adjust the spray for getting Weber
numbers above 80.
For evaluation of heat transfer coefficients, the empiric approach of
Puschmann [3] was the chosen:
 C  m S  16,8  u 0.12  d 0.29 (2)

Here, αc is the convective heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2K)] and ms is the

impingement density [kg/(m2s)]. Puschmann could show that the results for
calculated heat transfer coefficients in spray cooling processes are directly
proportional to the water impingement density for heated surfaces above the
Leidenfrost temperature. The drop diameter and velocity only have a secondary
role in comparison to the water impingement density.

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Based on measured temperature curves at the near-wall thermocouples, the

underlying time-dependent heat transfer coefficient (HTC) on the surface can be
determined by applying a numerical approach. It is based on the observation that
the temperature in the near-wall region is decreasing rapidly, while the reaction
of the temperature in the core is heavily delayed due to the thickness and the
relatively low thermal conductivity of the solid (Biot number Bi > 1). By also
neglecting cross flows of energy in the axial direction of the ring, each of the
measurement positions is treated individually as a one-dimensional stripe of the
solid with the length (router - rinner)/2 involving the core and the very tip of the
thermocouples.
In this approach, energy can only be removed through that boundary
representing the outer surface of the specimen. All other walls are set to
adiabatic. Starting from a homogenous temperature distribution of T = Toven, the
heat transfer coefficient on the surface is iteratively calculated for each time step
until the simulated temperature at the position of the thermocouple corresponds
to that one from the experiment within a ± 0.1°C interval. Within this loop, the
current temperature distribution at time t is used as the initial condition to
determine the heat transfer coefficient at time t + Δt.
This approach enables to calculate the time-dependent heat transfer
coefficient at the wall for all cooling curves at the beginning of the quenching
process. For a two-sided flat plate with the thickness d cooled from both sides, it
is valid for [7]:
at
Fo   0.04 (3)
d / 22
Here, the Fourier number Fo is calculated with the thermal diffusivity a [m2/s] of
the steel, the time t and the characteristic length d. Setting d = (router - rinner) leads
to a validity period of t ≤ 28 s for the ring segment.

2.3 Numerical simulation of the temperature distributions

The determined time-dependent heat transfer coefficients can be used as a

boundary condition for the simulation of the cooling of the specimen. Due to the
limited number of thermocouple measurements, these values are linearly
interpolated in circumferential direction between these known locations at each
time step. In axial direction, no gradient in heat transfer is applied. At the other
surfaces (upper, lower and end faces) which are not directly exposed to an
incoming flow, low values for the heat transfer coefficients of 2000 W / (m2K)
are assumed and kept constant for the entire calculation. Starting from a
homogenous temperature distribution of 900°C, the cooling until equilibrium
(Tambient = 25°C) is simulated. Temperature dependent material properties of the
material (42CrMo4) are applied during the calculation of the unsteady cooling of
the specimen.

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3 Results
3.1 Heat transfer coefficients based on cooling curves

The cooling behaviour at different position in the ring segment has been
measured for a symmetric and an asymmetric nozzle setup at different positions
inside of the specimen (see figure 5):
liquid volume flow rate per nozzle in l/min:

atomization pressure: 0.25 MPa

Figure 5: Symmetric (l.) and asymmetric spray nozzle setup, positions of the
thermocouple measurements.

The cooling curves measured in the centre of a spray cone show the same
result regardless whether the symmetric or asymmetric respectively the convex
or concave surface is analysed. Thus, they are used as the reference curve in
figure 6, in which the measured cooling curves are compared.

symmetric quenching asymmetric quenching

900 900

800 800

700 700
temperature in °C

600 600

500 500

400 400

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
time in s time in s
centre of spray cone
centre of spray cone
outer region of spray cone, concave surface
overlapping region
outer region of spray cone, convex surface

Figure 6: Measured cooling curves for spray quenching.

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208 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

At symmetric quenching conditions, the cooling behaviour is qualitatively the

same at both measuring position, but a slightly faster temperature decrease can
be observed in the overlapping region.
In case of asymmetric quenching conditions, the cooling behaviour in the
outer regions of the spray cones follows a differing trend. On both sides of the
ring segment, a period of only slow temperature decrease may be observed
within the first few seconds of the quenching process followed by a more abrupt
decrease of the temperature, which is typical for occurring boiling phenomena.
Due to the geometric shape of the surfaces this trend is more emphasized on
the outer side of the specimen. There, the convex surface shape leads to a more
acute angle of impingement of the spray, so that the stagnation pressure of the
flow may not be high enough to transport away any formed vapour film. After
the collapse of the vapour film, the cooling trend is very similar at all
measurement positions.
The corresponding cooling trends in the core regions down to a temperature
of 400°C are not differing significantly. It takes 82 s in case of symmetric
quenching conditions, whereas 95 s are necessary when the asymmetric
quenching conditions are applied.
The heat transfer coefficient has been determined by applying the numerical
approach described in chapter 2.2. The results are summarized in figure 7.
For almost all curves, the heat transfer coefficient increases rapidly at the
beginning of the quenching process increases, until it stays at a constant level.
For the symmetric quenching conditions, this constant region is reached after

symmetric quenching asymmetric quenching

12000 12000

10000 10000
HTC in W/m2K

8000 8000

6000 6000

4000 4000

2000 2000

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
time in s time in s
centre of spray cone centre of spray cone
outer region of spray cone, concave surface
overlapping region
outer region of spray cone, convex surface

Figure 7: Determined time-dependent heat transfer coefficient for spray

quenching.

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about the same period of time (≈ 4 s) both in the core region of the spray cone as
well as an in the overlapping region. In the overlapping region, this constant
HTC has a value of about 9100 W / (m²K) compared to 6700 W / (m²K) in the
centres of the single spray cones.
For the asymmetric quenching conditions, the reached constant value of
6700 W / (m²K) is almost equal at all measured location, but the described effect
of the boiling phenomena on the hot surface in the outer regions of the spray
cones leads to a time shift of about 5 s between the three measurement positions,
concerning the point in time when the low HTC ≤ 2000 W / (m²K) are quickly
increases to the higher values in the constant regime of the HTC.

3.2 Heat transfer coefficients based on calculation approach validation

The CasterJet nozzle was used for measurements by different water mass flows
and air pressures. The result of the drop diameter measurements on the spray
axis for a distance of z = 140 mm is shown in the left charts of figure 8 in
dependence of the mean volumetric diameter d30 with the water mass flow and
air pressure. It can be seen that the d30 increases with increasing water mass flow,
but it shrinks in proportion to increased air pressures.
The local drop velocities inside the spray were measured by the use of PIV
method. The right charts of figure 8 shows exemplarily results of velocity
measurements for typical water mass flows by air pressure 0.15 MPa. The trend
of the averaged velocities for an increased distance to the spray axis shows a
maximum on position r = 0 and a light decrease of the velocity for outer ranges.

250 50
Air pressure
45
0,10 MPa
200 0,15 MPa 40
Mean drop diameter d30 [µm]

0,20 MPa
35
0,25 MPa
150 0,30 MPa 30
u [m/s]

25

100 20

15

50 Water flow
10
300 kg/h
5 400 kg/h

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 -100 -50 0 50 100
Water mass flow [kg/h] r [mm]

Figure 8: Measured mean drop diameter (l.) and drop velocity dependent to
spray parameters.

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210 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

With knowledge of the drop diameter and velocities on different points inside
the spray it is possible to calculate local Weber numbers by eqn (1). The
calculated Weber numbers should validate the applicability of the used approach
for calculating local heat transfer coefficients by eqn (2). The calculations result
in Weber numbers higher than 85 for every spray parameter combination (water
mass flow and air pressure). Based on this, eqn (2) is valid.
By [3] the calculated heat transfer coefficients are direct proportional to the
water impingement density. The impingement density was measured on different
positions inside the spray for the distance of z = 140 mm. Figure 9 shows results
on the dependence of the water mass flow and used air pressures.

9000

Air pressure 8000

20 0,10 MPa Water impingement density
Water impingement density [kg/(m²s)]

Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m²K)]

Heat transfer coefficient 7000
0,15 MPa
0,20 MPa
6000
15 0,25 MPa
0,30 MPa 5000

4000
10

3000

5 2000

1000

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Water mass flow [kg/h]

Figure 9: Heat transfer coefficients and water impingement density.

The determined results from the spray characterization for drop diameter,
velocities and impingement densities are used to calculate heat transfer
coefficients by eqn (2) for the position r = 0. The results of these calculations are
also included in figure 9 for direct comparison. Based on this, a direct
proportionality of the water impingement density to the heat transfer coefficients
can be validated under consideration of the adjusted air pressures.

3.3 Temperature distributions in ring during quenching

The temperature distributions inside of the ring segments are calculated by using
the determined local heat transfer coefficients as the boundary condition in the
numerical simulation (see figure 10).
For symmetric and asymmetric quenching conditions, the temperature
distributions are shown at a certain time step, so that the maximum temperature
in the core region is 400°C. The corresponding cooling process takes 75 s in case
of symmetric quenching with four activated spray nozzles, resp. 90 s for the
asymmetric quenching conditions with only two used nozzles (compare to

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 211

chapter 3.1). A response of the temperature distribution to the applied quenching

intensities can still be observed both in the core and in the near-wall regions of
the specimen. An additional comparison of the experimentally and numerically
determined cooling curves in the core regions shows good agreements within a
±30°C interval.

5 5 Water volume flow rate 5 0 T in °C

per nozzle in l/min:
400

250

5 5 0 5 100
symmetric quenching asymmetric quenching
t = 75 s t = 90 s

Figure 10: Simulated temperature distributions at cutting planes through the

centres of the ring segments (atomization pressure p = 0.25 MPa).

4 Conclusion
By creating asymmetric quenching intensities on the specimen’s surface, local
gradients in the internal cooling behaviour inside of the body can be caused
which may lead to increased distortion behaviour of the quenched specimens.
The general merits of the spray quenching technique and the influence of the
spray parameters on the local cooling conditions were presented. The decisive
precondition for this approach is the knowledge of the local spray conditions and
their influence on the temporal and spatial distribution of the heat transfer rates.
Here, two different approaches to determine the heat transfer coefficient were
shown.
The effect of the temperature distributions and local cooling rates during
quenching of a ring is demonstrated.

Acknowledgement
The present work was executed in the framework of the Collaborative Research
Centre (SFB 570) “Distortion Engineering” at the University of Bremen
(projects B4 and T5). The authors would like to thank the German Research
Foundation (DFG) for the financial support.

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212 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

References
[1] Schuettenberg, S., Frerichs, F., Hunkel, M., Fritsching, U., Int.
J. Materials and Product Technology; 24, 2005, 259-269
[2] Schüttenberg, S., Hunkel, M., Fritsching, U., Zoch, H.-W., Proc. of 5th
International and European Conference on Quenching and Control of
Distortion, 25 - 27 April 2007, Berlin, S. 257-264
[3] Puschmann, F.: ‟Experimentelle Untersuchung der Spraykühlung zur
Qualitätsverbesserung durch definierte Einstellung des Wärmeübergangs”,
Dissertation, 2003, Otto-von Guericke-Universität, Magdeburg, Germany
[4] Krause, C., Wulf, E., Nürnberger, F., Bach, F.-W., Forsch. Ingenieurwes.
2008, 72, 163-173
[5] Bolle, L., Moureau, J.C., Multiphase Sci. Technol. 1982, 1, 1-97
[6] Berg, M., “Zum Aufprall, zur Ausbreitung und Zerteilung von
Schmelzetropfen aus reinen Metallen”, Dissertation, 1999, Universität
Bremen, Germany
[7] Verein Deutscher Ingenieure: VDI-Wärmeatlas, 9. Auflage, Springer-Verlag
Berlin (u.a.), 2002

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 213

Effect of inclination on flow and thermal

characteristics of air-water two-phase flow:
an experimental investigation
M. J. Vaze & J. Banerjee
S V National Institute of Technology, Surat, India

Abstract
An experimental analysis towards establishing the effect of inclination on flow
and thermal characteristics of air-water two-phase flow is presented. The
experimental setup consists of a mixing section, a visualization section, a test
section and an outlet section. The test section consists of two sets of pressure
transducers, heater element and RTD sensors for surface temperature and inlet
and outlet bulk fluid temperature measurements. The test setup can be inclined
maximum up to 30º of inclination. Various flow patterns like stratified, slug,
plug, wavy, annular and other mixed type are observed and captured at 0º, 2º, 5º
and 7º for the range of the liquid (ReSL) and gas (ReSG) superficial Reynolds
numbers of 500-10000 and 500-30000 respectively. Flow regime map is
established based on this flow visualization. For inclined configuration the
stratified regime is observed to be replaced by slug and slug/wavy type of flow
regime and the transition between slug-plug and slug-slug/wavy takes place at
higher Reynolds numbers. Surface and bulk fluid temperatures are recorded for
constant wall heat flux condition, by varying the superficial Reynolds numbers
of gas and liquid phases to establish the local and average two-phase heat
transfer coefficient. It is observed that ReSL has a pronounced effect on heat
transfer coefficient in comparison to ReSG. With the change in inclination this
effect becomes more evident. A heat transfer correlation is deduced from the
present experimental observation which includes the basic parameters like
Reynolds number and Prandtl number, pressure drop and inclination effect.
Keywords: two-phase flow, flow pattern, heat transfer, superficial Reynolds
number, inclination.

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doi:10.2495/MPF110181
214 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

1 Introduction
Alternating flow of gas and liquid (slug flow) is a concern for petroleum industry
while crude oil is transport from the well through the pipelines. Although such
flows are majorly for horizontal orientation of the pipe, it is evident that the
topography of the land produces situations where the orientation of the pipe can
be inclined. To properly design such flow lines thus it is necessary to establish
the flow and thermal characteristics of two-phase flow through pipes with
smaller inclinations.
Introduction of small inclination creates the component of gravitational force
which is exactly perpendicular to the flow in horizontal case. The normal
component provides segregation of the phases as in the case of horizontal flow
while the other component acts parallel and opposite to the flow. Therefore, flow
through pipe inclination causes lower velocity than in the corresponding
horizontal configuration. These create differences in flow patterns and in situ
properties which causes changes in flow and thermal characteristics.
Flow pattern map for horizontal flow was developed by many investigators in
the past. Flow pattern map proposed by Taitel and Dukler [1] and the transition
boundaries predicted analytically by them are valid for horizontal and near
horizontal flow. Beggs and Brill [2] studied inclined gas-liquid flow through
pipes and their work has been widely applied in the petroleum industry. This
work provides empirical correlations for the prediction of holdup and pressure
drop. Hasan and Kabir [3] conducted experiments in 12.5 cm pipe and annular
flow channels with inner tube diameters of 4.8, 5.7 and 8.7 cm for deviations up
to 32° from vertical. These experiments for very low water flow rates were
conducted by feeding air into a stagnant water column. The model developed by
Hasan and Kabir [3] performs comparable to the Beggs and Brill model [2].
Experimental conclusions made by Barnea et al. [4] revealed the agreement
between the experiment and theory proposed by them for inclined flow. Kokal
and Stanislave [5] showed that flow pattern transition line is more sensitive to
inclination angle and uphill flow regimes were predominantly intermittent while
downhill were stratified. A study on inclined two-phase flow was conducted by
Tshuva et al. [6] for various upward inclinations in 2.4 cm diameter, 3 m long
pipes. It was found that the flow distribution can be either symmetric or
asymmetric depending on the flow conditions and pipe inclination. The CFD
analysis of the effect of inclination was also carried out by Vaze and Banerjee [7]
for 0°-7° inclination. They observed that stratified flow for inclined orientations
was replaced by slug flow.
In non-boiling systems, the enhancement of convective heat transfer by
injecting a gas phase in confined liquids has been observed by Dorresteijn [8]
and also by Elamvaluthi and Srinivasa [9]. Mosyak and Hetsroni [10] had shown
that the temperature difference between the top and the bottom side of the pipe
was quite large for horizontal pipes. It drastically decreased due to an inclination
of the pipe. Hetsoroni et al. [11] developed relation between the flow parameters
and heat transfer using IR thermography for diabatic air–water flow. Large
difference of circumferential wall temperature was found in their experiments.

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This irregularity was found to be due to the distribution of air and water phase in
the pipe. The quantitative information regarding the increase in heat transfer with
the increase in inclination angle was not addressed by them.
The objective of the present work is to systematically investigate the flow and
thermal characteristics of air-water two-phase flow for various inclinations.
Experiments are carried out for 20, 50 and 70 orientation of the pipe. The mass
flow rate of gas and liquid phases are varied to visualize the different flow
patterns. These visualized images are utilized to generate flow pattern map for
each of these inclinations. Due to the distribution of phases in the fluid in
various flow regimes, the heat transfer characteristics of each regime differ. Bulk
and surface temperatures are measured under constant heat flux condition to
establish the local variation of heat transfer for each regime for different
inclination of the pipe. A generalized correlation for average heat transfer is then
established in terms of fluid and flow properties and inclination.

T1 RTD station 1
T2 RTD station 2
T3 RTD station 3
T4 RTD station 4
1 Storage tank 7 Screw compressor 13 Outlet section
2 Centrifugal pump 8 Pressure regulator 14 Air vent duct
3 By-pass line 9 Orifice meter/Rotameter 15 Return line 1
(air)
4 Ball valve 10 Mixing zone/ Calming zone 16 Return line 2
5 Gate valve 11 Visualization zone 17 Line to the
storage tank
6 Rotameter (water) 12 Heat transfer test section
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of experimental setup.

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216 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

2 Experimental procedures
The established experimental setup (Figure 1) is discussed in an earlier paper by
the authors (Vaze and Banerjee [12]). The test setup has the facility to incline the
pipe maximum up to 30° by using an in-house electric jack. A 230 V ac supply is
provided to the gear motor through reverse-forward switch to facilitate the lifting
of the setup. Flow rates, flow patterns, pressure and temperatures at different
locations of the setup are recorded after setting the pipe at required angle of
inclination.

3 Flow visualization
One of the most important aspects of two-phase flow is the geometric
distribution of the phases under flowing conditions. In addition to the flowing
conditions, it also depends on the angle of inclination. State of the art literature
does not provide sufficient information regarding their functional relationship
with the angle of inclination. Unlike the horizontal flow, gravity effects dominate
for two-phase distribution in inclined pipes. Due to the higher density difference
as in the case of air-water two-phase flow, gravity forces are more important than
the other types of forces. The relative contribution of gravity forces compared to
inertia forces increases with the increase in inclination. This could result in
shifting of the transition line among the various flow regimes. Thus, small
change in inclination can cause significant changes in flow and other
characteristics of the two-phase flow through the system. Depending on the
characteristic form of the flow patterns, seven flow patterns are identified. These
are slug, plug, wavy, annular, wavy/annular, slug/wavy and slug/bubbly/annular.
In the present investigation images are captured using Nikon D60 camera and

Slug (ReSG = 832, ReSL = 5268) Annular (ReSG = 29342, ReSL = 2950)

Plug (ReSG = 832, ReSL = 10000) SW (ReSG = 8602, ReSL = 3715)

Wavy (ReSG = 15630, ReSL = 705) WA (ReSG = 20538, ReSL = 4487)

SBA (ReSG = 16626, ReSL = 8474)

Figure 2: Visualized flow patterns for 2º inclination.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 217

Slug (ReSG = 832, ReSL = 5268) Annular (ReSG = 29342, ReSL = 2950)

Plug (ReSG = 832, ReSL = 10000) SW (ReSG = 8602, ReSL = 3715)

Wavy (ReSG = 15630, ReSL = 705) WA (ReSG = 20538, ReSL = 4487)

SBA (ReSG = 16626, ReSL = 8474)

Figure 3: Visualized flow patterns for 5º inclination.

Slug (ReSG = 832, ReSL = 5268) Annular (ReSG = 29342, ReSL = 2950)

Plug (ReSG = 832, ReSL = 10000) SW (ReSG = 8602, ReSL = 3715)

Wavy (ReSG = 15630, ReSL = 705) WA (ReSG = 20538, ReSL = 4487)

SBA (ReSG = 16626, ReSL = 8474)

Figure 4: Visualized flow patterns for 7º inclination.

corresponding flow rates are recorded. Image analysis then establishes the flow
patterns. Flow rates for each phase are converted to superficial Reynolds
numbers of the respective phases.
Flow patterns that are observed for 2º, 5º and 7º inclinations along with
corresponding ReSG and ReSL are described in Figures 2-4. The abbreviations for
flow patterns used in the figures and tables are illustrated in the nomenclature.
The important difference between horizontal and inclined flow patterns is the
chaotic nature of the flow. Except plug and annular type of flow pattern, the
bubble and droplet entrainment increases with the increase in inclination.
Another important observation is the complete absence of stratified flow pattern

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218 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

for inclined flow. This is due to the effect of gravity on liquid which does not
remain constant everywhere inside the fluid domain. This creates slug even at
lower superficial Reynolds numbers.

4 Flow regime map

Various flow patterns are visualized by varying the mass flow rates of the phases
and representative images are shown in Figures 2-4. These flow patterns are
captured and the flow rates are measured. These mass flow rates are converted to
non-dimensional Reynolds numbers corresponding to superficial conditions.
Around 300 combinations of superficial Reynolds numbers are considered for
which various flow patterns are captured. Various symbols are used to
distinguish between various flow patterns. A thick transition line is marked on
the flow map on visualized flow patterns to distinguish the regimes of flow
patterns. An uncertainty analysis carried out following UKAS [13] shows an
overall uncertainty of 2% with 95% of confidence for the estimation of
superficial Reynolds number for both air and water phase in the experiments.
The effect of upward inclination of the pipe on flow pattern transition is carefully
examined. The transition lines for 20, 50 and 70 inclinations are overlapped on
common flow regime map to understand the effect of inclination on flow
regimes. The shift in the transition lines due to inclination of the pipe is shown in
Figure 5. Close inspection of Figure 5 reveals following observations.
Upward inclination causes the intermittent flow to take place over a much
wider range of flow conditions. Stratified flow is much sensitive to the
inclination. Stratified regime is not present for all the inclinations considered in
the present case. Portions of stratified regime are replaced by slug and slug/wavy

3500 A
P
S
SBA
hTP (mean), W/m2 k

2500 SW
W
WA

1500

500
0 2 5 7

Inclination of pipe in deg.

Figure 5: Variation of transition Figure 6: Variation of mean hTP

lines with inclination with pipe inclination
on flow regime map. for various flow
patterns.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 219

type of flow regimes. Due to this, the top surface of the pipe is wetted frequently
by liquid even at lower ReSG and ReSL. This will ensure lower temperature of the
top surface for constant wall heat flux condition. This in turn will eliminate the
sudden rise in top surface temperature. Slug-plug transition line shifts towards –
higher ReSL at higher inclination. This is caused by accumulation of liquid near
the entry zone. For the flow to happen this requires more turbulence which
creates chaotic slug. When sufficient inertia is formed by the liquid the chaotic
nature reduces and plug is formed. Slug-slug/wavy transition line shifts towards
higher ReSG for higher inclination. Other transition lines remain more or less
same. The characteristics of such flows are significantly different from the
horizontal case due to the effect of gravity Curling of air over the liquid surface
is observed during slug flow. Also, there is presence of flow reversal. This
produces substantial change in heat transfer.

5 Heat transfer characterization

The surface and bulk fluid temperature measurements are carried out to establish
the heat transfer characteristics of air-water two-phase flow with small change in
inclination of the pipe (0º-7º). The range of Reynolds numbers considered are
500-10000 for ReSL and 500-30000 for ReSG. Uniform wall heat is applied to the
pipe using four resistance type surface heaters each having 2.5 kW capacities at
230 V. Before starting the two-phase heat transfer study, energy balance and in-
situ calibration for RTD sensors are carried out for horizontal pipe to establish
the amount of heat loss to the surrounding and proper installation of RTD
sensors.
Surface temperatures are measured at four different cross sections with four
thermocouples inserted at 90o of interval at each section. Bulk fluid temperatures
are measured at inlet and outlet of heating zone for different mass flow rates of
gas and liquid phase. Various flow patterns are visualized and mapped on flow
regime map. According to the flow pattern, heat transfer behavior of the air-
water two-phase flow at various inclinations is shown in Figure 6. The non-
boiling two-phase heat transfer data are collected systematically by varying air
and water flow rates and the pipe inclination. It is observed that that two-phase
heat transfer (NuTP) increases with ReSL for most of the flow patterns. It is also
observed that NuTP is a function of inclination.
For the entire range of superficial Reynolds numbers corresponding to
specific flow patterns, the average value of heat transfer hTP is deduced and is
represented as a function of angle of inclination in Figure 6. It is observed that
the two-phase heat transfer coefficient increases with the angle of inclination.
Only for the annular and wavy/annular flow pattern, it increases up to 5º of
inclination and then for 7º of inclination the mean hTP reduces. This might be due
to the increase in content of air inside the domain which is less conductive to the
heat transfer. Summary of heat transfer data for various inclinations are tabulated
in Table 1.
Maximum heat transfer rate is obtained for slug/bubbly/annular flow at 7º of
inclination while slug/wavy type of flow pattern shows consistently high heat

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220 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Table 1: Summary of heat transfer study for all inclination.

Angle of Inclination 0° 2° 5° 7°

ReSL 705-1884 - - -
ReSG 832-9956 - - -
St
hTP, 450.23-2613.27 - - -
Mean hTP, 731.91 - - -
ReSL 2044-7660 705-7660 705-7660 705-7660
ReSG 832-5932 832-3892 832-3892 832-3892
S
hTP, 701.17-2615.47 691.3-3786.68 886.07-4585.68 495.38-8553.96
Mean hTP, 1279.57 1202.62 1839.36 2424.42
ReSL 6057-7660 6057-7660 6057-7660 6375-7660
ReSG 832-1635 832-2413 832-2413 832-2413
P 1294.28-
hTP, 1466.79-1846.68 1252.92-2309.27 1066.93-2953.72
3723.74
Mean hTP, 1545.86 1640.2 1889.92 2018.01
ReSL 705-1894 705-2044 705-2044 705-2044
ReSG 9956-23473 12297-23473 12297-23473 12297-23473
W
hTP, 605.71-1190.69 771.05-4865.74 1125.37-4306.01 652-8035.1
Mean hTP, 886.5 1448.45 2037.49 2082.29
ReSL 1595-7660 1744-7660 1149-7660 1000-7660
ReSG 26406-29340 26407-29341 26407-29341 26407-29341
A
hTP, 811.93-1851.25 1008.25-2844.93 1210.94-4071.17 987.45-1868.52
Mean hTP, 1237.24 1406.76 1645.37 1363.98
ReSL 2044-4693 705-5425 705-5425 705-5111
ReSG 4595-10940 7182-9956 7182-9956 7182-9956
SW
hTP, 794.54-5913.31 814.22-5317.63 756.43-4568.84 523.05-9661.14
Mean hTP, 1239.01 1515.18 2087.74 2722.75
ReSL 705-4487 705-5425 705-5111 705-5111
ReSG 12297-29340 12297-29341 12297-29341 14670-29341
WA
hTP, 708.18-2528.83 795.64-3019.44 891.21-3542.52 939.25-8938.14
Mean hTP, 1168.11 1324.73 2402.52 2054.61
ReSL 4693-7660 5470-7660 5425-7660 5425-7660
ReSG 7182-23473 7182-23473 7182-23473 7182-23473
SBA
hTP, 817.94-3385.44 979.26-3645.94 1414.99-5927.12 1526.94-9991.9
Mean hTP, 1453.43 1630.91 1913.23 3094.3

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 221

transfer coefficient. The maximum heat transfer coefficient is in the mixed flow
regimes like slug-bubbly-annular regimes. Turbulence plays major role for the
higher heat transfer rate in this regime.
The obtained heat transfer results are utilized to develop a correlation for non-
dimensional heat transfer (NuTP) in terms of superficial gas and liquid Reynolds
numbers, fluid properties, Lockhart-Martinelli parameter and inclination
parameter. All these parameters are introduced in terms of ratio of gas to liquid
parameters. The effect of gravity, surface tension and inclination angle is
combined together in the inclination parameter. An assumed correlation for two-
phase Nusselt number is expressed as

 Re   Pr    
m n p

1  Eo Sin  
r
 C     
g q
Nu SG b
X (1)
 Re   Pr    
TP

SL l w TP

Table 2: Values of constant and exponents in the proposed correlation.

r
Flow ReSL ReSG C m n p q 0º 2º 5º 7º
St 705- 832-9956 0.196 0.4915 -2.524 0.0297 0.088 0 - - -
1894
W 705- 9956- 16.88 -0.25 1.0298 0.0342 -0.369 0 0.695 0.685 0.585
1894 23473
S 2044- 832-7182 405.4 0.1417 1.3658 0.0627 -0.404 0 -0.671 -0.226 -
7660 0.698
P 6057- 832-1635 93.9 0.4646 1.293 0.0127 0.746 0 0.4 0.726 0.579
7660
A 1595- 26406- 18.8 -0.745 -1.26 0.016 -0.119 0 -0.295 -1.449 -
7660 29340 0.245
WA 705- 12297- 0.177 -0.609 -3.403 0.019 -0.143 0 -0.115 0.0244 -
4487 29340 0.015
SW 2044- 4595- 0.261 -0.473 -2.876 0.0194 0.0369 0 0.459 0.574 0.645
4693 10940
SBA 4693- 7182- 3.89 0.124 -1.376 0.0136 0.1335 0 0.787 0.856 0.996
7660 23473

The constant C and power coefficients m, n, p, q and r are established by

curve fitting of our experimental results. The values of constants and exponents
obtained by curve fitting are tabulated in Table 2. The comparison between
predicted NuTP and the experimental NuTP signifies the validity of the predicted
correlation. Sample parity plot for 7° inclination is shown in Figure 7. Similar
parity plots are also developed for other inclinations. It is observed that 90
percent of the data points fall within ± 30% zone thereby establishing the validity
of the developed correlation.

6 Conclusions
The following conclusions are drawn from the present work:
1. With the increase in inclination angle the stratified flow disappears and is
replaced by intermittent flow. The transition boundaries shift to higher

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222 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

NuTP (correlation) 200 200

NuTP (correlation)
100 100

0 0
0 100 200 0 100 200
NuTP (experiment) NuTP (experiment)

(a) (d)
200 200
NuTP (correlation)

NuTP (correlation)

100 100

0 0
0 100 200 0 100 200
NuTP (experiment) NuTP (experiment)

(b) (e)
200 200
NuTP (correlation)

NuTP (correlation)

100 100

0 0
0 100 200 0 100 200
NuTP (experiment) NuTP (experiment)

(c) (f)

Figure 7: Parity plot between NuTP (correlation) and NuTP (experiment) for 7°
inclination for various flow patterns (a) Slug (b) Plug (c) Wavy
(d) Annular (e) SW (f) WA.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 223

Reynolds numbers. This is due to the fact that increase in angle of

inclination causes gravity component to act opposite to flow which in turn
generates decelerating effect. It is found that the heat transfer for the
inclined pipe is enhanced compared to that in a horizontal pipe.
2. Angle of inclination significantly affects the heat transfer rate except for the
annular and wavy/annular flow. Exception is due to the increase in liquid
thinning with the inclination and reversing of the flow.
3. A correlation for non-boiling two-phase heat transfer mechanism is
proposed based on the experimental observations. This mechanism relates
the two-phase Nusselt number in terms of the gas and liquid superficial
Reynolds numbers, gas and liquid Prandtl numbers, wall and bulk two-
phase viscosities, pressure drop and inclination factors.

Nomenclature

C constant Greek letters

Eo Eotvos number α angle of inclination in degree
2
h heat transfer coefficient, W/m μ viscosity, Pa-s
m, n, p, exponents Abbreviations
q, r
Nu Nusselt number A annular
Pr Prandtl number P plug
Re Reynolds number RTD resistance temperature detector
X Lockhart-Martinelli parameter S slug
Subscripts SBA slug/bubbly/annular
b bulk St stratified
l, g liquid, gas SW slug/wavy
SL, SG superficial liquid, superficial gas W wavy
TP two-phase WA wavy/annular
w wall

References
[1] Taitel, Y. and Dukler, A. E., A model for predicting flow regime transition
in horizontal and near horizontal gas liquid flow. AIChE J., 22, pp. 47-55,
1976.
[2] Beggs, H.D. and Brill, J.P., A study of two-phase flow in inclined pipes.
J. Pet. Technol., pp. 607–617, 1973.
[3] Hasan, A.R. and Kabir, C.S., Predicting multiphase flow behavior in a
deviated well. SPE Prod. Engg., 3, pp. 474–482, 1988.

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224 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

[4] Barnea, D., Shoham, O. and Taitel, Y., Flow pattern transition for gas-
liquid flow in horizontal and inclined pipes. Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 6, pp.
217-225, 1980.
[5] Kokal, S. L. and Stanislave J. F., An experimental study of two-phase flow
in slightly inclined pipes – I Flow patterns. Chem. Engg. Sci., 44, pp. 665-
679, 1989.
[6] Tshuva, M., Barnea, D. and Taitel, Y., Two-phase flow in inclined parallel
pipes. Int. J. Multiphase flow, 25, pp. 1491–1503, 1999.
[7] Vaze, M. J. and Banerjee, J., CFD analysis of two-phase flow through
inclined pipes, 34th National conference on Fluid Mechanics and Fluid
Power, BIT Ranchi, India, December 10-12, Paper No. 147, 2007.
[8] Dorresteijn, W. R., Experimental study of heat transfer in upward and
downward two-phase flow of air and oil through 70 mm tubes. Proc. 4th Int.
Heat Transfer Conf. Vol. V, B5.9, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1970.
[9] Elamvaluthi, G. and Srinivasa, N. S., Two-phase heat transfer in two-
component vertical flows. Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 10, pp. 237-242, 1984.
[10] Mosyak, A. and Hetsroni, G., Analysis of dryout in horizontal and inclined
tubes. Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 25, pp. 1521–1543, 1999.
[11] Hetsroni, G., Mewes, D., Enke, C., Gurevich, M., Mosyak, A. and
Rozenblit, R., Heat transfer to two-phase flow in inclined tubes. Int. J.
Multiphase Flow, 29, pp. 173-194, 2003.
[12] Vaze, M. J. and Banerjee, J., Experimental visualization of two-phase flow
patterns and transition from stratified to slug flow. Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C, Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, 225, pp. 382-389, 2011.
[13] UKAS (United Kingdom Accreditation Service), The expression of
uncertainty and confidence in measurement, M3003, 2nd ed., January 2007.

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Incline flows
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 227

Geometrical and kinematic properties of

interfacial waves in horizontal heavy
oil-water stratified flow
M. S. de Castro, C. C. Pereira, J. N. dos Santos
& O. M. H. Rodriguez
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Engineering School of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Brazil

Abstract
The oil-water stratified flow pattern is common in the petroleum industry,
especially in offshore directional wells and pipelines. Previous studies have
shown that the phenomenon of flow pattern transition in stratified flow can be
related to the interfacial wave structure (problem of hydrodynamic instability).
The study of the wavy stratified flow pattern requires the characterization of the
interfacial wave properties, i.e., its nature (kinematic or dynamic), average shape,
celerity and geometric properties as a function of holdup and phases’ relative
velocity. However, the data available in the literature on wavy stratified flow is
scanty, especially when oil is viscous. This paper presents geometric and
kinematic interfacial wave properties as a function of holdup and relative
velocity in the wavy stratified flow. The experimental work was conducted in a
glass test line of 12 m and 0.026 m i.d., oil (density 828 kg / m³ and viscosity of
0.3 Pa.s at 20°C) and water as the working fluids at horizontal.
Keywords: liquid-liquid flow, oil-water flow, stratified flow pattern, interfacial
wave structure.

1 Introduction
Liquid-liquid flows are present in a wide range of industrial processes; however,
studies on such flows are not as common as those on gas-liquid flows. The
interest in liquid-liquid flows has recently increased mainly due to the petroleum
industry, where oil and water are often transported together for long distances.

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228 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Pressure drop, heat transfer, corrosions and structural vibration are a few
examples of topics that depend on the geometrical configuration or flow patterns
of the immiscible phases. The stratified flow pattern is present in directional oil
wells and pipelines and is characterized by the heavier and lighter phases at the
bottom and top part of the pipe, respectively, divided by an interface. The
interface in stratified flow can be smooth or wavy. The wavy structure was
studied in gas-liquid flow by Bontozoglou and Hanratty [1] and Bontozoglou [2].
One of the findings is that the two-phase friction factor of wavy stratified flow
can be about fifty times as high as the friction factor of smooth stratified flow. Li
et al. [3] studied the gas-liquid stratified flow pattern and showed that the
interfacial waves have significant influence on heat transfer and pressure drop.
An experimental work on liquid-liquid flow patterns can be seen in Trallero et
al. [4], where data for horizontal flow were presented including stratified and
semi-stratified flow, dispersions and emulsions. Those authors did not differ
stratified wavy from stratified with mixing at the interface. Elseth [5] presented a
more detailed oil-water horizontal flow pattern classification, dividing Trallero’s
patterns into several sub-patterns. That author observed the liquid-liquid wavy
stratified flow pattern. Alkaya et al. [6] continued the work of Trallero et al. [4],
but now introducing the effects of inclination. A wavy stratified flow pattern was
reported. All the quoted authors have dealt with relatively low viscosity oils. On
the other hand, Bannwart et al. [7] studied very viscous oil-water horizontal flow
and reported among others the stratified flow pattern. Interfacial waves were
spotted, but details on wave’s geometrical properties were not given.
The study of the hydrodynamic stability of liquid-liquid stratified flow and
therefore transition to dispersed flow has been carried out by Brauner et al. [8],
Trallero [9] and Rodriguez et al. [10]. Although it seems clear that interfacial
wave properties are important for the complete understanding of stratified flow,
that information is quite scanty. Some data are presented in the paper of Al-
Wahaibi and Angeli [11], but it lacks in details. Therefore, the goal of this work
is to investigate geometrical and kinematic properties of interfacial waves in
viscous oil-water stratified flow pattern.
In Sections 2 and 3 the experimental setup and procedure are presented. The
image processing technique used to measure wave properties is explained in
Section 4. In Section 5 data of wavelength, amplitude and celerity of waves are
offered. Section 6 presents the mean interfacial wave shape. Finally, the
conclusions are drawn in section 7.

2 Experimental setup
The hydrophilic-oilphobic glass test line of 26-mm i.d. and 12-m length of the
multiphase flow loop of the Thermal-Fluids Engineering Laboratory of the
Engineering School of Sao Carlos at the University of Sao Paulo (LETeF) was
used to observe different oil-water flow patterns. A by-pass line allowed the
usage of the quick-closing-valves technique to measure in-situ volumetric
fraction of water and oil. The test section has a transparent box, filled with water,

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 229

used to film the flow. A schematic view of the flow loop and details related to
the holdup measurement technique can be seen in Rodriguez et al. [12].
The water used in the experiments has density of 0.988g/cm³ and viscosity of
1cP at temperature 20°C. The oil used has density of 0.828g/cm³ and viscosity of
300cP at 20°C. The oil-water interfacial tension was of 0,034N/m. The oil-water
contact angle with the borosilicate glass was 29° (hydrophilic-oilphobic). The
viscosity was measured with a rheometer Brokfield™, model LVDV-III+ with
rotor SC4-18. The interfacial tension and contact angle were measured with an
optical tensiometer of KSV™, model CAM 200.

3 Experimental procedure
The flow was filmed in order to perform the optical measurement of geometrical
properties and celerity of the interfacial wave. The film was shot using a high
speed video camera (CamRecord 600 from Optronis). The camera was installed
on a pedestal attached to the structure. Two xenon lamps were used to illuminate
the flow. After reaching steady state the flow was recorded (60 frames/second
for 60 seconds) and then a homemade LabView™ based program was used to
extract the properties of the wave from the images.

4 Data treatment
The Labview™ based software was used to identify the wave corresponding to the
oil-water interface and predict its amplitude (α), wavelength (λ) and celerity (c).
Each frame of the film (figure 1) is binarized so that the oil part becomes black and
the water part becomes red. Bubbles and other noises are taken off the images.
After those steps the interface is captured via a colour contrast technique.

Figure 1: Picture of the observed oil-water wavy stratified flow.

After the identification of the interface the analysis of the wave characteristics
depends on the class of wave, related to the internal diameter of the pipeline (D):
Short wave: λ < D; it is characterized by a strong corrugated interface, its
slope indicates imminence of breaking and its behavior is tridimensional.
Intermediate wave: D < λ < 10D; it is characterized by a clear wavy
structure.
Long wave: λ > 10D; the interface is almost flat, with small amplitude in
relation to the water height.
Using the Fourier transform, the spectrum of waves are represented in the
frequency domain. Two cut frequencies were used, one for low-frequency waves
and one for high-frequency waves. High frequencies were ignored since they

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230 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

were considered noise (ripples). Long waves were not analyzed because they
were not entirely visualized in the film section. Hence, short waves and long
waves were discarded and only intermediate waves were analyzed.
The wavelength and wave amplitude are calculated using the definition of
wave crest as the pixel in the spatial domain where the first derivative is zero, the
next pixel has derivative lower than zero and the previous pixel has derivative
greater than zero. The wavelength is the length difference between the abscissas
(x-coordinate) of two followed crests. Since the interfacial wave is asymmetric,
the definition of amplitude is not quite simple. It differs whether it is measured
from the crest to the right or left valley (minimum value in the y-coordinate). To
avoid this ambiguity, this paper uses the mean between the two calculated
amplitudes (from the crest to the right valley and from the crest to the left valley)
as the definition of wave amplitude.
The celerity is calculated using cross-correlation between two frames lagged
in time (Bendat and Piersol [13]). Figure 2 presents two snap shots used for the
measurement of wave celerity.

Figure 2: Waves lagged in time.

The PDF (probability density function) of the collected signals was used to
analyze the data of amplitude, wavelength and celerity. Around 100 waves were
detected by the software in each film.
Two different PDFs of the amplitude data are presented in figure 3, one with
oil and water superficial velocities of 0.07m/s and 0.15m/s (figure 3(a)) and
another with oil and water superficial velocities of 0.13m/s and 0.15m/s (figure
3(b)), respectively.

Figure 3: PDF of wave amplitude: (a) Uws=0.15m/s and Uos=0.07m/s,

(b) Uws=0.15m/s and Uos=0.13m/s.

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The amplitude distribution differs from a Gaussian in both cases. The mean
amplitude value is different, but the data have similar distributions (between
1mm and 10mm).
Two different PDFs of the wavelength data are presented in figure 4, one with
oil and water superficial velocities of 0.15m/s (figure 4(a)) and another with oil
and water superficial velocities of 0.15m/s (figure 4(b)), respectively.

Figure 4: PDF of wave length: (a) Uws=Uos=0.15m/s, (b) Uws=0.15m/s and

Uos=0.07m/s.

The wavelength PDFs also differ from a Gaussian and have different mean
values. While figure 4(a) presents distribution between 10mm and 90mm with
higher concentration between 10mm and 40mm, figure 4(b) presents distribution
between 20mm and 80mm, with a more uniform concentration. It is important to
notice that there are long wavelength waves, but they represent a small
percentage.
Two different PDFs of the wave celerity data are presented in figure 5, with
oil and water superficial velocities of 0.05m/s and 0.15m/s (figure 5(a)) and
another with oil and water superficial velocities of 0.13m/s and 0.15m/s
(figure 5(b)), respectively.

Figure 5: PDF of wave celerity: (a) Uws=0.15m/s and Uos=0.03m/s,

(b) Uws=0.15m/s and Uos=0.13m/s.

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232 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

One may see that they have different mean values, but similar distribution.
Figure 5(a) shows the distribution between 0.05m/s and 0.28m/s, whereas figure
5(b) shows it between 0.1 and 0.45m/s. The latter presents a more concentrated
distribution around the mean value. Both figures differ from a Gaussian
distribution.

5 Interfacial wave properties

Table 1 organizes the water and oil superficial velocities at which the
experiments were taken.

Table 1: Superficial velocities of oil and water tested.

Superficial velocity of oil Superficial velocity of water

Experiment
(Uos) [m/s] (Uws) [m/s]
001 0.03 0.15
002 0.05 0.15
003 0.07 0.15
004 0.10 0.15
005 0.13 0.15
006 0.15 0.15

As the wave properties seemed to have relation with relative velocity and
holdup the data are presented as function of these variables. Relative velocity is
represented by Vrel (eqn. (1)), where Uw and Uo are the in situ velocities of oil
and water, respectively, and oil holdup is represented by o.

Vrel  U w  U o (1)

5.1 Interfacial wave length (λ)

The normalized mean wavelength (λ/D) is presented as a function of the oil

holdup and relative velocity in figure 6(a) and (b), respectively. One may notice
that the amplitude decreases with increasing the oil holdup and relative velocity.
The relative velocity is supposed to have a destabilizing effect in the stratified
flow (Kelvin-Helmholtz stability criterion, Taitel and Dukler [14]). Short
wavelength waves have been related to transition from core-annular flow to
dispersed flow (Rodriguez and Bannwart [15], and Rodriguez and Oliemans
[16]). Therefore, the highest the Vrel, the highest the destabilizing effect,
consequently the shorter the wavelength. On the other hand, high oil holdup
implicates in low water volumetric fractions, therefore the effect of gravity in the
denser water phase is lower. The gravity has a stabilizing effect, as can be seen
in shallow water stability (Whitham [17], Drazin and Reid [18]). So, as the oil
holdup increases, the stabilizing effect of gravity decreases and the wavelength
becomes shorter.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 233

Figure 6: Dimensionless mean wavelength (/D) as a function of: (a) oil

holdup (o), and (b) relative velocity (Vrel).

5.2 Interfacial wave amplitude (α)

The normalized mean wave amplitude (α/D) is presented as a function of the oil
holdup and relative velocity in figure 7(a) and (b), respectively. Looking at the
graphs of figure 7 one may notice that the amplitude decreases with increasing
the oil holdup and relative velocity. It would be expected that for higher oil
holdups and relative velocities the flow should become more unstable, which
may have been translated into higher wave amplitude. However, it was not seen
in the present work. Apparently, shorter waves (refer also to figure 6) have lower
amplitudes in the stratified flow investigated in this work.

Figure 7: Dimensionless mean wave amplitude (/D) as a function of: (a) oil
holdup (o), and (b) relative velocity (Vrel).

5.3 Interfacial wave celerity (c)

The mean interfacial wave celerity is normalized by the mixture velocity

(Uws+Uos) and presented as a function of the oil holdup and relative velocity
(figure 8(a) and (b)). The wave celerity increases with increasing both the oil

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234 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

holdup and relative velocity. Higher wave celerity would be related to instability
of the interfacial wavy structure, as there is a celerity limit for a stable wave in
two-phase flow (Wallis [19]).

Figure 8: Normalized wave celerity (c/(Uws+Uos)) as a function of: (a) oil

holdup (o), and (b) relative velocity (Vrel).

5.4 Uncertainties

This section presents the uncertainties of the collected dta. The values of
uncertainties are: 56%, 40% and 40%, respectively, for wave amplitude,
wavelength and celerity. The values correspond to 2 times de standard deviation.
The uncertainties of the oil holdup are lower than 3% and for the relative
velocity the uncertainty is of 1.41%.

6 Mean interfacial wave shape

The mean interfacial wave shape was found by averaging all the wave shapes
captured in the filming for a constant pair of superficial velocities of oil and
water. The program divides the waves present in each frame of the film into the
previously defined three wave classes, according to the image treatment
procedure explained in section 4. Every pair of superficial velocities was related
to a number (i) of waves with different amplitudes and wavelengths. Every x-
coordinate (j) (abscissa) of the i wave (xij) is normalized (x*) by its own
wavelength (λi), eqn. 2:
xij
x*  (2)
i
Every y-coordinate (j) (ordinate) of the i wave (yij) is normalized (y*) by the
pipe internal diameter (D), eqn. 3:
y ij
y*  (3)
D
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 235

The mean dimensionless wave shape is formed by averaging all the y* points
of all waves at every x*-coordinate. The mean wave shape is obtained by
multiplying the y* and x* points of the mean dimensionless wave shape by the
pipe diameter and by the mean wave length given by the PDF for each pair of
superficial velocities, respectively.
Mean waves shapes are presented in Fig. 9 for the same water superficial
velocity, 0.15m/s, but for different oil superficial velocities, 0.03m/s and
0.15m/s.

Figure 9: Mean interfacial wave shape for horizontal flow, Uws=0.15m/s.

In Figure 9 the solid line presents data of oil superficial velocity and relative
velocity of 0.03m/s and 0.2m/s, respectively, and the dashed line presents data of
oil superficial velocity and relative velocity of 0.15m/s and 0.33m/s, therefore an
increase of 33% in the relative velocity. One may see that the wavelength
decreases with the increase of relative velocity. This difference in wave shape
might help to explain the stability of stratified flows, i.e., flows with higher
relative velocity would tend to be more sensitive to disturbances at the interface
or less stable.

7 Conclusions
New data of interfacial wave geometrical properties and celerity in viscous oil-
water horizontal stratified flow are offered. The wave amplitude, wavelength and
wave celerity are dependent on holdup and relative velocity between the water
and oil phases. The wavelength tends to decrease with the increase of the relative
velocity and with the oil holdup. The celerity tends to increase with the increase
of the oil holdup and relative velocity. Both results indicate higher degree of
hydrodynamic instability at higher relative velocities. The mean wave shape
depends on the relative velocity. The new experimental data and findings can be
used for improving pressure drop, holdup and stability models of liquid-liquid
stratified flow.

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Acknowledgements
The authors are gratefull to FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado
de São Paulo, process 2008/06922-9 and process 2010/03254-5) for the financial
support.

References
[1] Bontozoglou, V. and Hanratty, T.J., Wave Height Estimation In Stratified
Gas-Liquid Flows. Aiche Journal, New York, 35 (8), pp. 1346-1350, 1989.
[2] Bontozoglou, V., Weakly Nonlinear Kelvin-Helmholtz Waves Between
Fluids Of Finite Depth. International Journal of Multiphase Flow, Oxford,
V.17, N.4, P.509-518, July/Aug. 1991.
[3] Li, G.J.; Guo, L.; Chen, X.J., An experimental investigation on the
interfacial waves in air-water two-phase flow within horizontal pipelines.
Chinese Journal Chemical Engineering, China, 5 (4), pp. 316-324, Dec.
1997.
[4] Trallero, J.L.; Sarica, C.; Brill, J.P., A Study of oil/water flow patterns in
horizontal pipes. SPE Production & Facilities, Richardson, 12 (3), pp.165-
172, Aug. 1997.
[5] Elseth, G., An experimental study of oil-water flow in horizontal pipes,
Ph.D thesis, Porsgrunn: Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
270p, 2001.
[6] Alkaya, B., Jayawardena, S.S., Brill, J.P., Oil Water Flow Patterns in
Slightly inclined Pipes. In: Etce/Omae200 Joint Conference: Energy For
The News Millennium, 2000, New Orleans. Proceedings. NewYork: Asme.
pp. 14-17, 2000.
[7] Bannwart, A.C. et al., Flow patterns in heavy crude oil-water flow. Journal
of Energy Resources Technology, 126 (3), pp. 184-189, New York, Sept.
2004.
[8] Brauner, N.; Rovinsky, J.; Maron, D.M., Determination Of The Interface
Curvature In Stratified Two-Phase Systems By Energy Considerations.
International Journal of Multiphase Flow, Oxford, 22 (6), pp. 1167-1185,
1996.
[9] Trallero, J.L. (1995). Oil-water flow patterns in horizontal pipes. Ph.D.
Thesis - The University of Tulsa, Tulsa, 1995.
[10] Rodriguez, O.M.H.; Oliemans, R.V.A.; Mude, R.F. Stability Analysis Of
Slightly-Inclined Stratified Oil-Water Flow, Including The Distribution
Coefficients And The Cross-Section Curvature. In: Proc. Of the 5th North
American Conference On Multiphase Technology, Banff. Proc. Cranfield:
Brh Group, pp. 229-245, 2006.
[11] Al-Wahaibi, and P. Angeli, Experimental Studies on Flow Pattern
Transitions in Horizontal Oil-Water Flow, Proc. 6th International
Conference on Multiphase Flow (ICMF 2007), Leipzig, Germany, July
2007.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 237

[12] Rodriguez, I. H., Yamaguti, H. K. B., de Castro, M. S., Da Silva, M. J. and

Rodriguez, O. M. H., Slip ratio in dispersed viscous oil–water pipe flow,
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 35 (1), pp. 11-19, January 2011.
[13] Bendat, J. S. and Piersol, A. G., Random Data: analysis and measurement
procedures. John Wiley & Sons: New York, 2000.
[14] Taitel, Y. and Dukler, A. E., A model for predicting flow regime transitions
in horizontal and near horizontal gas-liquid flows. AIChE Journal, 22,
pp. 47-55, 1976.
[15] Rodriguez, O.M.H. and Banwart, A. C., Stability Analysis of Core-Annular
Flow and Neutral Stability Wave Number, AIChE Journal, 54 (1), January,
2008.
[16] Rodriguez, O. M. H. and Oliemans, R.V. A., Experimental study on oil-
water flow in horizontal and slightly inclined pipes, International Journal
of Multiphase Flow, 32, pp. 323-343, 2006.
[17] Whitham, G. B. Linear and Nonlinear Waves. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1974.
[18] P. G. Drazin, W. H. Reid, Hydrodynamic stability. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 1981.
[19] Wallis, G.B., One-Dimensional Two-Phase Flow. MacGraw-Hill, New
York, USA, 1969.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 239

A numerical model for partially-wetted flow

of thin liquid films
K. V. Meredith, J. de Vries & Y. Xin
FM Global, Research Division, USA

Abstract
A model for simulating thin liquid film transport over solid surfaces has been
developed. The film transport for mass continuity and momentum were formulated
as a two-dimensional set of equations using thin-film assumptions. These
equations have been implemented in an open-source CFD code (OpenFOAM).
Treatments for partial-wetting phenomena have been included in the model to
account for the behavior near the contact-line. A surface-tangential force along
the contact line has been developed to allow for the simulation of rivulets and
dry patches in two-dimensional surface flow. An approach for applying contact
angle effects to the model for a real stochastic surface is outlined. Additionally,
experimental measurements were made for film flow over an inclined surface for
a wide range of flow rates. Using these experimental results, the model has been
validated for partially wetted flow over an inclined panel. The critical flow rate
of a film over a given surface was used as validation for the model. Results show
that for flow rates below the critical flow rate, the partially wetted behavior of the
flow was reproduced. Comparisons to experimental flow patterns and wetted-area
fractions were made.
Keywords: thin-film assumption, partial wetting, contact line, critical flow rate.

1 Introduction

The goal of this research was to develop a robust water-film transport model
for use in simulating the partial wetting behavior of thin film flow in practical
applications over realistic surfaces. To this extent, a thin film transport model has
been developed in an open source computational fluid dynamics (CFD) framework
(OpenFOAM).

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240 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Work on understanding thin-film flows began in 1910 with the experimental

measurements of Hopf [1]. Later, Nusselt [2,3] proposed a theoretical treatment of
thin-film flow and heat transfer. An excellent review of the work prior to 1964 has
been offered by Fulford [4]. Recent film modeling has focused on volume of fluid
(VOF) approaches [5,6] and on applying the lubrication approximation to thin-film
flow [7–9]. The VOF models are computationally expensive. The majority of the
lubrication approximation models are not aimed at practical problems, include a
limited amount of additional physics, and are overly focused on detailed behavior
near the contact line.
The phenomena that occur during the lifetime of a liquid film consist of partial
wetted flow behavior and interfacial transport of mass, momentum, and energy.
The subject of this work will focus on partially wetted flow behavior, i.e., surface
film flows delineated by a contact line separating the dry and wet surfaces. In
addition, this approach includes treatment for phenomena such as rivulets, dry
patches, and isolated wet spots.

2 Modeling approach
Due to the thin nature of the liquid film (typically less than 1 mm), the flow in the
direction normal to the surface can reasonably be assumed to be negligible. The
transport model only needs to describe film advection in the surface-tangential
direction, thus greatly simplifying the model. In addition, due to the ‘thinness’
of the film, the diffusive transport of mass/momentum/energy in the surface-
normal direction will dominate and the surface-tangential diffusion will be small
in comparison. In other words, advection can be treated in the wall-tangential
direction and diffusion processes treated in the wall-normal direction. This is
known as the thin-film assumption and has been used successfully by a number
of authors [10–13]. Tangential diffusion effects may prove to be important along
the contact line (e.g. at the edges of rivulets), and this feature may need to be added
in the future.
The thin-film assumption allows integration of the three-dimensional transport
equations in the wall-normal direction from the wall surface to the film surface to
obtain a set of equations for the film thickness and the wall-tangential components
of velocity.

2.1 Mass continuity

The integrated mass continuity equation is defined as

∂ρδ
+ ∇s · [ρδU] = Sρδ (1)
∂t
where ρ is the liquid density, δ is the film thickness, U is the film velocity, ∇s is the

T
∂ ∂
vector differential operator tangential to the surface, ∂x , ∂y . Sρδ is the mass
source per unit wall area due to impingement, splashing, evaporation, absorption

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 241

into the solid, and film separation. For the purposes of this study, where the focus
was on film flow in the absence of spray interactions and phase change, the source
term is reduced to
Sρδ = 0 (2)

2.2 Momentum transport

The momentum equation, integrated over film height, is

∂ρδU
+ ∇s · [ρδUU] = −δ∇s p + SρδU (3)
∂t      
pressure based stress based
where U represents the mean, tangential velocity of the film. The momentum
source terms are split into pressure based (tangential gradients in wall-normal
forces) and stress based (forces tangential to wall).
The pressure term, p, is comprised of forces in the wall-normal direction and
consists of capillary effects (pσ ), hydrostatic pressure head (pδ ), and local gas-
phase pressure (pg ).
p = pσ + pδ + pg (4)
The stress term, SρδU , includes the viscous shear stresses (τ g , τ w ), gravity
body force (ρgt δ), and stress related to contact-angle force (τ θ ).
SρδU =τ g + τ w + ρgt δ + τ θ (5)
The specific definitions and submodels for the pressure terms tangential
momentum source terms in Equations 4 and 5 are given in Section 3.

3 Source terms and submodels

Relevant source terms in Equations (4) and (5) are described in detail. Where
appropriate, a background section is included describing the theory behind the
submodel for that particular source term.

3.1 Capillary pressure

The capillary pressure, pσ , required by Equation (4), is the pressure component

due to surface tension based on the curvature of the film surface and represented
by the Laplace–Young boundary condition at the air-fluid interface [7, 14]. Using
the Laplacian of film thickness to estimate the curvature, the term for the pressure
contribution of surface tension is given as
pσ = −σ∇s 2 δ (6)

where σ is the surface tension and ∇s 2 δ approximates the curvature of the liquid
surface. This relationship is valid only for surfaces with slight curvature [14].

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3.2 Hydrostatic pressure

The hydrostatic pressure, pδ , required by Equation (4), is the pressure component

due to hydrostatic pressure head, and is given by

pδ = −ρ (n · g) δ (7)

where g is the gravity force vector and n is the surface normal vector. This pressure
term is eliminated for purely vertical surfaces (n · g = 0).

3.3 Gravity body force

The gravity body force term, required by Equation 5, is represented by ρgt δ where
gt denotes the gravity components tangential to the wall. This term is zero for
horizontal surfaces, and is the main driving force for flow over vertical and inclined
surfaces.

3.4 Shear stress

The shear stress terms τ g and τ w , required by Equation (5), represent the shear at
the film-gas interface and the film-wall interface respectively.
In most cases for film flow in the presence of a quiescent gas, τ g  τ w because
gas-phase velocities are typically very low and also because the viscosity of the gas
is low compared to that of the liquid. For the purposes of this study, τ g is assumed
negligible.
The film-wall stress term, τ w , is modeled based on an assumed velocity profile
in the wall-normal direction. Assuming laminar flow and taking the velocity at
the wall to be zero and the velocity gradient at the gas interface to be zero, the
expression for the velocity distribution through the film can be shown to be
 
3U z2
u(z) = z− (8)
δ 2δ

where U represents the mean film velocity, z represents the surface-normal

coordinate, and δ represents the film thickness. Employing the quadratic velocity
profile assumption, the shear stress at the wall is found as

3U
τ w = −µ (9)
δ

Experimental data confirms that this parabolic velocity profile remains valid
even for wavy film flows [15]. A film can exhibit wavy behavior without
necessarily being turbulent, and is not fully turbulent until Ref = Γ/µ > 900 [4],
which is well above the range of interest for this study. Here, Γ is defined as the
mass flow rate per unit width of inlet (kg/m-s).

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3.5 Partial wetting behavior

Simulating partial wetting behavior involves treatment of the contact line (the
delineation between wet/dry regions). Along the contact line delineating the
separation of wet and dry regions of the flow there is a surface-tangential force
that limits the film from spreading. This force only exists for partially wetting
fluids (i.e. θE > 0, where θE represents the contact angle). The contact angle
defines the ability of the liquid to flood the surface. This force is a major cause of
partially wetted flow behavior such as rivulets, dry spots, and film rupture. Thus,
the effect of contact angle must be included in the film transport model in order to
accurately predict partial wetting behavior.
The tangential surface forces due to interfacial tension, (F
s ), are expressed as

F
s = (σ + σsl ) − σso (10)

where σ is the liquid-air interfacial tension, σsl is the solid-liquid interfacial

tension, and σso is the solid-air interfacial tension.
Since only σ in Equation (10) is easily measured experimentally, it is helpful to
reduce this surface-tangential force to a function of σ and θE (also a measurable
quantity) by employing Young’s Law [16, 17]. Young’s Law states that the forces
along the contact line are balanced at equilibrium as

σso − (σ cos θE + σsl ) = 0 (11)

Combining Equations (10) and (11) yields what is termed here as the ‘contact-
angle force’.

F
s = σ(1 − cos θE ) (12)

F
s represents the surface-tangential force normal to the contact line (still in the
tangential plane) per unit width of contact line.
The contact-angle force is applied in a straight forward fashion to the
momentum equation, as is shown here:

σ(1 − cos θE )
τθ = β ncl (13)
∆cl

First, F
s is divided by the width of the computational cell, ∆cl in the direction
normal to the contact line. Secondly, F
s is multiplied by the unit vector normal to
the contact line in the surface-tangential plane. Finally, an empirical parameter β is
introduced to account for discrepancies between the theory and observed behavior
of real surfaces. Values for β can be determined by experimentally measuring the
critical flow rate (i.e. the flow rate at which transition occurs from rivulet flow to
continuous film flow occurs) for a given surface, and then adjusting β to match
this behavior in the model.

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3.6 Specification of contact line

The contact line is defined as the interface between the wet regions and dry regions
in the computation. In this context, it is helpful to think in terms of a critical film
thickness. For a given contact angle, a film will exhibit a minimum or critical film
thickness, δc , below which the film flow will not exert enough force to overcome
the contact angle force. Analytical expressions can be derived for δc on horizontal,
vertical, and arbitrary inclination angle surfaces. In the model, a region of the
flow is considered wet when denoted by an ω value of 1, and considered dry
when denoted by an ω value of 0. Determination of ω depends on the critical
film thickness and the approach varies for hydrophobic surfaces versus hydrophilic
surfaces.

Hydrophobic surfaces For surfaces that are non-absorbent of water, when δ >
δc , then that region of the film is considered ‘wet’, while for δ < δc the
surface is considered ‘dry’.
Hydrophilic surfaces For certain porous materials (such as corrugated card-
board) or surfaces with micro-grooves that tend to attract water, once the
surface has been ‘wetted’ it is very difficult to return it to the ‘dry’ state,
even when δ < δc . To account for this in the model, a ‘memory’ is intro-
duced that records whether that region of the surface was previously wetted.
If a region of the film was previously wetted, then δ must reach a value much
lower than δc (e.g. δ < 0.001 δc ) in order to be considered dry again.

To account for the scenario where the surface is wetted by means other than
film flow (e.g. spray impingement) and the film thickness is still lower than δc , the
wetting criterion has been relaxed to be, for example, δ > 12 δc .
In practice, this phenomenologically based treatment does a very acceptable job
of replicating experimentally observed partial wetting behavior.

3.7 Specification of contact angle

One of the major issues with the above approaches is determining the contact
angle. The contact angle for advancing films or flowing rivulets has usually been
found to be different than equilibrium contact angles measured from the droplet
method [15, 18]. The contact angle has even been found to be dependent on
flow rate, rivulet width, and heat transfer rate [19]. For water on cast acrylic
(PlexiglasR
), the surface used in this study, the contact angle has been observed
by the authors to typically be in the range of 70◦ . Thus, in the model a normal
distribution of contact angle is used based on an experimentally observed mean
value and standard deviation. For the results shown here, the standard deviation
was chosen as 10◦ with a mean of 75◦ . At each computational cell a random
contact angle is chosen from this normal distribution and is fixed for the duration
of the calculation. The result of this approach is a contact angle that varies over the

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 245

surface in a random manner. This gives rise to nonuniform flow and leads to the
formation of rivulets and dry regions.

4 Experimental setup

The experiments used a test apparatus specially designed to generate uniform

water flows. The main body of the apparatus consists of a vertical cast acrylic
plate (0.61 m wide and 1.22 m long). On the upper end of the plate, a perforated
copper tube (1.27 cm diameter, 0.51 m long) was positioned laterally to discharge
water through sixty holes (1 mm diameter) onto the cast acrylic panel. Since the
discharge of the individual stream created wavy flow, the water discharged from
tube applicator was forced through a diffusive medium attached to the upper edge
of the cast acrylic panel, creating a smooth initial flow. Water flow rates were
measured via a flow meter (Micro Motion R
3700 MVD). Regular heated tap water
◦
(43 C) was used for all experiments. All images were taken using an IR camera
(SC655, 50 Hz, 640×480). All thermal images were corrected for perspective
projection using a 4 point transformation in Matlab. The tubular water applicator
and the entire apparatus were installed on a Aluminum frame (80/20 Inc.), which
allowed variation of the panel inclination angle between 5◦ and 90◦ .

5 Results
The model has previously been validated against the Nusselt solution theory and
experimental data for film thickness and velocity of continuous thin film flow over
an inclined surface [20]. The results for this work are focused on partially wetted
flow behavior.
Experiments and simulations were performed for partially wetted flow
conditions over a range of flow rates and inclination angles. A uniform grid spacing
of 3.8 mm was used for the calculations. The simulations are compared here to the
experimentally measured partially wetted flow conditions. First, qualitative visual
comparison is shown for the flow behavior, followed by comparison based on the
measured wetted area fraction.
Figure 1(a–d) shows instantaneous experimental images of flows on a 5◦ sloped
surface. The wetted surface is displayed as black, while the dry surfaces are
shown as white. At the lower flow rates, partial wetting of the surface is observed,
yielding a rivulet based flow. As flow rate increases past a critical value, the surface
becomes flooded. The transition from rivulet flow to continuous film flow occurs
between Γ = 108 g/m/s and Γ = 174 g/m/s. In the flooded condition, considerable
‘necking’ of the flow is observed. The extent of necking decreases with increasing
flow rate.
Simulation results for the 5◦ incline condition are shown in Figure 1(e–h).
The model shows considerably less meandering behavior for the rivulet flow.
Still, similarities are seen in the wetting behavior of the liquid film. The lower
flow rate simulations predict rivulet flow, while the higher flow rate simulations

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246 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Figure 1: Experimental film flow (a–d) compared with simulated film flow (e–h)
(5◦ incline, β = 0.4).

predict flooded conditions. Even the general trend of the reduction in necking as
flow rate increases is captured in the model, if only qualitatively. The simulation
results show isolated droplets that form as a rivulet passes. This behavior was
observed experimentally also, however the post-processing of the experimental
images removed the droplets from visibility.
Figure 2(a–d) shows experimental images of flows on a 90◦ sloped surface for
a range of flow rates. The transition from rivulet flow to flooded film flow occurs
between Γ values of 125 and 212 g/m/s. Simulation results for the 90◦ incline
condition are shown in Figure 2(e–h). The transition from partially wetted flow to
flooded flow occurs between Γ = 150 g/m/s to Γ = 300 g/m/s.
Several possible causes exist for the discrepancies seen between the qualitative
visual comparisons of the experimental images and simulated results. First,
the simulations used a steady inlet condition, with film thickness and velocity
introduced at the top of the panel uniformly in space and time. No perturbations of
the flow were simulated at the inlet. This behavior differs from the experimentally
observed fluctuations in film thickness at the inlet. Another cause for the
discrepancy is possibly the thin film assumption. The simulations do not account

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 247

Figure 2: Experimental film flow (a–d) compared with simulated film flow (e–h)
(90◦ incline, β = 1.0).

for any surface-normal components of the flow. Experimentally, observations

show that such surface-normal velocities do seem to occur. Another possible
discrepancy is the assumed viscous shear stress that is based on a quadratic
velocity profile. This assumption holds for continuous films, but may break down
when the flow is constrained to narrow rivulets. Also, local variations in surface
roughness and/or curvature of the panel are not captured in the simulations.
Finally, thermocapillary instabilities may play a role in determining the flow
characteristics. The experimental flow was set to a temperature higher than that of
the panel to assist in image acquisition with an IR camera. Although cast acrylic
is not a very conductive material (k = 0.56 W/m-K), small thermal gradients may
give rise to thermocapillary instabilities and enhance the meandering behavior of
the flow. Experimental observation has shown markedly different behavior for a
hot film on a cold panel versus a cold film on a hot panel [21, 22].
A more quantitative comparison was made between the experimental and
simulated results. The wetted area fraction (WAF) is the fraction of the total solid
panel surface area that is covered by liquid. The WAF was digitally extracted from

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248 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Figure 3: Wetted area fraction as a function of flow rate.

the experimental results using a threshold method in Matlab. Figure 3 shows this
comparison to the fractions computed from the simulation results.
At the lower flow rates (rivulet flow), the wetted area fraction is between 0.1 and
0.2 for both model and experiments. As the flow rate increases, the model predicts
a slightly more rapid transition to flooded film flow for the 45◦ and 90◦ film cases.
The 5◦ incline results demonstrate a much more gradual transition to fully flooded
conditions. A simulated result for the 5◦ incline case with a value of β = 0.4 is
shown in Figure 3 for comparison.

6 Summary and conclusions

The partial wetting behavior of thin-film flow was simulated for a wide range of
flow rates and for three inclination angles. Although a few of the more subtle
behaviors of the flow are not captured (e.g. meandering rivulets), the visual
comparisons to the experimental flow patterns are encouraging. In particular,
the rivulet flow transitioning to flooded film flow behavior of the model is very
reasonable. The predictions for wetted area fraction are also encouraging. The
wetted area fraction predictions were shown to be sensitive to the β parameter.
However, values for β = 1 yielded a good match to the experimental values for
the 45◦ and 90◦ cases.
More work is needed in simulating realistic inlet boundary conditions for the
film. Ideally the inlet flow rate would be allowed to vary as a function of space
and time. Also, the sensitivity of the simulation results to contact angle and grid
spacing needs to be studied.

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Acknowledgement
This work was funded by FM Global as part of the Strategic Research Program for
Fire and Suppression Modeling.

References
[1] Hopf, L., Turbulenz bei einem flusse. Annalen der Physik, 337(9), pp. 777–
808, 1910.
[2] Nusselt, W., Die oberflachenkondensation des wasserdampfes. Zeitschrift des
Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, 60, pp. 541–546 and 569–575, 1916.
[3] Nusselt, W., Heat transfer in the trickle cooler. Zeitschrift des Vereines
Deutscher Ingenieure, 67, pp. 206–210, 1923.
[4] Fulford, G.D., The flow of liquids in thin films. Academic Press, volume 5 of
Advances in Chemical Engineering, pp. 151–236, 1964.
[5] Tong, A.Y. & Wang, Z., A numerical method for capillarity-dominant free
surface flows. Journal of Computational Physics, 221(2), pp. 506 – 523,
2007.
[6] Saha, A.A. & Mitra, S.K., Effect of dynamic contact angle in a volume of
fluid (vof) model for a microfluidic capillary flow. Journal of Colloid and
Interface Science, 39(2), pp. 461–480, 2009.
[7] Diez, J.A. & Kondic, L., Computing three-dimensional thin film flows
including contact lines. Journal of Computational Physics, 183(1), pp. 274–
306, 2002.
[8] Frassy, J., Lecot, C., Murariu, M., Delattre, C. & Soucemarianadin, A.,
Transient spreading of films on heterogeneous surfaces. Proceedings of the
COMSOL Users Conference 2007 Grenoble, 2007.
[9] King, A.A., Cummings, L.J., Naire, S. & Jensen, O.E., Liquid film dynamics
in horizontal and tilted tubes: dry spots and sliding drops. Physics of Fluids,
2007.
[10] Bai, C.X. & Gosman, A.D., Mathematical modeling of wall films formed by
impinging sprays. Society of Automotive Engineers, (SAE 960626), 1996.
[11] Stanton, D. & Rutland, C., Multi-dimensional modeling of heat and mass
transfer of fuel films resulting from impinging sprays. SAE Technical Paper
Series, 1998.
[12] O’Rourke, P.J. & Amsden, A.A., A particle numerical model for wall film
dynamics in port-fuel injected engines. SAE Paper 961961, 1996.
[13] O’Brien, S. & Schwartz, L., Theory and modeling of thin film flows.
Encyclopedia of Surface and Colloid Science, p. 5283, 2002.
[14] Landau, L.D. & Lifshitz, E.M., Fluid Mechanics, Second Edition: Volume 6
(Course of Theoretical Physics), 1984.
[15] Trela, M., A semi-theoretical model of stability of vertical falling liquid films.
Chemical Engineering Science, 49(7), pp. 1007–1013, 1994.

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[16] Hartley, D. & Murgatroyd, W., Criteria for the break-up of thin liquid layers
flowing isothermally over solid surfaces. International Journal of Heat and
Mass Transfer, 7(9), pp. 1003–1015, 1964.
[17] de Gennes, P.G., Borochard-Wyart, F. & Quere, D., Capillarity and Wetting
Phenomena. Springer, 2003.
[18] Semiczek-Szulc, S. & Mikielewicz, J., Experimental investigation of contact
angles of rivulets flowing down a vertical solid surface. International Journal
of Heat and Mass Transfer, 21(12), pp. 1625–1625, 1978.
[19] Ponter, A.B. & Aswald, K.M., Minimum thickness of a liquid film flowing
down a vertical surface–validity of Mikielewicz and Moszynskfs equation.
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 20(5), pp. 575–576, 1977.
[20] Meredith, K.V., Xin, Y.B. & de Vries, J., A numerical model for simulation
of thin-film water transport over solid fuel surfaces. Fire Safety Science,
submitted, 2011.
[21] Zhang, F., Zhao, X., Geng, J., Wu, Y.T. & Zhang, Z., A new insight
into Marangoni effect in non-isothermal falling liquid films. Experimental
Thermal and Fluid Science, 31, pp. 361–365, 2007.
[22] Zhang, F., Wu, Y.T., Geng, J. & Zhang, Z.B., An investigation of falling liquid
films on a vertical heated/cooled plate. International Journal of Multiphase
Flow, 34(1), pp. 13–28, 2008.

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 Section 6
Energy applications
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 253

A techno-economical view on energy losses at

hydropower dams (case study of Karun III
Dam and Hydropower Plant)
M. Jorabloo1, M. Abdolahpour2, R. Roshan2 & H. Sarkardeh2
1
Department of Engineering, Water Engineering Group,
Islamic Azad University, Iran
2
Hydraulic Structures Division, Water Research Institute, Iran

Abstract
In order to support the future economic developments in the world, one of the
most important objectives is the reduction of energy losses. Apart from this
objective, hydropower dams which are considered a renewable energy source
encounter this problem. Karun III Dam and Hydropower Plant is constructed on
the Karun River in the province of Khuzestan, Iran, with a capacity of 2000 MW.
The Dam is a double arch concrete type, 205m high from the foundation and
185m high from the river bed. In the present work by using the physical model
of Karun III Dam and measuring pressures in all parts of conveyance members,
energy losses for each part were calculated separately. Experiments were
conducted in three different elevations and with maximum design discharge. By
calculating the cavitation index along the related hydraulic structures, probability
of cavitation was studied. Discharge coefficient was also estimated in the
operation conditions. Experiments showed that when the reservoir elevation was
increased in constant discharge; the discharge coefficient was increased
respectively. Also it was observed that increasing the reservoir elevation causes
head losses to increase in different parts of conveyance members except the anti-
vortex structure which was installed at the top of the intake. Moreover, energy
losses at the Y-Branch member were observed more than other parts.
Keywords: Karun III Dam and Hydropower Plant, energy losses, physical
model, cavitation.

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1 Introduction
Dams are constructed for different purposes. The most important targets could be
the supply of drinking water, industrial, irrigation, power generation, prevention
of floods, providing hydraulic head and also recreation purposes. Meanwhile, use
of dams is a safe and green way for power generation [1]. It is clear that the
occurrence of energy losses in hydraulic structures is inevitable. Minimizing the
losses can lead to an increase of energy generation in hydropower plants. Some
of the important structures in view of energy losses are intakes, tunnels,
transitions and Y-branches. In the flow path two types of losses are expected:
friction losses and local losses. Friction losses or longitudinal losses caused by
passing the flow over the surface roughness. Darcy-Weisbach presented the
following equation to calculate the head losses along the pressure conduits [2]:

LV
h f (1)
D

where hf is longitudinal head losses, f is Darcy-Weisbach Coefficient, D is the

diameter, L is the length and V is flow velocity in the tunnel.
Since, the head losses due to suddenly changes occur in the flow pass, the
following equation calculates the head of energy losses [2]:

V
h k (2)
where K is local head loss coefficient.
To calculate power generation in a hydropower plant the following equation
can be used:

P γQH (3)

where P is the generated power, γ is the specific gravity of the water, Q is flow
rate and H is water head.
According to the Bernoulli Equation, the discharge coefficient can be
calculated. By summarizing related equations, discharge coefficient is as
follows:

V
C P (4)
h h

K 1 (5)
C

where Cd is discharge coefficient, h is the water depth over the intake (the
distance between the centerline of the intake and water surface).
Cavitation is a phenomenon which may cause damage and cavity in hydraulic
structures at high velocities. Sometimes in a hydraulic system, because of
increasing velocity and existing small roughness at flow walls, pressure

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decreases. Decreasing local pressure may cause vapor pressure and creation of
bubbles. Produced bubbles, distribute in the flow and transport farther, a place
with high pressure. In this time, they will explode and produce noise and huge
impact stresses into the walls. Due to the impact of exploded bubbles, walls may
face serious damage that is known as “Cavitation phenomenon”. In some cases
the bubbles explode at the site of creation because of unstable flow regimes and
leads to destruction just in place.

Figure 1: Schematic view of cavitation process.

Existence of swirling flows can lead to a decrease in the turbine efficiency,

introducing vibration in the system, increasing hydraulic losses at the entrance of
power intakes, blocking the trashrack and tunnels because of air suction and
floating materials from the reservoir, and finally reduction of turbine life [3]. In
this regard, using the anti-vortex structures in dams is recommended. Based on
Sarkardeh et al. [4], vortices are divided into three classes. Vortices Class C are
observed as a weak rotation of flow at water surface and in addition to water
surface rotation a drop may also be observed in water surface. In vortices Class
B the rotation of flow is extended down to the intake itself and in stronger
position, dragging debris and trash into the intake is expected. In Class A
vortices, some air bubbles are entrained from water surface and are transported
down to the intake and in the strongest vortices, a stable air core is formed in the
center of the vortex and air is entrained into the tunnel steadily.
Investigation on hydropower energy losses in the various structures has been
considered by some researchers. In the present work by using the physical model
of Karun III Dam, head losses at all parts due to power generation from reservoir
to turbine, discharge coefficient in the presence of anti-vortex walls. Moreover,
cavitation probability was investigated at the all parts of the conveyance
structures. Experiments were conducted in three different elevations and with
maximum design discharge.

2 Experimental works
All experiments were carried out on the physical model of the Karun III Dam
and Hydropower Plant. The Dam is constructed on the Karun River in the
province of Khuzistan, Iran, with the capacity of 2000 MW. The Dam is a
double arch concrete type, 205 m high from the foundation and 185 m high from
the river bed. The power plant consisted of 8 units, each unit supply the capacity
of 250 MW. The physical model of Dam and its hydropower plant were
constructed to the scale of 1:33.3. This scale was selected considering the
presented criteria by Anwar et al. and Jain et al. to prevent scale effects [5, 6].

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Hydraulic model of Karun III Dam power intakes were included: parts of the
dam reservoir, intakes, power tunnels, braches (Figures 2 and 3). The model has
two power tunnels with 38 cm diameter (power tunnel 1) (Figure 3). Design
discharge of each intake in the model was 110 lit/s. Considering the design
discharge, dimensions of the intakes were selected 104 cm height and 52 cm
width. Maximum and minimum depth of water over the intake center line was
1.80 m and 0.60 m respectively. Experiments showed that at 0.90 m depth, stable
vortices of Class B were formed at the intakes. Since scale effects in the physical
model may reduce the type of the vortex so formation of vortex Class A is
probable in the prototype.

Figure 2: Plan view of convenience structures from the reservoir to the

turbine of Karun III Dam.

Figure 3: Side view of the convenience structures from reservoir to turbine of

Karun III Dam.

To measure the flow discharge in the model, four rectangular weirs were
calibrated and used for each unit. Water level of the reservoir was measured by a
point gauge with accuracy of 0.1 mm. All experiments were carried out in the
three different depths of 0.60 m, 0.90 m and 1.20 m from the intake center line
with a flow rate equal to 110 lit/s in the model at each intake. In order to

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 257

investigate the real condition, all the experiments had been done in the presence
of designed anti-vortex walls [7].

3 Results and discussions

Experiments showed that vortices were formed on the top of the intakes at a
depth of 0.90 m above the intake center line, since strong and stable vortices
were observed in the model operation at depth less than 0.90 m using of anti-
vortex structure was necessary. Anti-vortex structures can be used for
elimination or reduction of vortex in dams. Previous researches by Sarkardeh et
al. [7] showed that groove vertical anti-vortex walls have a better performance in
reducing vortex rather than continuous vertical anti-vortex walls. Therefore,
groove vertical anti-vortex walls were selected as the final alternative.

3.1 Measuring discharge coefficient

In order to calculate discharge coefficient in power intakes of Karun III Dam

with installing anti-vortex walls, pressure values were measured in a section
immediately after the intake entrance (Figure 3, Section 2). In the next step,
discharge coefficients were calculated by Equation (4) at different depths of
0.60 m, 0.90 m and 1.20 m above the intake center line (Figure 4).

1.4
Reservoir Level from the Intake (m)

K Cd
1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Cd and K

Figure 4: Cd and K of the intake in presence of anti-vortex structure.

Results showed that by increasing the water level in the reservoir, discharge
coefficient was increased, but this increase was not considerable. So it could be
said that anti-vortex walls have no meaningful effect on the discharge coefficient
in different water levels.
According to conducted experiments at three different levels of reservoir
elevation (0.60, 0.90 and 1.20 m), the pressure values (by using about 400

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258 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

piezometers) showed that the probability of cavitation was not exist along the
different convenience structures.

3.2 Calculating head losses due to power generation

One of the most important and effective parameters in hydropower dam design is
the maximum use of the power of the water over the dam. So calculation of
hydraulic head losses in the related structures has a great importance [8]. To
calculate head losses along the structures, experiments were carried out with
three different water levels, constant discharge and with presence of anti-vortex
walls. Five different sections were used for measuring the pressure values
(Figure 3). According to the Figure 5, it can be concluded that by increasing the
water surface depth, head losses will increase respectively.

12 Power Intake Power Tunnel 1
Y‐Branch Structures Power Tunnel 2
10

8
hf (mm)

0
0.6 0.9 1.2

Water Depths over the Intake (m)

Figure 5: Head loss in different structures and reservoir levels.

This increasing trend is similar in different structures except power intake (in
presence of anti-vortex device). Decreasing trend of head loss in intake inlet
could be caused by the effect of anti-vortex wall in different intake levels.
Maximum head loss is related to the depth of 1.20 m of the reservoir at the Y-
branch structure and power tunnel 2.
Economical analysis of the project is very important in the engineering design
process, especially in dam design. By using Equation 3, the amount of energy
could be calculated in this project. Figure 6 shows the power loss due to power
generation in the Dam.
As can be seen from Figure 6, the total head loss will increase by increasing
the reservoir elevation. This figure could show to the engineers how hydraulic
head losses could lead to a great amount of power lost in the hydropower plants
in the prototype.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 259

5.5
Lost Power (MW)

4.5

3.5

3
15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Reservoir Level (m)

Figure 6: Total power losses in different reservoir levels of Karun III Dam.

4 Summary and conclusion

In the present study by using the physical model of Karun III Dam and
Hydropower Plant, energy losses were calculated due to the energy generation
process. The hydraulic model consisted of an anti-vortex structure, power intake,
transition structure, power tunnel with 38 cm diameter in the model, Y-branch
structure and finally power tunnel with 28 cm diameter in the model.
Experiments were performed in three different reservoir levels and in maximum
design discharge. Experiments showed that the Y-branch structure has most
energy loss among the other structures. Occurrence of cavitation is a very
important factor in safety of hydraulic structures. In this regard, the pressures
were measured in different points of structures. The probability of cavitation was
ruled out of possibility.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank from the Water Research Institute (WRI) for
their kind co-operation and using data.

References
[1] ASCE, Committee on Hydropower Intakes of the Energy Division, (1995),
“Guidelines for Design of Intakes for Hydroelectric Plants”, published by
ASCE, New York.
[2] White, F.M. (1991), “Fluid Mechanics”, McGraw-Hill.
[3] Knauss, J. (1987), “Swirling Flow Problems at intakes”, Balkema.

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260 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

[4] Sarkardeh, H., Zarrati, A.R., Roshan, R., (2010), “Effect of intake head wall
and trash rack on vortices”, Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 48, No. 1,
pp. 108–112.
[5] Anwar, H.O., Weller, J.A. and Amphlett, M.B. (1978), “Similarity of Free
Vortex at Horizontal Intake”, Journal of Hydraulic Research, No. 2,
pp 95-105.
[6] Jain, A.K., Raju, K.G.R and Grade, R.J. (1987), “Vortex Formation at
Vertical Pipe Intake”, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 100, No. 10,
pp 1427-1445.
[7] Sarkardeh, H., Safavi, K., Karaminejad, R., H.M. Azamathulla, (2009),
“Prevention of Vortex Formation at Karun III Power Tunnels”, 5th National
Civil Engineering Conference AWAM ’09), Malaysia.
[8] Sarkardeh, H. (2007), “Hydraulics of Power Tunnels and its Effect on Power
Generation”, M.Sc. Seminar, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran
Polytechnic).

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 261

Hydrate formation in natural gas pipelines

M. Naseer & W. Brandstätter
Department of Petroleum Production and Processing,
University of Leoben, Austria

Abstract

Gas hydrates pose a problem to the flow assurance programs in the oil and
gas industry. This paper highlights the mechanisms of hydrate formation in
natural gas pipelines. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) was used to gain
insight in to the mechanisms of water vapour condensation and consequent water
accumulation in the lowered sections of a gas pipeline. The pipeline temperature
profile, condensation of water vapour at walls, hydrate formation and hydrate
slurry rheology were modelled with user defined functions (UDF) integrated into
the CFD-software Fluent. It was found that the uphill sections of gas pipelines are
natural sites for water accumulation and hydrate formation. It is demonstrated that
CFD is a valuable tool to understand complex physical phenomena occurring in
multiphase flow problems.
Keywords: natural gas, pipelines, condensation, hydrate formation, uphill
sections, viscosity, nucleation, sagging sections, kinetics, macroscopic.

1 Introduction
The growth of energy demand is constantly pushing the gas producers to operate
at higher pressures. In the start of the twentieth century, the natural gas industry
started facing the problem of unexpected pipeline blockage. It was shown in 1934
by HammerSchmidt that the blockages appearing to be ice were actually gas
hydrates [1]. The gas hydrate formation in oil and gas pipelines is an undesirable
situation, undermining the flow assurance programs in addition to posing threat to
the personnel and equipment. Clathrate hydrates are non-stoichiometric mixtures
of water and natural gas in which the gas molecules are trapped in polygonal
crystalline structure made of water molecules [2]. The water molecules arrange
themselves in an orderly fashion around the gas molecules, thus entrapping them.

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262 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

These gas hydrates have the appearance of ice but can form well above the freezing
point of water at high pressures.
Hydrate formation in natural gas pipelines is a complex phenomenon to capture
in its entirety. The sequence of events leading to hydrate formation in gas pipelines
involves water vapor condensation, accumulation of water at lowered sections of
the pipeline, nucleation and growth of hydrate particles ultimately blocking the
pipeline. The site of pipeline blockage may not be the same as that of hydrate
deposition because just at the beginning of summer, the hydrate just released from
the pipewall along the length may migrate downstream and deposit at sagging
sections of the pipeline to cause the blockage [3]. Experiments on natural gas
hydrate under actual operating conditions in pipelines is difficult to emulate
due to scale of the problem and high pressures involved. However, different
experimenters have focused on various aspects of the hydrate formation. Bishoni
et al. [4] presented the formation and decomposition kinetics of gas hydrates at
a conceptual level, highlighting the different phases of hydrate formation and
growth. Riberio et al. [5] provided a critical review of literature regarding hydrate
formation kinetics, highlighting the modeling efforts by different researchers. In
an effort to emulate actual hydrate formation conditions, industrial scale flow loop
experiments were setup by ExxonMobil Upstream Research Company [6] and
Tulsa University [7] and Davies et al. [8] validated their hydrate formation model
against the experimental data. While the hydrate formation model just mentioned
was for the oil dominated flowlines, the hydrate formation may be quite different
in natural gas flowlines.

2 Theory
Natural gas pipelines always have some moisture content as the gas from the
formations reach the well head saturated with water [3]. During the cold season,
the ground temperatures are lower resulting in the temperature drop of the pipeline
content. If the temperature of the gas falls below the saturation temperature
corresponding to the dew point of water, condensation of water vapors will start. In
straighter sections of the pipeline, the condensate starts to accumulate at the base of
the pipe due to gravity. The accumulation may increase at the base of the sagging/
uphill sections of the pipe. If enough water is present and the thermodynamic
conditions are suitable, hydrate nucleation processes are initiated. To analyse
hydrate formation on a theoretical basis in principle two choices exist: one-
dimensional (1-D) or three-dimensional (3-D) models. While 1-D CFD models
may be suitable for very long pipeline sections, the effects of water condensation
and accumulation can only be modelled using the 3-D CFD methods.

3 CFD model
As an application example the pipeline section depicted in figure 1 was selected.
The computational domain consists of approximately 84000 polyhedral control

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 263

Figure 1: Natural gas pipeline.

volumes. The grid was refined during the computational run time to resolve the
accumulation phenomena.
The “Mixture Model” of Fluent [9] was used to represent the interpenetrating
continua consisting of mixture components.

Table 1: Model parameters.

No. Model parameter Value

1. Pipe diameter 0.25m
2. Inlet velocity 2m/s
3. Water vapor volume fraction 0.2
4. Inlet temperature 315K
5. Operating pressure 6.3Mpa

Table 1 depicts different parameters of the pipeline section. The Pressure

Implicit Split Operator (PISO) algorithm was used to couple the pressure and
velocity fields. The K-Epsilon model was included to model the effects of
turbulence.

3.1 Mathematical framework

The mixture model treats ‘n’ different phases as interpenetrating and models
the fluid flow with conservation equations of mass, momentum and energy. The
continuity, momentum and energy equations for the mixture in differential form [9]
are given below.

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Continuity:
∂
(ρm ) + ∇ · (ρmvm ) = 0 (1)
∂t
Momentum:
∂

(ρmvm ) + ∇ · (ρmvmvm ) = ∇p + ∇ · [µm ∇vm + ∇vm T
+ ρmg,
∂t
 n 

+ F + ∇ · αk ρkvdr,k vdr,k (2)
k=1

Energy:

∂  
n n
(αk ρk Ek ) + ∇ · (αk vk (ρk Ek + p)) = ∇ · [keff ∇T ] + SE (3)
∂t
k=1 k=1

where vm is the mass averaged velocity, ρm and µm are volume fraction averaged
mixture density and viscosity respectively, vdr,k is the drift velocity of individual
phases, Ek is the energy of phase k, αk represents the volume fraction of phase k,
p represents pressure, keff is the effective thermal conductivity, T represents the
temperature and SE represents energy source. In order to model the drag of the
primary phase on the secondary phases, a drift flux model available in the Fluent
was used where, the slip velocity was modelled as provided by Minnan et al. [9]
and the drag function correlation of Schiller and Neumann [9, 10] was used.

3.2 Model setup

For the sake of this study, a certain composition of natural gas was considered at the
inlet to the pipe. The molar concentrations were used as input to the program ‘CSM
Hyd’ [2] and a pressure-temperature equilibrium curve for the hydrate formation
was obtained. Based on the best fit through the equilibrium data, an equation was
obtained representing the threshold temperature for hydrate formation as

T = 8.5274 × ln(P ) + 270.86 (4)

Where T is Temperature in Kelvin and P is the pressure in MPa.

To calculate the saturation temperature according to the partial pressure of
vapor, the following equation was used.

Tsat = 16.335 × ln (P ) + 167.08 (5)

In order to accurately model the condensation in Fluent, a relationship

developed by De Schepper et al. [11, 12] was employed.

Mwater = 0.1 × αvapour × ρvapour |Tsat − Twall |/Tsat (6)

Modelling the temperature profile of the pipeline content along the length of the
buried pipeline is a challenging task because it varies with the seasonal changes

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 265

and also with the local changes in the conditions in the vicinity of the pipeline. A
simplified expression was used [13] to describe the pipe temperature profile along
the length.  
−kπDx
T (x) = TGr + (To − TGr ) exp (7)
0.28QCp
where TGr is the ground temperature, x is the distance along the pipe from the
inlet, D is the pipe diameter, k is thermal conductivity, Q is the volumetric flow
rate and Cp is the specific heat capacity.
The kinetic modeling of hydrate nucleation and growth requires the definition
of a driving force. While different researchers have presented their versions of
kinetic models, there is a general lack of consensus among them. The applicability
of these models to dynamic flow systems is limited by assumptions regarding
thermodynamics at the molecular level and to the specifics of the experimental
setup. Most notable among them is the work by Kashchiev and Firoozabadi who
considered the difference between chemical potential of the species as the driving
force [14].
An authentic kinetic model can serve as bridge between the microscopic
phenomenon of crystallization and its macroscopic effects. The assumption is
made here that there is an onset of instantaneous nucleation due to high number
of nucleation sites (on the pipe wall due to roughness) and high supersaturation
of the condensed liquid water film on the pipe wall with hydrocarbon gas at
high pressure. Based on the general stoichiometric molar relationship for hydrate
formation, the threshold mass fraction (considering water and hydrocarbon gas)
in a cell was set to be approximately 0.866. This threshold value was imposed
through the UDFs.
When hydrate formation conditions are reached in a computational cell, the
hydrate formation is modelled by mass transfer equations for both the phases i.e.
water and gas by the following simplified relationship:

Mhyd = (ρwater × αwater ) + (ρgas × αgas ) (8)

To incorporate the rheological effects of the increase of suspension in the

solution, the following relationship was used [10, 15]:

µslurry = αwater (1 − αhyd )−2.5 (9)

4 Results and discussion

The effect of water condensation at the pipe walls and accumulation at the bottom
of the pipe section is depicted in figure 2. At the onset of condensation of water
vapor, the condensed water starts to accumulate at the bottom section of the pipe
i.e. at the 6 o’clock position and it flows along the mean flow direction. This effect
can be clearly observed in figure 2. It is asserted that the effect of accumulation
can only be highlighted in three dimensional simulations and can be completely
overlooked in the one dimensional models. Furthermore, the accumulation of free

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266 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Figure 2: Water phase contours showing condensation at wall and accumulation at

the bottom of the pipe.

water at the base of the uphill section of the pipe is displayed. It is concluded that
there are two main mechanisms of water accumulation in pipelines due to gravity
i.e. accumulation at bottom section of the pipe and accumulation at the base of
uphill/ sagging sections of the pipe. The accumulation phenomena is a compound
effect taking place at the base of uphill section of the pipe for aforementioned
reasons and is clearly visible in figure 2.
Presence of free water is a key factor in the hydrate formation initiation as
argued by Sloan [2]. The simulation shows that the base of the sagging sections
of pipelines are most susceptible to hydrate nucleation as these regions serve
as stagnation points/ traps for any condensed water in gas flows. The hydrate
formation at these sections can start in winters. Multiple hydrate deposits along the
length of the pipe result in additional pressure drop. The real problem may start
at the beginning of summers, when the hydrate loosens up at the pipeline walls
(not completely dissociated) and starts traveling [3]. The sloughed off hydrate
then flows along the mean flow direction until it reaches lowered sections and
gets trapped as packed deposits.
The region of high hydrate volume fraction in accumulated water is shown in
figure 3. The high hydrate volume fraction region is marked by the iso-surfaces
of hydrate concentration which can be clearly distinguished from the water iso-
surfaces. It is evident that the water stagnation points are most susceptible to
hydrate formation. The hydrate formation acts as additional resistance to the
flow as shown by the velocity vectors in the cut-plane through x = 0. The
velocity vectors actually drawn at x = 0 iso-plane are offset by some distance
for clearer visibility. Stagnation zone with high hydrate volume fraction regions
can be observed. In real pipelines the difference in velocities between the mean
flow and the hydrate deposits would result in a drag force between phases leading
to pressure drop undermining the flow assurance.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 267

Figure 3: Velocity vectors at x=0 plane drawn at an offset showing the effect of
high hydrate concentration.

Figure 4: Line used for the plots.

In order to plot different parameters, a line just at the bottom of the lowered
section of the pipe in between the sections 22m and 28m (measured from the inlet)
was used as shown in figure 4.
Figure 5 shows the variation of viscosity and water volume fraction at the base
of the lowered
n(straight) section. The gradual increase in viscosity mixture defined
as µm = k=1 αk µk goes hand in hand with increase in the water volume
fraction with a sudden spike indicating high hydrate volume fraction influencing
the mixture viscosity. The gradual slope in the curve before 27m highlights the
accumulation phenomena of water (pileup). The sudden increase in the viscosity

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268 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Figure 5: Mixture viscosity and water volume fraction along the length of lowered
section of the pipe.

beyond 27m is indicative of the formation of a new phase drastically effecting the
viscosity of the mixture.
The water volume fraction depicted in figure 5 shows a gradual increase initially
followed by a sharp increase, a sharp decrease and again a sharp increase. The
sharp decrease belongs to the region of high hydrate volume fraction and is acting
as a ‘double sided tidal barrage’ between down stream and upstream water. It is
interesting to note the effect of hydrate deposition on the water film moving in
the mean flow direction. At the upstream side of the deposit, it is acting like a
wall, resulting in increase in water volume as depicted in the figure and at the
downstream side, the result of water accumulation is due to the backflow of water
film adjacent to the deposit. The backflow is assisted by loss in the dynamic
pressure in the region shadowed by the deposit and gravity effects at the uphill
section. 
The mixture velocity vm = nk=1 αk ρk vk /ρm at the bottom of the pipe section
is shown in figure 6. The increase in the velocity between 22–22.5m section is due
to mean flow from the downhill section impinging the wall resulting in increase in
the velocity. Beyond 22.5m the mixture velocity drops due to friction at the walls.
In the section between 23–26m, the mixture velocity oscillates with a mean value
of about 0.5m/s. The “fish-hook” curve beyond 27m shows the drastic drop in the
mixture velocity due to high hydrate volume fraction.
The variation of static and dynamic pressure is depicted in figure 7. The drastic
increase of static pressure at about 27m (and decrease of dynamic pressure)
indicates the effects of high hydrate deposition.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 269

Figure 6: Mixture velocity and hydrate volume fraction along the length of lowered
section of the pipe.

Figure 7: Pressure variation along the length of lowered section of the pipe.

5 Conclusions and future work

A 3D-CFD model for hydrate formation in gas pipelines has been developed.
The results achieved so far are in agreement with existing knowledge about
the condensation and accumulation of liquid water regions due to gravity in

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270 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

hilly terrain pipelines. Furthermore critical regions for hydrate formation could
be identified. Overall very plausible theoretical explanations about the complex
physical phenomenon taking place could be found.
Unfortunately no direct comparison with experimental results due to lack of
data so far could be made. However, this will be subject to a forthcoming paper.
Measurements for model validation in a real hilly terrain pipeline are currently
ongoing. Future work is also aimed at integrating a correct kinetic model to
simulate the effect of hydrate nucleation and growth phenomena on a macroscopic
scale.

References
[1] J.J. Carroll, Natural Gas Hydrate: A Guide for Engineers. Elsevier Science,
2003.
[2] E.D. Sloan & K.A. Koh, Clathrate Hydrates of Natural Gases, 2008.
[3] W.M. Deaton & E.M. Frost, Jr., Gas hydrates and their relation to
the operation of natural-gas pipe lines. Technical report, United States
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, July 1946.
[4] P.Raj Bishoni & V. Natarajan, Formation and decomposition of gas hydrates.
Fluid Phase Equilibria, 117, pp. 168–177, 1996.
[5] C.P. Ribeiro Jr. & P.L.C. Lage, Modelling of hydrate formation kinetics:
State-of-the-art and future directions. Chemical Engineering Science, 63(8),
pp. 2007–2034, 2008.
[6] UBC, https://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/1133/5434.pdf.
[7] UT, http://www.tuhfp.utulsa.edu/.
[8] S.R. Davies, J.A. Boxall, L.E. Dieker, A.K. Sum, C.A. Koh, E.D. Sloan,
J.L. Creek & Z.-G. Xu, Predicting hydrate plug formation in oil-dominated
flowlines. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 72(3-4), pp. 302–
309, 2010.
[9] Fluent 6.3 Users Guide.
[10] B.V. Balakin, A.C. Hoffmann & P. Kosinki, Experimental study and
computational fluid dynamics modeling of deposition of hydrate particles
in a pipeline with turbulent water flow. Chemical Engineering Science, 22
November 2010.
[11] S.C.K. De Schepper, G.J. Heynderickx & G.B. Marin, Modeling the
evaporation of a hydrocarbon feedstock in the convection section of a steam
cracker. Computers & Chemical Engineering, 33(1), pp. 122–132, 2009.
[12] A. Alizadehdakhel, M. Rahimi & A.A. Alsairafi, Cfd modeling of flow and
heat transfer in a thermosyphon. International Communications in Heat and
Mass Transfer, 37(3), pp. 312–318, 2010.
[13] Y.F. Makogon, Hydrates of Hydrocarbons. PennWell Books, 1997.
[14] D. Kashchiev and A. Firoozabadi, Nucleation of gas hydrates. Journal of
Crystal Growth, 243(3-4), pp. 476–489, 2002.
[15] P. Mills, Non-Newtonian behaviour of flocculated suspensions. J. Phys. Lett.,
46, pp. L301–L309, 1985.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 271

Flow patterns in inclined gas-liquid annular

duct flow
F. A. A. Mendes1, O. M. H. Rodriguez1, V. Estevam2 & D. Lopes3
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering School of São
Carlos, University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil
2
PETROBRAS/E&P-ENGP/TPP/EE, Brazil
3
PETROBRAS/UN-RIO/ENGP/EE, Brazil

Abstract
The submergible centrifugal pump (SCP) is one of the most common artificial
lifting techniques employed in the Brazilian offshore scenario. However, free gas
in the suction of the SCP is one of the most important limitations in the design of
the pumping system. Gas-liquid flow in annular-ducts is found in the petroleum
industry associated with gravitational gas separators that are applied with the
SCP technique for oil production in directional wells. The main goal of this
study is to investigate the behavior, i.e., flow patterns and maps, of gas-liquid
flow in an annular duct at several inclinations in a setup with dimensions which
are closer to real offshore application. High-speed video recording together with
an objective technique based on the time-frequency pressure-signature analysis
were applied for the flow pattern characterization. The experimental data were
collected in the apparatus consisted of an inclinable test section, 0 to 90 degrees,
with inner and outer diameters of 75 mm and 111 mm, respectively, hence the
annular channel possessing an 18 mm gap. The total length of the test section
was of 10.5 m. Air, water and oil at near atmospheric pressure constituted the gas
and liquid phases. The air, water and oil superficial velocities were in the range
of 0.02–30 m/s, 0.02–5 m/s and 0.005–0.5 m/s, respectively. Comparisons
between data and flow pattern maps available in the literature for annular duct
allowed the discrimination of regions and flow situations for which
improvements of the transition modelling are required.
Keywords: two phase flow, annular duct, flow patterns maps, time-frequency
pressure signature, directional well, inclined flow.

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doi:10.2495/MPF110231
272 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

1 Introduction
The multiphase flow in annular-duct can be found frequently in the oil industry;
however, little is known about the phenomenology of this flow type. This
knowledge is important for the design of submergible centrifugal pump (SCP).
The SCP is one of the most common artificial lifting techniques employed in the
Brazilian offshore scenario. In addition, free gas in the suction of the SCP is one
of the most critical limitations in the design of the pumping system. Gas-liquid
flow in annular-ducts is found in the petroleum industry associated with
gravitational gas separators that are applied with the SCP technique for oil
production in directional wells.
Kelessidis and Dukler [1] presented a study on upward-vertical two-phase flow
in an annular duct. The authors traced flow patterns maps and established the
transitions of flow patterns experimentally. Hasan and Kabir [2] proposed a
phenomenological model for transitions in upward vertical and inclined annular
duct flow and used data from the literature to validate the model.
Caetano et al. [3] carried out an experimental and theoretical study of the effect
of eccentricity in an upward-vertical two-phase annular-duct flow. The only
quoted authors who studied the influence of inclination on flow patterns was
Hasan and Kabir [2], however the model was validated only with data of
upward-vertical flow. The studies [4] and [5] show results for horizontal two-
phase annular-duct flow. In the first study, the authors were looking for the
effect of slope on flow patterns, while in the second study the air-water flow
patterns were classified and compared in two different sections test. In both
studies, they used small tubes (annular channel gap of about 1 mm), which is not
compatible with the dimensions used by the oil industry. Furthermore, the
authors have not proposed any model for flow pattern transition. An objective
identification and characterization of flow patterns based on statistical analysis of
time-frequency pressure fluctuation signal was proposed by Drahos et al. [6] and
Matsui [7]. Drahos et al. [6] used an analysis of the PDFs (Probability density
function) and PSDs (Power Spectrum Density) to identify and characterize the
flow patterns in a gas-liquid two-phase flow in a horizontal pipe. Matsui [7]
applied statistical tools for analyzing the PDF of the differential pressure signals
in vertical gas-liquid two-phase pipe flow.
Blanco et al. [8] conducted a thorough review on the study of gas-liquid flow in
annular duct and proposed flow patterns maps for the annular-duct flow in
horizontal and vertical inclinations. However, those authors don't validated the
proposed model with data related to dimensions similar to those found in the oil
industry because of the lack of available data in the literature. The main purpose
of this study is to expand the existing experimental database on two-phase flow
in annular ducts and validate the phenomenological model proposed by
Blanco et al. [8].

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 273

2 Experiments
2.1 Experimental apparatus

The experimental data were obtained from the experimental apparatus illustrated
by fig. 1. This experimental apparatus is mounted in Thermal-Fluids Engineering
Laboratory (NETeF) of the Engineering School of São Carlos of the University
of São Paulo. The test section (TS) has an annular geometry and is made of
borosilicate glass. It has 10.5 m of length and is sustained by an inclinable truss
beam capable of going from horizontal to 90 degrees of inclination. There is a
flow development section of 1.5 m and 111 mm of internal diameter before the
annular duct of 7.5 m and 111 mm of outside diameter (Do) and 75 mm of
internal diameter (Di), fig. 2. A pipe section identical to the development section
was positioned after the annular test section.

DPT

PT6

VS
GL-S

OW-S
TS

TG

OF1 OF2 TS5

OR OP

WF1 GL-M
WF2
WR WP

AF1 PT2 TS1

PT1 AF2 PT3 TS2

SC
AFi
AF3 PT4
TS3

AF4 PT5 TS4

AR

Figure 1: Schematic of experimental apparatus.

The air is supplied by a Worthington screw compressor of 50 kW model

ROLLAIR 40 (SC), whose flow control is done by needle valves positioned
before the flow meters. Three orifice plates (AF1, AF2, AF3) and an Oval
positive displacement flow meter model Gal 50 (AF4) are used for measuring the
air flow. The tap water used in test is pumped from a water tank (WR) by a
Weatherford progressive cavity helical pump of 11kW model WHT (WP). To
measure the water flow it is used a Badger Meter positive displacement flow
meter OGT (WF1) and an Oval vortex water flow meter model EX Delta. The oil
(density 828 kg/m³, viscosity 0,22 Pa.s and superficial tension oil-ar 52x10-3 N/m

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274 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

at 25C) is pumped by a Weatherford progressive cavity helical pump of 11kW

model WHT (OP). Two Oval positive displacement flow meters are used to
measure the oil flow: MIII (OF1) and Flowpet EG (OF2). The gas-liquid mixture
is formed in the gas-liquid mixer (GL-M), it is separated in the gas-liquid
separator (GL-S) and the air is vented to the atmosphere. The liquid returned by
gravity to tank (WR) or (OR). Novus pressure transducers TP-150 with range of
0-5 bar, accuracy 0,5% (PT2, PT3, PT4, PT5,PT6) were used to measure
pressure and IOPE temperature sensor model TW-TC/2 (TS1, TS2, TS3, TS4,
TS5), range -20–140C and accuracy 0,5C were used to measure temperature.
Tab. 1 summarizes the measurements instruments used in this study.

Table 1: Measurement instruments.

Flow meter Range at 1 atm and 25C (l/min) Accuracy

AF1 57–262 1% RD
AF2 172–794 1% RD
AF3 524–2400 1% RD
AF4 1–20 +1% -5% RD
OF1 0,05–8 1% RD
OF2 2,5–106 1% RD
WF1 1–35 1% RD
WF2 30–1300 1% RD

An Optron is high speed camera model CamRecord 600 is positioned in front

of the visualization section (VS) and used to capture images of the flow. Xenon
lamps of 35 W and 6000 K are positioned so as to provide sufficient lighting to
obtain the images, fig. 3. A Validayne differential pressure transducer, model
DP-15 (DPT) is used to acquire the two-phase flow pressure signature. At the
entrance of the acquisition system it is installed a low-pass filter of 20 Hz to
eliminate the signal noise of the pressure transducer. The remote control and
acquisition system consisted of a PC equiped with a National Instruments
acquisition board model PCI-6224. The water pump is controled with the
assistance of a CAM system. The inclination angle of the test section (TS) is
measured with a Bosh angle meter DNM 60L, accuracy 0,2.

2.2 Experimental procedure

The test section (TS) was set to the desired angle. The liquid superficial velocity
was established by the pump control system using a PID controller implemented
in LabView™ platform. The air injection was controlled manually through the
needle valves. After five minutes, which was enough time to ensure steady state,
the signal provided by the pressure transducer was saved and the image
acquisition performed for a period of 60 s. The flow-pattern transition
boundaries were determined a posteriori by visual observations (subjective
technique) and the signal analysis (objective technique) based on the Fourier
transform (FFT) and the Probability density function (PDF) of the pressure
signature.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 275

Di
Do

Figure 2: Schematic of the

Figure 3: High-speed camera setup.
test section.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Subjective analysis

In the subjective analysis the movies of the flow were carefully analyzed in slow
motion, which allowed the identification and characterization of the flow
patterns. Fig. 4 illustrates the horizontal water-air wavy stratified flow pattern
obtained at an acquisition rate of 1000 fps and resolution of 800 x 500 pixels.
The superficial velocities were set at JG=10.26 m/s and JL=0.25 m/s m/s. The
four snapshots show an interfacial wave crossing the visualization section.

Di

0s 0,12 s

0,18 s 0,24 s

Figure 4: Lateral view of wavy stratified flow (JG=10.26 m/s e JL=0.25 m/s);
Di stands for internal diameter.

Fig. 5 illustrates an elongated bubble observed from above during plug flow.
One can see the deformed bubble due to the annular geometry. The bubble takes
on a form that resembles of a flatworm. The lateral view of a “flatworm” bubble
crossing the visualization section during plug flow can be seen in fig. 6. The
camera was set to an acquisition rate of 1000 fps and a resolution of 800 x 500
pixels. The air and water superficial velocities were JG=0,25 m/s and
JL=3,52 m/s.

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276 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Di

Figure 5: Top view of an elongated “flatworm” bubble in plug flow.

Do

Di
0s 0,1 s

0,2 s 0,3 s

Figure 6: Lateral view of a “flatworm” bubble in plug flow; JG=0.25 m/s

and JL=3.52 m/s.

Di

0s 0,05 s 0,14 s

0,22 s 0,28 s 0,34 s

Figure 7: Lateral view of slug flow; JG=2 m/s and JL=1.25 m/s.

Fig. 7 shows a sequence of images of the slug flow pattern, JG=2 m/s and
JL=1,25 m/s, with the camera set at an acquisition rate of 1000 fps and 800 x 500
pixels. The first snapshot (t = 0 s) shows a smooth stratified flow pattern. The
following five snapshots show the aerated water slug crossing the visualization
section. Notice that at t = 0.34 s the flow resembles an aerated wavy stratified
flow. A picture of the dispersed bubble flow pattern is shown by Fig. 8. The

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 277

Do
Di

Figure 8: Lateral view of dispersed bubble flow, JG=0.05 m/s e JL=4.38 m/s.

sequence of images was carried out at a rate of 1250 fps and a resolution of
1280 x 256 pixels. The superficial velocities were JG=0.05 m/s e JL=4.38 m/s.

3.2 Objective analysis

The Validyne differential pressure transducer was mounted with diaphragm 20

(pressure range of -860 to 860 Pa) to identify the stratified flow and diaphragm
32 (pressure range of -14 to 14 kPa) for all the other flow patterns. Data were
acquired at a rate of 5 kHz, with an accuracy of 0.25% FS and analyzed by a
homemade program implemented in LabView™.

3.2.1 Horizontal flow

Air-water. Figs. 9–12 illustrates the acquired signal in time and frequency
domains related to air-water smooth stratified flow, wavy stratified flow, slug
flow and dispersed bubble flow, respectively. The basic difference between slug
flow (fig.11) and plug flow (fig.12) is the observed intermittence of the signal in
time. In addition, it is clear from the PSD graph that for plug flow the frequency
peak is in between that of stratified flow and dispersed bubble flow. In stratified
flow the dominant frequency is around 1 Hz, while in plug flow it is around 2 Hz
and in dispersed bubble flow it is above 4 Hz. In the time domain, the
smoothness of the signal is a clear discriminator between smooth (fig. 10) and
wavy (fig. 11) stratified flow. In addition, the PSD of the smooth stratified flow
signal presents a narrower frequency range than that of wavy stratified flow. The
slug flow signal is characterized by strong pulsation in time (fig. 12). It indicates
the passage of the piston of liquid that is formed by Kelvin-Helmholtz instability.
The main feature of the signal related to dispersed bubble flow is the existence of
a well defined high frequency oscillation (fig. 13).
Air-oil. One can see in Figs. 14 and 15 the signals related to smooth and wavy
stratified flow in the tests with air and oil. In the frequency domain, the smooth
stratified flow signal shows essentially a single low oscillation frequency (fig. 14),
whereas the signal related to wavy stratified flow (fig. 15) presents a higher and
broader distribution of frequencies in the PSD graph. The intermittent flow is
divided in slug and plug flow. The signal related to plug flow (fig. 17)
-1
2000 3,5x10
1500 -1
3,0x10
1000 -1
2,5x10
500 -1
P (Pa)

2,0x10
PSD

0
-1
1,5x10
-500
-1
-1000 1,0x10
-2
-1500 5,0x10

-2000 0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Tempo (s) Frequência (Hz)

Signal PSD

Figure 9: Smooth stratified flow (JG=0.05 m/s; JL=0.05 m/s).

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 278 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

2
2000 1,0x10
1500
1
8,0x10
1000

500 1
6,0x10
P (Pa)

PSD
0
1
-500 4,0x10

-1000 1
2,0x10
-1500

-2000 0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Tempo (s) Frequência (Hz)

Signal PSD

Figure 10: Wavy stratified flow (JG=5.00 m/s; JL=0.20 m/s).

2000

1500

1000
3
500 3,0x10
P (Pa)

0 2,5x10
3

-500 3
2,0x10
-1000

PSD
3
-1500 1,5x10

-2000 1,0x10
3

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
Tempo (s) 5,0x10
2

0,0

Signal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Frequência (Hz)
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

PSD

Figure 11: Slug flow (JG=3 m/s; JL=2 m/s).

2
2000 1,2x10
1500 2
1,0x10
1000
1
8,0x10
500
P (Pa)

PSD

1
0 6,0x10
-500 1
4,0x10
-1000
1
2,0x10
-1500

-2000 0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Tempo (s) Frequência (Hz)

Signal PSD

Figure 12: Plug flow (JG=0.1 m/s; JL=1 m/s).

4
2000 1,2x10
1500 4
1,0x10
1000
3
8,0x10
500
P (Pa)

PSD

3
0 6,0x10
-500 3
4,0x10
-1000
3
2,0x10
-1500

-2000 0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Tempo (s) Frequência (Hz)

Signal PSD

Figure 13: Dispersed bubble flow (JG=0.05 m/s; JL=4.00 m/s).

1
1000 1,0x10
900
0
800 8,0x10
700
0
600 6,0x10
P (Pa)

PSD

500
0
400 4,0x10
300
0
200 2,0x10
100
0 0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Tempo (s) Frequência (Hz)

Signal PSD

Figure 14: Smooth stratified flow (JG=0,1 m/s; JL=0,03 m/s).

1
1000 1,0x10
900
0
800 8,0x10
700
0
600 6,0x10
P (Pa)

PSD

500
0
400 4,0x10
300
0
200 2,0x10
100
0 0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Tempo (s) Frequência (Hz)

Signal PSD

Figure 15: Wavy stratified flow (JG=15,00 m/s; JL=0,06 m/s).

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 279

4
8000 6x10
7000 4
5x10
6000
4
5000 4x10
P (Pa)

PSD
4000 4
3x10
3000
4
2x10
2000
1000 4
1x10
0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Tempo (s) Frequência (Hz)

Signal PSD

Figure 16: Slug flow (JG=10 m/s; JL=0,2 m/s).

4
8000 1,0x10
7000
3
8,0x10
6000

5000 3
6,0x10
P (Pa)

PSD
4000
3
3000 4,0x10

2000 3
2,0x10
1000

0 0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Tempo (s) Frequência (Hz)

Signal PSD

Figure 17: Plug flow (JG=0,5 m/s; JL=0,2 m/s).

presents smoother oscillations and the PSD shows a narrow and quite low-
frequency distribution. The main features of signal related to slug flow (fig. 16) is
the abrupt oscillation in time and a broader PSD distribution moving away of zero.

3.2.2 Inclined flow (45)

Figs. 18-20 illustrate the time-domain signals in upward inclined air-water
bubble, slug and churn flow, respectively. The pressure signature related to
bubble flow is smoother than that of slug or churn flow. In addition, the PSD
indicates the presence of high frequency oscillations around 10 Hz only for
bubble flow. In churn flow, fig. 20, the signal is characterized by high amplitude.
It is worth noting that the signal related to churn flow can reach values that
overcome the value of the hydrostatic pressure of water (10.4 kPa). This feature
of the signal obtained in churn flow is likely due to a frictional pressure loss of
downward liquid film flow added with the high void fraction.

3.3 Flow patterns maps

In modeling horizontal annular duct, Blanco et. al. [8] chose to use a model
proposed by Rodriguez et al. [9] to define the stratified-flow transition
boundaries and the approach proposed by Taitel and Dukler [10] to define all the
other transitions. Fig. 20 illustrates the horizontal air-water flow pattern map
drawn by Blanco et al. [8] and the flow pattern map obtained experimentally in
this work. Some inconsistency can be observed when comparing data with
predictions. The flow map of Blanco et al. [8] predicts the transition from
stratified to intermittent flow for liquid superficial velocities below 0.2 m/s, but
according to the data such transition occurs at liquid superficial velocity around
1 m/s. The stratified wavy flow was observed up to gas superficial velocity of
20 m/s in the experiments, whereas the flow map proposed by Blanco et al. [8]
predicts annular flow.

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280 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

1
4000 8,0x10
2000
0 1
6,0x10
-2000
P (Pa)

-4000

PSD
1
4,0x10
-6000
-8000
1
-10000 2,0x10

-12000
-14000 0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Tempo (s) Frequência (Hz)

Signal PSD

Figure 18: Bubble flow (JG=0.05 m/s; JL=0.5 m/s).

4
4000 2,5x10
2000
4
0 2,0x10

-2000
4
1,5x10
P (Pa)

-4000

PSD
-6000 4
1,0x10
-8000
-10000 5,0x10
3

-12000
-14000 0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Tempo (s) Frequência (Hz)

Signal PSD

Figure 19: Slug flow (JG=0.5 m/s; JL=0.05 m/s).

5
4000 7x10
2000 5
6x10
0
5
5x10
-2000
5
P (Pa)

-4000 4x10
PSD

-6000 3x10
5

-8000 5
2x10
-10000
5
-12000 1x10

-14000 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Tempo (s) Frequência (Hz)

Signal PSD

Figure 20: Churn flow (JG=7 m/s; JL=0.1 m/s).

In fig. 22 one can notice the air-water flow pattern map with the test section
inclined at +1. It should be pointed out that stratified flow was no longer
observed in the test section at one degree of inclination from horizontal for both
air-water and air-oil flows; in the region of smooth stratified flow it was
observed plug flow and in the region that was occupied by wave stratified flow it
was observed slug flow, respectively. It is interesting to see the similarity
between fig. 22 and 25. The horizontal air-oil flow pattern map in annular duct
experimentally obtained can be seen in fig. 24. The stratified-flow transition
boundary occurs for oil superficial velocities below 0.08 m/s, whereas in the air-
water flow pattern map (fig. 21) the stratified flow occurs for liquid superficial
velocities below 1 m/s. The transition to wave stratified flow is observed for gas
superficial velocities above 1 m/s in the air-water flow pattern map, but in the
10 10
DISPERSED BUBBLE

1 1
JL (m/s)

JL (m/s)

INTERMITTENT

ANNULAR
0,1 0,1

STRATIFIED

0,01 0,01
0,01 0,1 1 10 100 0,01 0,1 1 10 100
JG (m/s) JG (m/s)

Figure 21: Horizontal air–water Figure 22: Air–water flow pattern

flow pattern map. map at +1.

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case of air-oil the boundary transition from smooth stratified flow to wave
stratified flow occurs for gas superficial velocities above 0.1 m/s. The slug flow
is observed at gas superficial velocities above 0.5 m/s in both air-oil and air-
water flows.
As one can see in fig. 23, the methodology proposed by Blanco et al. [8] for
upward gas-liquid annular duct flow at several inclinations was able to predict
with quite good accuracy the various observed flow patterns. The flow patterns
bubble, slug, churn and dispersed bubble were observed with the test section
inclined at 45. The plug flow observed in the air-water flow pattern map at one
degree of inclination from horizontal was not observed in the air-water flow
pattern map at +45. The dispersed bubble flow occurs for liquid superficial
velocities above 4 m/s for the flow pattern map at +1 and liquid superficial
velocities above 2 m/s for the flow pattern map at +45.
1
10
DISPERSED BUBBLE

1
0,1
JL (m/s)
JL (m/s)

BUBBLE SLUG CHURN ANNULAR

0,1

0,01

0,01 0,01 0,1 1 10 100

0,01 0,1 1 10 100 JG (m/s)
JG (m/s)

Figure 23: Air–water flow pattern Figure 24: Horizontal air–oil flow
map at +45. pattern map.
1

STRATIFIED SMOOTH
JL (m/s)

0,1

STRATIFIED WAVY
PLUG
SLUG
0,01 CHURN
0,01 0,1 1 10 100
JG (m/s) BUBBLE
DISPERSED BUBBLE
Figure 25: Air–oil flow pattern
map at +1.

4 Conclusion
Air-water and air-oil flow patterns for horizontal and inclined flow in a large
annular duct were identified and characterized in this study. The experimental
results were obtained in a 10.5 m length test section of borosilicate glass with
inner diameter of 75 mm and outer diameter of 111 mm. The inclinations of the

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282 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

test section were 0, +1 and +45 in relation to horizontal. The ranges of
superficial velocities of water, oil and air were 0,044 to 4,373 m/s, 0,01 to
0,5 m/s and 0,025 to 26,78 m/s, respectively. The flow patterns smooth stratified,
wavy stratified, intermittent (plug and slug) and dispersed bubbles were
identified at zero degrees of inclination (horizontal). With the test section
inclined at one degree, bubbles, intermittent and dispersed bubbles were
identified. In the tests where the test section was inclined at 45, bubbles, slug,
churn and dispersed bubbles were observed. The transition to wave stratified
flow is observed for gas superficial velocities above 1 m/s in the air-water flow
pattern map, but in the case of air-oil the boundary transition from smooth
stratified flow to wave stratified flow occurs for gas superficial velocities above
0.1 m/s. The slug flow is observed at gas superficial velocities above 0.5 m/s in
both air-oil and air-water flows. The plug flow observed in the air-water flow
pattern map at one degree of inclination from horizontal was not observed in the
air-water flow pattern map at +45. The dispersed bubble flow occurs for liquid
superficial velocities above 4 m/s for the flow pattern map at +1 and liquid
superficial velocities above 2 m/s for the flow pattern map at +45. The results of
this study help to assess the potentiality of using a simple pressure-signature
objective technique as a tool in identifying flow pattern transition boundaries in
air-water and air-oil flows in a big annular duct. Another finding is the clear
necessity of developing a phenomenological model capable of accurately
generate flow pattern maps for horizontal gas-liquid flow in annular duct with
dimensions similar to that used in the petroleum industry.

Acknowledgement
The present study was financially supported by PETROBRAS, whose guidance
and assistance are gratefully acknowledged.

References
[1] Kelessidis, V.C. and Dukler, A.E., Modeling flow pattern transitions for
upward gas-liquid flow in vertical concentric end eccentric annuli,
International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 15(2), pp. 173-191, 1989.
[2] Hasan, A.R. and Kabir, C.S., Two-phase flow in vertical and inclined
annuli, International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 18(2), pp. 279-293, 1992.
[3] Caetano, E.F., Shoham, O. and Brill, J.P., Upward vertical two-phase flow
through an annulus. Part I: Single-phase fiction factor, Taylor bubbles rise
velocity and flow pattern prediction, Journal of Energy Resources
Technology, 114, pp. 1-13, 1992.
[4] Wongwises, S. and Pipathattakul, M., Flow pattern, pressure drop and void
fraction of two-phase gas-liquid flow in an inclined narrow annular
channel. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 30(4), pp. 345-354,
2006.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 283

[5] Ekberg, N.P., Ghiaasiaan, S.M., Abdel-Khalik, S.I., Yoda, M. and Jeter,
S.M., Gas-liquid two-phase flow in narrow horizontal annuli, Nuclear
Engineering and Design, 192(1), pp. 59-80, 1999.
[6] J. Drahos, J. Cermak and K. Selucky, Characterization of Hydrodynamic
Regimes in Horizontal Two-Phase Flow Part II: Analysis of Wall Pressure
Fluctuations, Chem. Eng. Process., vol. 22, pp. 45-52, 1987.
[7] G. Matsui, Automatic identification of flow regimes in vertical two-phase
flow using differential pressure fluctuations, Nuclear Engineering and
Design, vol. 95, pp. 221-231, 1986.
[8] Blanco C.P., Albieri T.F. and Rodriguez O.M.H., Revisão de modelos para
transição de padrão de escoamento gás-líquido em duto anular vertical e
horizontal, ENCIT 2008, Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 2008.
[9] Rodriguez, O.M.H.; Mudde, R.F.; Oliemans, R.V.A., Stability analysis of
slightly-inclined stratified oil-water flow, including the distribution
coefficients and the cross-section curvature. In: North American
Conference on Multiphase Technology, 5, 2006, Banff, Canada.
Proceedings. Banff, Canada: BHR Group Limited. p.229-245.
[10] Taitel, Y. and Dukler, A. E., A model for predicting flow regime transitions
in horizontal and near horizontal gas-liquid flow, A.I.Ch.E. Journal, 22,
pp. 47-55, 1976.

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 Section 7
Flow in porous media
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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 287

Modelling effective permeability of fracture

networks in permeable rock formations by
singular integral equations method
A. Pouya1, M. N. Vu1,2 & D. Seyedi2
1
Université Paris-Est, Laboratoire Navier (ENPC/IFSTTAR/CNRS),
Ecole des Ponts ParisTech, Marne la Vallée, France
2
BRGM/RNSC, Orléans, France

Abstract
In this paper, theoretical and numerical formulations of plane steady-state fluid
flow in a fractured porous rock are used to investigate its effective permeability.
If the far field inflow is uniform, the theoretical solution shows that the pressure
field in the matrix is a function of the discharge in the fracture network. A
numerical resolution based on singular integral equations is employed to derive
the general problem of many intersected fractures in order to obtain the pressure
field in anisotropic matrix. This solution allows computing the flux in the
fractures which is the key issue for upscalling the equivalent permeability. This
paper presents in detail the method for deriving the equivalent permeability from
this solution. This method is applied to two real cases: an Excavation Damage
Zone (EDZ) around a deep underground gallery and a geological rock formation
presenting several families of fractures. The results of the both cases show that
the developed method provides an easy and efficient way to determine the
equivalent permeability of the fractured porous rock medium. This equivalent
permeability can be implemented in analytical and numerical tools for
continuous media towards estimating the flow characteristics in the rock
formation.
Keywords: facture network, porous rock, steady-state flow, effective
permeability.

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doi:10.2495/MPF110241
288 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

1 Introduction
In the context of important industrial applications such as underground nuclear
waste disposal in claystone, geological CO2 storage or hydrocabure reservoir, the
numerical modelling of fluid flow in fractured porous materials is intensively
investigated. More specifically, in damaged zones, cracks and geological faults
generally have a great effect on the effective permeability of porous media or
rock masses. The interest of this question also extends to other fields, such as
hydrogeology for water resources management in aquifers, etc.
Different approaches are used to study the problem of flow in porous media
containing fractures with mass exchange between matrix and fracture, a review
of which can be found in Sanchez-Vila et al. [16], Goméz-Hernandez and Wen
[7] and Renard and de Marsily [15]. However, these works are essentially based
on some numerical-empirical modelling. Pouya and Fouché [11] presented some
rigorous theoretical-numerical results based on homogenisation theories for the
equivalent permeability of heterogeneous or fractured media. The self-consistent
scheme is investigated by Dormieux and Kondo [5] and Barthélémy [1] for
upscalling the effective permeability of cracked porous media. In their method,
cracks are assimilated to ellipsoidal inclusion obeying to a Darcy’s law of flow.
Following a different way, based on theory of Cauchy integral, Liolios and
Exadaktylos [9] studied mathematically the problem of plane steady-state flow in
an infinite isotropic porous media with multiple non-intersecting fractures. In
this approach, the fracture is considered as zero thickness discontinuity line and
complex numbers are used. Recently, Pouya and Ghabezloo [14] used a direct
approach to obtain a general potential pressure solution function of flux in the
fracture network for anisotropic matrix containing intersecting curvilinear
fractures. By continuing this work, Pouya and Vu [13] employed the singular
integral equation method to establish a fast numerical calculation that can be
used to derive the general solution and to show the fluid flow around many
intersecting fractures.
Using the recent theoretical and numerical advances, this paper presents a
method to evaluate the effective permeability of the permeable rock formation
containing a dense fracture network. The numerical solution of pressure and
discharge in the fracture, and then, the equivalent permeability using the
formulas of average velocity and of average pressure gradient. The numerical
calculation is applied to two cases. The first one is an EDZ around a deep
underground gallery where the fractures are curved surfaces with a well defined
shape and are almost regularly distributed in this zone. The second is a fractured
geological formation with several families of fractures in which the fractures are
plane surfaces and their characteristic parameters (orientation, length and
position) are defined by a stochastic law. This approach provides an easy and
efficient tool to determine the effective permeability of fractured porous rock
formation.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 289

2 Mathematical formulation
An infinite homogeneous body Ω containing a fracture network is considered
(fig.1). Fracture number m is denoted Γm. It is generally presented by a smooth
curve zm of the curvilinear abscise s. The intersection points of two or more
fractures and the extremities of fractures ending in the matrix constitute a set of
singular point S.
Fluid velocity v(x) in the matrix is given by Darcy’s law:
x     v ( x )  k ( x). p ( x ) (1)
where k is the matrix permeability and p(x) the pressure field. The flow through
the discontinuity is usually expressed in terms of the Poiseuille’s law:
s   q( s )  c ( s ). s p (2)
where, s is the abscise along the fracture and c is the fracture’s conductivity.




k(x), p(x), v(x)

 p(x)

Figure 1: Rock mass containing fractures.

Mass conservation in the matrix reads:

x     .v(x) = 0 (3)
The fracture-matrix mass exchange law on the fracture excluding singular points
is obtained by considering masse balance in a portion ds of the fractures (fig. 2a)
s   v( z ).n( s)   s p( s)  0 (4)

Figure 2: a Mass exchange between matrix and fracture. b Mass balance in a

disc around an intersection point (Pouya and Ghabezloo [14]).

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290 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

At the intersection points of fractures (fig. 2b), Pouya and Ghabezloo [14]
analyzed the masse balance in a small disc centred on the singular point and
deduced the following relationship:
 
z  S .v( x)    q0b   x  z   0 (5)
 b 
b
with q0 is the outgoing flow on the branch of fracture b and  is the Dirac
distribution. Nevertheless, a deeper mathematical analysis allows us to go further
than eqn. (5) (Pouya and Vu [13]) and shows that:

q
b
b
0 0 (6)

In order to calculate the effective permeability, it is sufficient to impose a

constant pressure gradient at infinity: p ( x )  A.x . The previous problem was
derived rigorously by Pouya and Ghabezloo [14] and a general solution of
potential was given:

x  z (s)
m
1
p( x)  p  ( x) 
2
  q m (s) 2(7)
m
. k -1 . t ( s ) ds
k -1 .  x  z ( s ) 
m m m
 
where, x is a current point in the material, z (s) is the point the Γm at the
m

m
curvilinear abscise s, q m (s ) and t (s) are respectively the discharge along the
fracture and the unit vector tangent to the fracture at this point, and  is the
square root of determinant of k:  k .

3 Numerical calculation
When field point x is located in the fractures; we obtain a singular integral
equation of unknown pressure field in the fracture networks by replacing eqn. (2)
into eqn. (7). This equation was resolved numerically by collocation method
(Bonnet [3]) which consists of enforcing exactly eqn. (7) at finite number of
points called collocation point.
Curvilinear fractures are approximated by a series of small linear segments
and are discretized by E elements numbered n and denoted En (1nE). Thus,
eqn. (7) is written as follows:
N
p(x)  p ( x)   I n (8)
n 1

with:
x  z ( s)
n
I n ( x)  
n
q n ( s) 2
. k -1 . t ds
(9)
En k -1 .  x  z n ( s ) 
 

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Two types of elements are distinguished: extremity elements and current

elements. Linear interpolation of pressure is used for current elements. General
theoretical results of velocity field singularity around a fracture tip lead us to
choose an interpolation function for the flux q(s) corresponding to a variation as
s1/2 where s is the distance on the fracture line to the extremity point. Therefore,
interpolation function for pressure on the left extremity elements (tip at s=0),
current element, and right extremity elements (tip at s=L) are respectively
expressed as following:
p 2  p1 3
p( s)  p 1  3
s
L
p  p1
p( s)  p 1  2 s (10)
L
p p 3
p( s)  p 2  2 3 1 L  s
L
At first, a collocation point x is selected per element which verifies In(x) = 0.
And then, the set of extremity points of fracture network is added as
supplementary collocation points. It should be noted that no matter how the
fractures intersect and how the discretization is made, the number of nodes N is
always smaller than number of collocation points M. Otherwise, this method of
selection of collocation points always leads to the number of equations M larger
than the number of nodal pressure unknown. It is interesting that all elementary
integrals In(x) in eqn. (9) can be calculated analytically by using the variable
interpolations in eqn. (10), which provides a very fast calculation method.
Enforcing eqn. (7) in M collocation points leads to following matrix equation:
H.P=Y (11)
where, P(Nx1) is the column of nodal pressure unknown, Y(Mx1) is the column
of infinite pressure field at collocation points and H(MxN) is computed from the
assembly operation after computing all elementary integrals. The approximated
solution can be found by the least squares fitting method. Pouya and Vu [13]
have well shown the validity of this method by comparing the numerical solution
of a single straight fracture in an infinite homogeneous media with the known
closed-form solution of the same problem.
Once the eqn. (11) is solved, the nodal pressure P{pn} (1nN) are known,
using eqn. (2), we can deduce the flux in each element. In addition, in the post-
processing stage, eqn. (11) shall be employed again to compute directly the field
pressure in porous matrix.
For a homogeneous rock mass Ω, containing a fractures network Γm that is
considered as the limit case of thin permeable layers, the average velocity and
pressure gradient in Ω is given, respectively, by:
1 
  vd    qtds  ; G    pd
1
V (12)
  m m  

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292 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Let us to suppose that a linear pressure p ( x )  A.x is applied at the infinity.

The pressure field in matrix is known, especially on the boundary  , hence, the
vector G can be deduced such as:
1
G  p.nds
 
(13)

where, n is the unit outward normal on  . Besides, Pouya and Fouché [11]
demonstrated that 1 vd   k.G . Hence, the linearity of all velocities and
 
flux with respect to G implies that there exists a tensor kf that satisfies the
following relationship:
1
 qtds  k f .G
 m m
(14)

Thus, under boundary condition of linear pressure, the global permeability

tensor of Ω domain is given by kp=k+kf. In the case of weak fracture density, the
Mori-Tanaka estimation of kp is determined by neglecting the interaction
between fractures i.e. assuming that the flux q in the left-hand side of eqn. (14) is
deduced from the results obtained for a single fracture in an infinite body which
is given in Pouya and Ghabezloo [14]. However, in the case of high fracture
density (or dense fracture networks), the integral of flux on the fracture network,
i.e. the term described in left-hand side of eqn. (13) could be computed
numerically for a fracture network discretized by E element.
In the next section, we shall take up some real examples for calculating the
effective permeability in using the recent advance of theoretical development and
numerical tools which are described above.

4 Application
4.1 Effective permeability of EDZ

Excavation of underground galleries generates cracks and fractures in a zone

around the gallery called Excavation Damaged Zone (EDZ). The effect of
fractures on the hydraulic properties of EDZ can be estimated through a
numerical method taking into account the complex geometry and density of
discontinuities. Three zones around the gallery (fig. 3) can be distinguished: the
zone crossed by fractures; damaged or micro-fractured zone beyond fractured
zone and the zone of intact rock beyond EDZ. The first zone is considered here
to calculate its equivalent permeability. The fractures appearing in this zone has
more or less regular geometry with the same shape, spacing, extensions that are
repeated along the axis of gallery.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 293

Figure 3: Representation of the EDZ around the gallery and the shape of the
fracture (ANDRA 2008 [18]).

Figure 4: Representation of the shape of the “chevron” fractures in a vertical

plane.

Field observations show that the section of the fracture surfaces in the plane
orthogonal to gallery axis (Z=const) is elliptical; the trace of fracture in vertical
plane has a curvature form as a hyperbolic tangent function; the extension
fracture in the horizontal fracture is more or less constant. This observation leads
to take the following expression (eqn. 15) to represent the equation of the
fracture surface (Pouya et al. [17]).
X2 Y2
 1 (15)
a 2 b 2 tanh( Z )
The parameters a, b, λ depend on the orientation of the gallery. And then, the
values: a=b=4, λ=0.57 are determined by comparing the trace of theoretical
surface to observed fracture in field. In addition, the last parameter d=60 cm of
spacing between fractures is fixed by the field measurement.

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294 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

The above geometrical model is used to evaluate the effective permeability of

EDZ (fig. 5) with the isotropic matrix permeability k = 10-12m/s and the
hydraulic conductivity of fracture c=10-11m2/s. The chevron fracture form is
discretized by series of small linear segments.

Figure 5: Representative segment of EDZ in calculating the effective

permeability.

The linear pressure p ( x)  A.x is imposed at infinity. By solving the problem

for two vectors of pressure gradient A1=(1,0) and A2=(0,1), two average velocity
vectors V 1 , V 2 and two average pressure gradient vectors G1 , G 2 are obtained.
The equivalent permeability kp is then deduced from the equation V = -kp.G.
Launching the numerical program for the EDZ zone, the following effective
permeability matrix is found:
 9.09 5, 39 
kp   -12
 x 10 (m/s)
 5, 26 8.19 
This result shows that the effective permeability matrix is almost symmetric
according to the results announced by Pouya and Fouché [11]. The principal
directions of this permeability tensor can be calculated easily. They are found to
be approximately parallel and orthogonal to the fractures surfaces. Otherwise,
permeability predicted in this way is smaller than that given by the Mori-Tanaka
estimation based on theoretical results of Pouya and Ghabezloo [14]. The
difference can be explained by the fact that the Mori-Tanaka estimation does not
take into account the fractures interaction.

4.2 Fracture network in a permeable rock

The study of fluid flow in fractured permeable rocks needs, first, a geometrical
model of fractures that may be described the deterministic models (Kolditz and
Clauser [8]) or by stochastic approach (Cacas et al. [4]; Billaux [2]; Gervais [6]
and Maleki et al. [10]). The stochastic simulation of joint network is based on a
hierarchical probabilistic model that realistically reproduces fracture connectivity
using minimal data such as the number of fracture sets, the fracture length,
spacing and density. In practice, the stochastic distribution is often used for
modelling fluid flow in hydrogeology or for natural geological reservoir since
their large flexibility. In this work, the study introduced by Maleki et al. [10] is
adopted. A square domain is characterized by two corners (Xmin,Ymin) and
(Xmax,Ymax). Three fracture families are defined each one by a density ρ (number
of fracture per area unit), the half of fracture length r = L/2 and the orientation θ
(angle between fracture line and x-axis, 0 ≤ θ < π). The fracture line is
completely determined by these parameters and the coordinates (x0,y0) of its

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 295

center. A uniform distribution of the fracture center points and of the angle θ;
and an exponential law of length distribution are supposed.
In order to study the effect of fracture density on the effective permeability of
fractured porous media, three families are generated in a domain 10x10m2 of
rock formation. Several configurations are considered for which all the fractures
parameters are constant except for the density that increases (fig. 6). Herein, we
introduce the dimensionless parameter   c / 2 k , with   1m ; and then we
use the numerical procedure to compute the equivalent permeability of fractured
porous rock with homogeneous permeability k for matrix formation.

(a) (b)

Figure 6: Fracture network in porous rock formation: (a) non-percolated

network, (b) percolated network.
100

80 


60

Keff/k
40

20

0
0 0.5 1
 1.5 2 2.5

Figure 7: Determinant of effective permeability matrix varies with fracture

density for different values of  .

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Figure 7 depicts the evolution of the determinant of the effective permeability

tensor K eff  k p with the fracture density for different value of  .
The equivalent permeability increases first linearly with the fracture density ρ,
for small values of the density. A sharp increase is observed for a critical density
ρ1.5 that represents the percolation threshold. The dimensionless density
2
   R  , where R is the mean half-length of the fractures, is found to be
around 1.2. After percolation threshold, the effective permeability function of
density increases with a different pace as observed also by Maleki et al. [10].

5 Conclusion
The effective permeability of fractured porous rocks is studied numerically using
analytical and numerical developments based on the singular integral equations.
This method that is clearly presented in this paper allows taking into account the
real geometry of the fractures and of their interactions effects. The geometrical
shape of individual fractures may be introduced precisely in the model as it has
been done for the case of the EDZ studied here above. In the case of great
number of fractures, the geometry of the fractures network can be described and
generated numerically in the model by stochastic laws. The parameters of these
stochastic laws are deduced from observation data. The numerical program that
has been developed using this method provides an efficient tool for quick
evaluation of the effective permeability of fractured porous rocks. The results
presented in this paper to illustrate this method show also the important effect of
percolation which modifies significantly the magnitude of effective permeability.

Acknowledgements
This work is co-funded by IFSTTAR and BRGM.

Reference
[1] Barthélémy, J.-F., Effective permeability of media with a dense network of
long and micro fractures. Transport in Porous Media. 76, pp.153–178,
2009.
[2] Billaux, D., Hydrogéologie des milieux fracturés. Géométrie, connectivité
et comportement hydraulique, Thèse de doctorat, Ecole Nationale
Supérieure des Mines de Paris, 1990.
[3] Bonnet, M., Equations intégrales et éléments de frontière, CNRS
Editions/Eyrolles : Paris, 1995.
[4] Cacas, M. C., Ledoux, E., De Marsily, G. 1 Tillie, B., Modeling Fracture
Flow with A Stochastic Discrete Fracture Network: Calibration and
Validation: 1. The Flow Model. Water Resources Research, 26(3), pp. 479-
489, 1990.

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[5] Dormieux, L. & Kondo D. 2004. Approche micromécanique du couplage

perméabilité–endommagement. C.R. Mecanique, 332, pp. 135-140, 2004.
[6] Gervais F., Modélisation géométrique d’un réseau de fractures dans un
massif rocheux stratifié. Application aux carrières marbrières de
Comblanchien (Côte d’Or, France), PhD dissertation. Ecole Nationale
Supérieure des Mines de Paris, 1993.
[7] Goméz-Hernández, J. J. & Wen, X. H., Upscaling hydraulic conductivities
in heterogeneous media: an overview. Journal of Hydrology, 183, pp. ix–
xxxii, 1996.
[8] Kolditz, O. & Clauser, C., Numerical Simulation of Flow and Heat Transfer
in Fractured Crystalline Rocks: Application to the Hot Dry Rock Site in
Rosemanowes (U.K.). Geothermics, 27, pp. 1-23, 1998.
[9] Liolios, P.A. & Exadaktylos, G. E., A solution of steady-state fluid flow in
multiply fractured isotropic porous media. International Journal of Solids
and Structures, 43, pp. 3960–3982, 2006.
[10] Maleki, K., Pouya, A., Courtois, A. & Su, K., Modélisation numérique du
couplage entre l’endommagement et la perméabilité des argiles raides.
16ème Congrès Français de Mécanique, Nice, 2003.
[11] Pouya, A. & Fouché, O., Permeability of 3D discontinuity networks: new
tensors from boundary-conditioned homogenization. Advance Water
Resources, 32, pp. 303-314, 2009.
[12] Pouya, A., Bourgeois, E., Haxaire, A. & Poutrel, A., Continuum equivalent
model for the fractured EDZ around underground galleries in claystone.
Congrès ANDRA, Nante, 2010.
[13] Pouya, A. & Vu, M. N., Modeling steady-state flow in fractured porous
rocks by singular integral equations method. In Proceedings of the 13th
International Conference of the International Association for Computer
Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, Melbourne, 2011.
[14] Pouya, A. & Ghabezloo, S., Flow around a crack in a porous matrix and
related problems. Transport in Porous Media, 84(2), pp. 511-532, 2010.
[15] Renard, P. & de Marsily, G., Calculating equivalent permeability: a
review. Advance Water Resources, 20 (5–6), pp. 253–278, 1997.
[16] Sánchez-Vila, X., Girardi, G.P. & Carrera, J., A synthesis of approaches to
upscaling of hydraulic conductivities. Water Resources Research, 31(4),
pp. 867–882, 1995.
[17] Pouya, A., Bourgeois, E., Haxiare, A., Elaboration des modèles
mécaniques et hydromécaniques homogénéisés de l’EDZ au champ proche
d’un ouvrage de stockage, Rapport ANDRA, C.RP.0LCP.10.0003, 2010.
[18] ANDRA 2008, Synthèse de la réunion du 15-11-2007 sur la
conceptualisation des réseaux de fractures dans l’EDZ « initiale »,
C.NT.AEAP.08.0002, 2008.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 299

Modelling multiphase flow inside the

porous media of a polymer electrolyte
membrane fuel cell
T. Berning & S. K. Kær
Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Denmark

Abstract
Transport processes inside polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC’s)
are highly complex and involve convective and diffusive multiphase,
multispecies flow through porous media along with heat and mass transfer and
electrochemical reactions in conjunction with water transport through an
electrolyte membrane. We will present a computational model of a PEMFC with
focus on capillary transport of water through the porous layers and phase change
and discuss the impact of the liquid phase boundary condition between the
porous gas diffusion layer and the flow channels, where water droplets can
emerge and be entrained into the gas stream.
Keywords: fuel cell modelling, multi-phase flow, GDL/channel interface.

1 Introduction
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC’s) combine hydrogen with
oxygen from air in order to generate electricity with the only by-products being
water and waste heat. The overall reactions are as follows:

Anode: 2 H2  4 H+ + 4 e-
Cathode: O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e-  2 H2O
Combined: 2 H2 + O2  2 H2O

A schematic of a single PEMFC is given in Figure 1. Depending on the

detailed operating conditions the product water can be in the liquid or gas phase.
Above reaction occur inside the catalyst layers (CL’s) and this means that the
product water has to travel though the porous CL’s and the porous transport

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300 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Figure 1: PEMFC schematic.

layers (PTLs) towards the flow channels where it can be picked up by the
reactant.
The primary mechanism that drives the liquid water through the porous
sublayers is capillary action, as was shown by Sinha and Wang [1], which is a
diffusion-like mechanism that drives the water from regions of high
concentrations to regions of low concentrations. The capillary pressure itself is a
function of the material parameters of the porous material (contact angle,
permeability, porosity) and of the liquid water volume fraction, also called
“saturation”. A frequently used equation to define the capillary pressure is the
Leverett function, but recently there has been experimental effort to measure the
capillary pressure as function of the saturation. Numerical models based on CFD
typically use the Leverett function (described below) and may vary the
coefficients in order to account for the pore-size distribution (PSD).
A common problem in these models has been the description of the liquid
phase boundary condition at the interface between the porous gas diffusion layer
(GDL) and the gas flow channel. A frequent approach was to specify a capillary
pressure of zero at this interface, which corresponds to having a negligible
amount of liquid phase at this interface. This was done by Berning and Djilali
[2], among others. Alternatively, an arbitrary non-zero liquid saturation was
prescribed by Natarajan and Nguyen [3] which ended up dominating the amount
of liquid saturation inside the porous media. A more elaborate interfacial
coverage model was proposed by Meng and Wang [4] in order to relate the
liquid saturation at the interface to the cell potential and flow conditions in the
channel. However, specifying any fixed value, either a value for the saturation or
a capillary pressure, will not necessarily capture essential physics, as was pointed
out by Gurau et al. [5]. This group in turn considered pending droplets, which are
fed by one or more capillaries, and claim that the pressure downstream of the
capillaries is equal to the pressure in the attached droplets which they feed. This
means that equilibrium is assumed between the droplet and the pore that is
feeding it. Such equilibrium must be questioned as it is an experimental
observation that droplets continue to grow at a lower channel gas stream, which
means that the capillary pressure of the pore feeding the droplet must always be
larger than the capillary pressure of the sessile droplet. Weber and Newman [6]

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 301

assumed a zero liquid water flux if the gas phase pressure exceeds the liquid
phase pressure while the capillary pressure is set to zero otherwise.
From a modelling perspective it is desirable to de-couple the transport
phenomena inside the porous media from the channel, i.e. to prescribe a
boundary condition where the GDL is not affected by the channel flow. The
channel flow in turn will always be disturbed by the growing droplets, but these
phenomena are very difficult to simulate in a model. Recently our group has
suggested an approach of prescribing a boundary condition by applying a liquid
phase pressure gradient across the interface at the last layer of the GDL [7]. This
pressure gradient is derived from the Hagen-Poiseuille equation and is based on
the experimental observation that liquid phase typically enters the channel
through the same, “active” pores of the GDL [8]. It was found experimentally
that the liquid water level inside the porous layers could be changed by
perforating the GDL. In this work we want to investigate the effect of the
boundary condition that our group has suggested on the predicted water content
inside the porous media. A rendering of the liquid water transport is shown in
Figure 2 [9].

Figure 2: Rendering of the water transport model [9].

2 Model description
For the sake of brevity we do not list in detail all modelling equations employed
in our comprehensive three-dimensional, non-isothermal CFD model. Instead we
want to limit the list of equations to the description of liquid water flux through
the porous media and across the GDL/channel interface.
As was previously shown, the three-dimensional momentum equations for the
liquid phase in our multi-fluid model can be reduced to Darcy’s law for the gas
phase and liquid phase [7]:
k rel , g K
ug  p g
g
(1)
k rel ,l K k rel ,l K k rel ,l K
ul  p l  p g  p cap
l l l (2)

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where the capillary pressure is defined as:

 
0.5

p cap   cos    J S 
K (3)

In above equations ug and ul are the three-dimensional velocity vectors, krel is

the relative permeability of each phase, K is the dry permeability of the porous
medium,  is the dynamic viscosity and p is the pressure. Moreover, σ denotes
the surface tension between the gas phase and the liquid phase (here 0.0625 N/m)
and θ is the effective contact angle between the liquid phase and the porous
medium. Here and in the following the subscripts “g” and “l” denote the gas
phase and liquid phase, respectively. It is also important to realize that the terms
including the permeability and the viscosity represent a flow resistance in
Darcy’s law. Thus the resistance for the liquid phase may be denoted:
l
R Darcy ,l 
k rel ,l K
(4)
The relative permeability of the liquid phase depends on the volume fraction
of the liquid phase inside the porous media, termed liquid saturation s, according
to:
k rel ,l  s n
(5)
where s is the liquid saturation and n is a prescribed exponent. In this work we
apply a value of n=3.
The inverse of the property (/K)0.5 is known as the characteristic pore-radius
of the porous medium in question:

 
0 .5
1
rc  
K (6)
The Leverett J-function is typically of cubic nature, and our group has
previously argued that it must be closely related to the integrated pore-size
distribution (PSD), starting from the largest pores.
J S   1.417 S  2.120 S 2  1.263S 3 (7)
A schematic of the liquid pressure as function of the saturation level for two
different porous media is shown in Figure 3. For hydrophobic porous media the
liquid pressure exceeds the gas phase pressure and the capillary pressure is
negative.
Eqn. (3) also shows that different porous media have different capillary
pressure functions. In a fuel cell there are porous layers with different material
properties adjacent to each other. Because of the continuity of the pressure fields

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Figure 3: Expected liquid pressure curves for two types of porous media.

this leads to jump conditions for the liquid saturation across these interfaces.
These jump conditions occur for example at the interface between the catalyst
layer and the micro-porous layer as well as between the micro-porous layer and
the GDL. Figure 4 shows schematically the capillary pressure curves for two
different porous media and the arising jump in the liquid water saturation caused
by the continuity in the capillary pressure across such an interface.

Figure 4: Capillary pressure versus saturation for two different material

types.

While the above equations are sufficient to describe the capillary liquid water
transport through the various porous layers in a fuel cell including the interface
conditions, an important question still concerns the boundary condition for the
liquid phase at the interface between the porous GDL/PTL and the gas flow
channel.
In contrast to specifying fixed values for the capillary pressure or saturation at
the GDL/channel interface our group has suggested to specify the liquid pressure
gradient based on the Hagen-Poiseuille equation which relates the liquid phase
velocity to the pressure gradient according to:

1 rc2 1 K  1
Ul    p l     p l
8 l 8    l (8)

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In this equation Ul denotes the intrinsic velocity which is related to the

superficial velocity in the through-plane direction according to:
Vl A pores  v l A y
(9)
where Vl is now the intrinsic velocity component in the y-direction of the liquid
phase described by the Hagen-Poiseuille equation and vl is the superficial
velocity component that corresponds to the velocity field that CFX-4 calculates.
Combining the last two equations yields:
A pores n pores    rc2   K  1 pl
2

vl  Vl  Vl  n pores
  
Ay Ay 8     l y
(10)
In above equation the number of pores in the cell area in y-direction Ay is related
to the number of pores per unit area according to:
n pores  n pores
 Ay
(11)
where npores is the number of “active” pores in the control volume under
consideration, and a control volume is a volume element in the numerical grid of
the CFD model. The area of the control volume in the y-direction is denoted Ay,
and we are only considering those volume elements located inside the GDL
adjacent to the flow channels.
Eqn. (10) denotes again the liquid flow velocity as function of a resistance
and the driving pressure gradient, and the resistance is in this case:

1 8 
2

R H . P .    
n pores
  K l
(12)
Hence we have described two resistances, the Darcian resistance which
depends on the liquid saturation and the Hagen-Poiseuille resistance which
depends on the number of active sites per unit area. This resistance is only
invoked at the GDL/channel interface in order to capture the experimental
observation that the liquid phase enters the channel through a number of open,
“active” pores that are the same over a wide range of operating conditions. A
comparison of the order of magnitude of the Darcian resistance to the Hagen-
Poiseuille resistance is shown in Figure 5. The porosity in this case is  = 75%
and the dry permeability of K = 1 Darcy = 10-12 m2. According to Eqn. (5) the
Darcy resistance also depends on the exponent in the relative permeability, while
the overall resistance in the Hagen-Poiseuille expression depends on the number
of active sites for unit area which is in the order of 106 m-2.
In our code the Hagen-Poiseuille resistance is only implemented for the last
layer of fibres between the GDL and the flow channel. In the interior we
consider Darcian resistance only. When we consider the flow exiting through the
last pore we need to estimate the length of these pores on order to obtain the
expected pressure drop. The carbon fibres of the GDL typically have a diameter
of 7–10 m, and so we estimated the pore length for the Hagen-Poiseuille flow to

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Figure 5: Comparison between the Hagen-Poiseuille and Darcian resistance.

be lp = 4 m. In a pore network model this properties typically call the “throat
length”.
In our CFD code we need to combine both resistances due to the fact that the
cell height of the control volumes in our numerical grid at the GDL/channel
interface is larger than the outlet pore height, which we may leave adjustable.
Hence we need to account for a Darcian resistance and a resistance at the outlet
pores in the same control volume, where the superficial velocity as calculated by
the CFD code is the same in both resistance regions, but the pressure drops are
additive and combine to yield the pressure gradient as calculated by the CFD
code.
Denoting the height of the control volume dyc yields for the Darcian part:
1 p l , Darcy , y
vl 
R Darcy , y dy c  l p 
(13)
The height of the control volume depends on the grid size and typically
ranges around 20 – 30 m. The Hagen-Poiseuille equation applies to the pore
height lp and yields:
1 p l , H  P , y
vl 
RH  P, y lp
(14)
The pressure drops are additive to yield the pressure drop over the entire
control volume according to:

p l , y  p l , Darcy , y  p l , H  P , y
(15)
Finally it holds for the superficial velocity:

1 p l , y
vl 
Rint, y dy c
(16)

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where Rint,y is now the combined resistance at the GDL/channel interface as it is

implemented in our CFD model. This can be expressed as function of the partial
resistances due to Darcy and Hagen-Poiseuille:
Rint, y  ...  1  l p dy c R Darcy  l p dy c R H  P
(17)

Figure 6: Local resistances inside the porous layers and numerical grid.

Figure 6 shows schematically the numerical grid of the cathode porous layers
and gas flow channel and the resistance terms implemented. As described above
the resistance due to the Hagen-Poiseuille equation is only implemented at the
control volume of the GDL that are adjacent to the gas flow channel.

3 Model results
Clearly the complete model is much more complex than described above as it
also contains multi-species flow at the cathode and anode side, heat transfer
including phase change, electrochemical reactions and water transport through
the electrolyte membrane. However, in this study we want to focus on the
description of the liquid phase transport through the porous media by capillary
action.
The model was applied to study the behaviour of a PEMFC operating at a
current density of 0.4 A/cm2. The cell temperature is 353 K and the operating
pressure is 1.5 atm (total) at the outlet. Both the air at the cathode and the
hydrogen at the anode are humidified to 75% RH at the inlet, and the
stoichiometric flow ratio is 3 at both anode and cathode side. In a previous study
we have found that the specific surface area of the electrolyte phase in the CLs is
very important for the overall water balance [10]. In this study we have
employed a value of 5.0104 m2/m3, which is comparatively low and ensures that
the cathode side becomes flooded, which is essential for this study. Because the
primary focus of the current study is the role of the boundary condition for the

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liquid phase at the GDL/channel interface, the main parameter that was varied in
this study is the number of active sites per unit area nact”.
The important material properties applied inside the porous media are
summarized in Table 1. The fact that all porous regions were assigned different
material properties leads to a jump condition for the liquid saturation according
to Figure 4. The effective contact angle that is used to calculate the capillary
pressure was  = 120º for all porous regions. Of note is that this value only
applies to the hydrophobic pores while the hydrophilic pore fraction is included
in the irreducible saturation.

Table 1: Material parameters of the different porous regions.

Porous Porosity In-plane Through-plane Irreducible

Region permeability permeability saturation
[-] [m2] [m2] [-]
CL 75% 1.E-12 1.E-12 0.3
MPL 75% 1.E-12 1.E-12 0.2
GDL 75% 20 E-12 10 E-12 0.2

For the sake of brevity we can only show a few results. Figures 7–9 show the
predicted liquid saturation inside the porous media at the cathode side at mid-
channel (the total channel length investigated is 25 mm). The results have been
mirrored in the postprocessor for better visualization. The difference in these
cases is only the variation in the number of active pores per unit area nact”.
Figure 7 is for the case of a non-modified boundary condition, where the pore
length lpore has been set to zero in our code which means that the standard Darcy
resistance has not been modified. Figures 8 and 9 are for the case of nact” =
10106 and nact” = 1106, respectively. The visualization results as published by
Zhang et al. [8] show that these are realistic values. The results indicate no
discernible effect between the cases of having no additional resistance and
having nact” = 10106, i.e. 10 active sites per mm2. For an active site density of
1106 there is a noticeable increase in liquid saturation, i.e. the boundary
condition has an impact on the predicted modelling results. Of note is that the
number of active sites per unit area was observed to be in exactly this region, i.e.
around 1–10 mm-2 [8].
Figures 10–12 show the predicted liquid saturation inside the porous GDL in a
cut close to the channel interface. Hence the liquid volume fraction under the
channel area and under the land area of fuel cell can be seen. Again the main
differences can be observed between the case of nact” = 10106 and nact” =
1106, hence in the physically realistic regime. Reducing the number of active
sites per unit area leads to an increase in flow resistance for the liquid phase in
the through-plane direction. Hence the water spreads out more in the in-plane
direction. In any case we observe that the boundary condition as we have
implemented it does have an impact on the modelling results. Gerteisen et al.
[11] have found that drilling holes into the GDL to release the liquid water can
stabilize the cell performance.

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308 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

Figure 7: Predicted liquid saturation inside the cathode side porous media at
mid-channel for the case of the “standard” boundary condition
(lpore=0 m).

Figure 8: Predicted liquid saturation inside the cathode side porous media at
mid-channel for the case of nact”= 10 mm-2.

Figure 9: Predicted liquid saturation inside the cathode side porous media at
mid-channel for the case of nact”= 1 mm-2.

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Figure 10: Predicted liquid saturation inside the cathode GDL close to the
channel interface for the case of the “standard” boundary condition
(lpore=0 m).

Figure 11: Predicted liquid saturation inside the cathode GDL close to the
channel interface for the case of nact”= 10 mm-2.

Figure 12: Predicted liquid saturation inside the cathode GDL close to the
channel interface for the case of nact”= 1 mm-2.

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4 Conclusions
We have proposed a novel boundary condition for the liquid phase at the
GDL/channel interface of a PEM fuel cell. This boundary condition is based on
the experimental observation that there are only a few pores per mm2 that release
the liquid water, and this means that the frequently use Darcy approach may not
be applicable for this flow regime. Instead, we have utilized the Hagen-Poiseuille
equation to describe the pressure drop across the outlet pores. This was
implemented as an additional resistance for the liquid phase at the channel/GDL
boundary. First simulations indicate that this boundary condition has a
significant impact on the predicted liquid saturation inside the porous media.
This is in good accord with experimental observations. More work is needed to
fully understand and quantitatively verify this effect.

References
[1] Sinha, P. K. & Wang, C.-Y.: Pore-network modeling of liquid water
transport in gas diffusion layer of a polymer electrolyte fuel cell,
Electrochimica Acta, 52 (2007) 7936-7945.
[2] Berning, T. & Djilali, N.: A 3D, multiphase, multicomponent model of the
cathode and anode of a PEM fuel cell, J. Electrochem. Soc. 150 (2003)
A1589-A1598.
[3] Natarajan, D. & Nguyen, T. V.: Three-dimensional effects of liquid water
flooding in the cathode of a PEM fuel cell, J. Power Sources 115 (2003) 66.
[4] Meng, H. & Wang, C.-Y.: Model of two-phase flow and flooding dynamics
in polymer electrolyte fuel cells, J. Electrochem. Soc. 152 (2005) A1733-
A1741.
[5] Gurau, V., Zawodzinski, T. A. & Mann J. A.: Two-phase transport in PEM
fuel cell cathodes, J. Fuel Cell Science and Technology 5 (2008) 021009.
[6] Weber, A. Z. & Newman, J.: Effects of microporous layers in polymer
electrolyte fuel cells, J. Electrochem. Soc. 152 (2005) A677-A688.
[7] Berning, T., Odgaard, M. & Kær, S.: A computational analysis of multi-
phase flow through the porous media of a PEMFC cathode using the multi-
fluid approach, J. Electrochem. Soc. 156 (2009) B1301.
[8] Zhang, F. Y., Yang, X. G. & Wang, C.-Y.: Liquid water removal from a
polymer electrolyte fuel cell, J. Electrochem. Soc. 153 (2006) A225-A232.
[9] Nam, J. H. & Kaviany, M.: Effective diffusivity and water-saturation
distribution in single- and two-layer PEMFC diffusion medium, Int. J. Heat
Mass Transfer 46 (2003) 4595-4611.
[10] Berning, T., Odgaard, M. & Kær, S.: Water Balance Simulations of a PEM
Fuel Cell Using a Two-Fluid Model, ECS Trans. 33 (2010) 1503-1513.
[11] Gerteisen, D., Heilmann, T. & Ziegler, C.: Enhancing liquid water transport
by laser perforation of a GDL in a PEM fuel cell, J. Power Sources 177
(2008) 348.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 311

Capillary trapping of supercritical CO2 in

porous media at the pore scale
T. Suekane, T. Izumi & K. Okada
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
The University of Tokushima, Japan

Abstract
Carbon dioxide capture and storage in geological formations is recognized as a
promising method for decoupling fossil fuel use and carbon emissions. Carbon
dioxide injected into geological formations is expected to be trapped by several
mechanisms against buoyancy. In this paper, we focused on capillary rapping.
Trapped bubbles in packed beds of glass beads were visualized by means of
micro-focused X-ray CT at pore scale for supercritical CO2 and water systems at
reservoir condition and for nitrogen and water systems at laboratory room
condition. When the diameter of glass beads is the same, distribution of volume
of trapped bubbles is similar for each condition. At the pressure of 8.5MPa and
the temperature of 45ºC, which corresponds to just above a critical point, the
morphology of the interface between the supercritical CO2 and water suggests
that CO2 is non-wetting to glass beads. Residual gas saturation increases with a
decrease in a diameter of glass beads, because the capillary pressure is higher
with respect to buoyancy. Residual gas saturation can be expressed as a function
of the reverse Bond number for each condition. Distribution of trapped bubble
volume is identical with each other for each condition at same diameter of glass
beads. The large trapped bubbles contribute to the residual gas saturation.
Keywords: capillary trapping, residual gas saturation, supercritical CO2,
micro-focused X-ray CT, carbon dioxide capture and storage.

1 Introduction
The geological storage of anthropogenic greenhouse gases to mitigate climate
change is recognized as a means to reduce emissions to the atmosphere and the

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312 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

related impacts as a result of continues use of fossil fuels. Deep saline aquifers
and depleted oil and gas reservoirs are potential subsurface deposits for CO2 [1].
In geological formations, because of hydrostatic pressure and a geothermal
gradient, pressure and temperature increase with depth. The critical condition of
CO2 (304 K and 7.38 MPa) is reached at a depth of approximately 700 m, where
CO2 density increases rapidly. However, the specific gravity of supercritical CO2
at the condition which corresponds to the depths of 1000-3000m is about 0.7.
Therefore, buoyancy brings CO2 upwards. On the other hand, four trapping
mechanisms have been identified [1]: structural trapping, capillary trapping,
solubility trapping and mineralization trapping. CO2 injected into the geological
formations is expected to be stored by these trapping mechanisms for long time.
During a storage period, each trapping mechanism changes relative weight
increasing security and stability of storage [2–4].
The mechanism of capillary trapping can be explained as follows from the
pore-scale point of view. CO2 is injected into geological formation by replacing
saline water forming a large continuous plume. After the CO2 injection has
stopped, saline water imbibes back into the formation. During this imbibition
process, a continuous CO2 plume is disconnected to form CO2 bubbles of which
volume is in the order of the pore of porous rock. At the pore-scale capillary
pressure acting on a CO2 bubble is expected to be greater than buoyancy and/or
viscous force. As a result, CO2 bubbles are eventually trapped in porous media.
Capillary rapping has some advantages. Firstly, it plays an important role from
the early stage of CO2 storage. Secondly, it is capable of storing a large amount
of CO2 per unit volume of the formation [5].
As capillary trapping has been receiving growing attention, residual CO2
saturation has been investigated experimentally in laboratory core-flooding
experiments [5–9]. Because the capillary trapping takes place for a CO2 bubble
at pore-scale, microscopic approaches are taken to investigate its mechanism
[10–13]. X-ray computed microtomography has provided a tool for the non-
destructive investigation of the three-dimensional microstructure of porous
media. Non-destructive direct imaging approaches are attractive because they
provide not only a detailed and unique description of the pore-space geometry
but also fluid flow within them [14–22]. The X-ray microtomography has been
also applied to investigation of CO2 trapping in porous media [5, 10, 12, 13].
The objective of this article is to study residual gas trapping in packed beds of
glass beads at pore scale. A number of gas trapping experiments are conducted
with supercritical CO2 at elevated pressure and temperature and with nitrogen
with room condition for various diameters of packing spheres. Characteristics of
residual gas trapping of supercritical CO2 are discussed comparing images
obtained with nitrogen at the pore scale. The residual gas saturation has been
analysed using the Bond number, which denotes the ratio of the buoyancy to the
capillary pressure.

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2 Experimental methodology and equipment

2.1 Dimensionless parameters and experimental conditions

A bubble of non-wetting phase in porous media is under the influence of

capillary force, buoyancy and viscous pressure gradient. The ratios of gravity to
capillary forces and viscous to capillary forces are expressed as dimensionless
groups, known respectively as the Bond number, Bo, and capillary number
Ca [23]:

Bo 
 w   n gR 2 (1)

 wu w
Ca  (2)

where, ρ is density, g is acceleration due to gravity, R is particle radius, σ is
interfacial tension, µ is viscosity, u is displacing fluid velocity, and subscripts w
and n denote wetting phase and non-wetting phase, respectively.
Experimental conditions are summarized in Table 1. Experiments of capillary
trapping were carried out at two conditions. One is the condition of the pressure of
8.5 MPa and the temperature of 45ºC which corresponds to the depth of
approximately 850 m. At this condition, CO2 is in a supercritical state. The other is
normal laboratory room condition where we used nitrogen as a non-wetting phase
instead of CO2 to reduce the dissolution in water. Interfacial tension between
supercritical CO2 and water is about half of that between nitrogen and water in
laboratory room condition. Because of high density of supercritical CO2 with
respect to nitrogen, buoyancy also is lower for supercritical CO2. As a result, the
Bond number falls in similar range for glass beads radius of 50–300 µm.

Table 1: Experimental conditions [24–26].

Interfacial Capillary Bond

Viscosity Density
tension number number
µ [µPa·s] ρ [kg/m3] σ [mN/m] Ca [-] Bo [-]
Reservoir
scCO2 20 259.6
condition 1.0 ×10-5 5.0 ×10-4
35.7
(45ºC, - 4.0 ×10-5 - 1.8 ×10-2
H2O 600 993.9
8.5MPa)
Lab. room
N2 17.87 1.123
condition 3.4 ×10-4
72.6 1.0 ×10-6
(20ºC, - 1.2 ×10-2
H2O 1062 996.7
0.1MPa)

2.2 Experimental setup and procedure

Residual gas trapping has been investigated at the microscopic level using a
micro-focused X-ray CT scanner (Comscantechno Co. ScanXmate-RB090SS).
The magnification ratio of X-ray CT scanners depends on the ratio of the

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distance between the X-ray detector and the X-ray source, and that between an
object and the X-ray source. When a packed bed with a low diameter is placed
close to the X-ray source, highly magnified images can be achieved.
Two types of packed bed of glass beads were used for the experiments. One is
designed to elevate temperature and pressure which correspond to the reservoir
at the depth of about 850 m as shown in Fig. 1a. Glass beads were packed in a
titanium tube with inner and outer diameter of 3 mm and 4 mm which could
resist pressure up to 20 MPa. The packed bed made of titanium tube was placed
in an acrylic resin pipe with outer diameter of 14 mm, where water was
circulated to adjust temperature. The other is a simple packed bed used for the
experiments at room temperature and pressure. Glass beads were packed in an
acrylic resin tube with inner diameter of 10 mm at the height of about 40 mm.
The packed bed was vertically aligned in the X-ray CT scanner. The
experimental set-up for high pressure and temperature experiments is shown in
Fig. 1b. First, the structure of a backed bed was scanned at dry condition. Next,
water was injected vertically upwards. At the same time, pressure was increased
to be 8.5 MPa by an automatic back pressure regulator, while temperature was
controlled to be 45ºC by water circulation. After water injection stopped, a
syringe pump forced liquid CO2 into piping at the flow rate of 1.0 ml/min. to
establish the condition of irreducible water saturation. In piping, the CO2 was
heated to a supercritical state of 45ºC before arriving at the packed bed. Finally,

automatic back pressure regulator

p

water
X-ray CT reservoir
p

cell
siphon
NaI syringe pump

p s

thermostatic
bath
safety valve
water delivery pump
CO 2

water
reservoir CO 2 syringe pump
(a) (b)

Figure 1: Pressure cell (a) and experimental setup (b) for elevated pressure
and temperature.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 315

water was injected into the packed bed at a constant flow rate which corresponds
to the capillary number in the range between 1.0 × 10-5 and 4.0 × 10-5. Water was
saturated with CO2 in advance in order to reduce dissolution of supercritical CO2
in the packed bed. Between each process, the packed bed was scanned by X-ray
CT.
In the case of a simple packed bed, experiments were carried out at laboratory
room temperature and pressure. Nitrogen was used for a gas phase to prevent the
dissolution of gas in water. Water was injected into the packed bed at the flow
rate of 0.322 ml/min. which corresponds to the capillary number of 1.0 × 10-6.
Water used in the experiments for both packed beds was doped with sodium
iodide (NaI) at 7.5 wt% to enhance attenuation of X-ray. Reconstructed three-
dimensional images consist of 608 × 608 × 610 pixels at a resolution of 12.66
µm/pixel and 24.91µm/pixel for experiments in reservoir condition and
laboratory room condition, respectively, in all directions.

3 Results and discussion

Distribution of trapped bubbles in packed bed of glass beads with a diameter of
200 µm is shown in Fig. 2. The residual gas saturation was 16% and 20% for
reservoir and laboratory room conditions, respectively. In the case of nitrogen at
laboratory room condition, trapped gas bubbles distribute uniformly throughout
the packed bed as shown in Fig. 2b. The size of trapped gas bubbles changes
from a small bubble which locates at the centre of single pore to a large bubble
which spreads over several pores. The interface between nitrogen and water
suggests that nitrogen is perfectly non-wetting to glass beads. In the case of

(a) (b)

Figure 2: Distribution of trapped gas bubbles in packed bed of glass beads

with the diameter of 200 µm in reservoir condition (a) and
laboratory room condition (b).

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316 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

supercritical CO2 at reservoir condition, the size of trapped bubbles changes also
in the same range with the nitrogen case. The interface between supercritical
CO2 and water suggests that supercritical CO2 is non-wetting to glass beads at
this condition (45ºC, 8.5MPa) that is close to a critical point. Pentland et al. [9]
has been reported that the contact angle of the interface between supercritical
CO2 and de-ionized water increases with a pressure increase up to 40 MPa.
Figure 2a visualizes glass beads and CO2 bubbles in a cylindrical region with the
diameter of 3 mm inside of a titanium tube. In the region close to the outer edge,
surfaces of glass beads are hard to recognize, because of artefacts caused by a
titanium tube.
Based on the CT images, residual gas saturation, which is defined as volume
ratio of trapped bubbles to pore, is evaluated for each experiment as shown in
Fig. 3. With a decrease in the diameter of glass beads, residual gas saturation
increases for both conditions, because capillary pressure tends to be higher
compared to buoyancy. Even though the capillary number at laboratory room
condition is about one order of magnitude lower than that at reservoir condition,
residual saturation can be expressed with simple relationship with the inverse
Bond number.
40 40
Residual gas saturation [%]
Residual gas saturation [%]

gasN2
30 scCO2 30

20 20

10 10 gasN2
scCO2
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 1000 2000 3000
Grain diameter [m] Inverse Bond number [-]

(a) (b)

Figure 3: Residual gas saturation vs. diameter of glass beads (a) and the
inverse bond number (b) for reservoir and laboratory room
conditions.

The volume of each trapped bubble was evaluated by three-dimensional

image analysis software ImageJ [27, 28] with some plug-ins based on CT images
such as shown in Fig. 2. The volume of trapped bubble is normalized with the
volume of glass beads as shown in Fig. 4. In the packed bed of glass beads with
the diameter of 600 µm, it is rare to find large trapped bubbles which spread over
several pores for both conditions, because of buoyancy. Therefore, the residual
gas saturation is lower for this packed bed. On the other hand, in the packed beds
of fine glass beads the volume of some trapped bubbles is more than ten times
higher than that of glass breads. As a result, the residual gas saturation is higher
for these packed beds.

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 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI 317

104
gasN 2
103

Nomalized volume [-]

scCO2
102
101
100
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
0 200 400 600 800
Grain diameter [m]

Figure 4: Distribution of the volume of trapped gas bubbles.

Contribution of gas bubbles in each volume range to residual gas saturation is

shown in Fig. 5 for packed beds with various diameters of glass beads. The
larger trapped bubbles contribute the more to the residual gas saturation for each
condition and for each diameter of glass beads. With a decrease in the diameter
of glass beads, much larger trapped bubbles contribute to the residual gas
saturation for each condition.

100 30
100m
Volume fraction [ % ]
Volume fraction [ % ]

80 100m
200m 200m
400m 20 400m
60 600m 600m

40
10
20

0 0
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
Nomalized volume [ - ] Nomalized volume [ - ]

(a) (b)

Figure 5: Contribution to residual gas saturation as a function of the volume

of each bubble at reservoir condition (a) and laboratory room
condition (b).

4 Conclusions
Trapped bubbles in packed beds of glass beads were visualized by means of
micro-focused X-ray CT at pore scale for supercritical CO2 and water systems at
reservoir condition and for nitrogen and water systems at laboratory room
condition. When the diameter of glass beads is same, distribution of volume of
trapped bubbles is similar for each condition. At the pressure of 8.5MPa and the
temperature of 45ºC, which corresponds to just above a critical point, the
morphology of the interface between the supercritical CO2 and water suggests

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318 Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow VI

that CO2 is non-wetting to glass beads. Residual gas saturation increases with a
decrease in a diameter of glass beads, because the capillary pressure is higher
with respect to buoyancy. Residual gas saturation can be expressed as a function
of the reverse Bond number for each condition. Distribution of trapped bubble
volume is identical with each other for each condition at same diameter of glass
beads. The large trapped bubbles contribute to the residual gas saturation.

References
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[4] Bachu, S., CO2 storage in geological media: role, means, status and barriers
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Blunt, M.J., Measurements of non-wetting phase trapping applied to carbon
dioxide storage. Intern. J. Greenhouse Gas Control, 4, pp. 283-288, 2010.
[9] Pentland C.H., El-Maghraby, R., Georgiadis, A., Iglauer, & Blunt, M.J.,
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at International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies
(GHGT-10), Amsterdam, Netherland, 2010.
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visualization of gas trapping in porous media by X-ray CT scanning. Flow
Measurement and Instrumentation, 21, pp. 262-267, 2010.

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[11] Suekane, T., Zhou, N., Hosokawa, T. & Matsumoto, T., Direct observation
of gas bubbles trapped in sandy porous media. Transport in Porous Media,
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Author Index
Abdolahpour M. ....................... 253 Magnini M. ................................ 69
Alexandrikova T. ....................... 41 Mahinpey N. ................................ 3
Anderson M. .............................. 17 Melaaen M. C. ................. 141, 189
Astruc A. .................................. 107 Mendes F. A. A........................ 271
Meredith K. V. ......................... 239
Banerjee J. ............................... 213 Min J. K. .................................... 29
Berning T. ................................ 299 Moulin F. ................................. 107
Brandstätter W. ........................ 261
Buzas K.................................... 117 Naseer M. ................................ 261

Cazin S..................................... 107 Okada K. .................................. 311

Chatoorgoon V........................... 81
Chernoray V. ........................... 153 Park I. S. .................................... 29
Conroy J. .................................... 17 Pavlov A. ................................... 41
Pereira C. C. ............................ 227
de Castro M. S. ........................ 227 Pirker S. ..................................... 57
de Vries J. ................................ 239 Porto R. M. ................................ 95
dos Santos J. N......................... 227 Pouya A. .................................. 287
Pulvirenti B. ............................... 69
Esmaili E...................................... 3
Estevam V................................ 271 Rautenbach C................... 141, 189
Rodriguez O. M. H. ......... 227, 271
Fritsching U. ............................ 201
Roshan R. ................................ 253
Fsadni A. M. ............................ 165

Ge Y. T. ................................... 165 Sarkardeh H. ............................ 253

Groll R. .................................... 129 Schellander D. ........................... 57
Schuettenberg S. ...................... 201
Halvorsen B. M. ....... 141, 177, 189 Schulz H. E. ............................... 95
Seyedi D. ................................. 287
Izumi T. ................................... 311 Simões A. L. A. ......................... 95
Stark P. .................................... 201
Jahanmiri M. ............................ 153 Streltsov V. ................................ 41
Jayarathna C. K. ............... 177, 189 Suekane T. ............................... 311
Joly A....................................... 107
Jorabloo M. .............................. 253 Truman C. R. ............................. 17

Kær S. K. ................................. 299 Vaze M. J. ................................ 213

Kahrimanovic D......................... 57 Violeau D................................. 107
Karches T. ................................ 117 Vorobieff P. ............................... 17
Kumar S. .................................... 17 Vu M. N. .................................. 287

Lamers A. G. ........................... 165 White R...................................... 17

Lim C. J. ...................................... 3
Lopes D.................................... 271 Xin Y. ...................................... 239
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 ...for scientists by scientists

Dam-break Problems, Solutions and Case Studies

Edited by: D. DE WRACHIEN, State University of Milan, Italy and S. MAMBRETTI,
Politecnico di Milano, Italy

This book provides an up-to-date review on dam-break problems, along with

the main theoretical background and the practical aspects involved in dam
failures, design of flood defense structures, prevention measures and the
environmental, social, economic and forensic aspects related to the topic.
Moreover, an exhaustive range of laboratory tests and modelling techniques is
explored to deal effectively with shock waves and other disasters caused by
dam failures.
Disaster management refers to programs and strategies designed to prevent,
mitigate, prepare for, respond to and recover from the effects of these phenomena.
To manage and minimise these risks, it is necessary to identify hazards and
vulnerability by means of a deep knowledge of the causes that lead to dam
failures, and to understand the flow propagation process.
Knowledge and advanced scientific tools play a role of paramount importance
in coping with flooding and other dam-break problems along with capacity-
building in the context of political and administrative frameworks. All these
aspects are featured in the book, which is a comprehensive treatise that covers
the most theoretical and advanced aspects of structural and hydraulic engineering,
together with the hazard assessment and mitigation measures and the social,
economic and forensic aspects related to the subject.
ISBN: 978-1-84564-142-9 eISBN: 978-1-84564-384-3
Published 2009 / 368pp / £140.00
 ...for scientists by scientists

Fluid Structure Interaction VI

Edited by: C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK, A.J. KASSAB, University of
Central Florida, USA and E. DIVO, University of Central Florida, USA

This book comprises contributions on new developments in fluid structure

interaction problems, presented at the sixth in a successful series of biennial
conferences that began in 2001. The international experts assembled at the
conference will discuss a variety of topics, including: Fluid Pipeline Interactions;
Structure Response to Severe Shock and Blast; Hydrodynamic Forces; Acoustics
and Noise; Computational Methods; Response of Structures including Fluid
Dynamics; Flow Induced Vibrations; Experimental Studies and Validation;
Bioengineering Applications; Offshore Structures and Pipelines; Subsea
Systems; Soil Structure Interaction.
WIT Transactions on the Built Environment, Vol 115
ISBN: 978-1-84564-512-0 eISBN: 978-1-84564-513-7
Forthcoming 2011 / apx 400pp / apx £152.00

WIT eLibrary
Home of the Transactions of the Wessex
Institute, the WIT electronic-library provides
the international scientific community with
immediate and permanent access to
individual papers presented at WIT
conferences. Visitors to the WIT eLibrary can
freely browse and search abstracts of all
papers in the collection before progressing
to download their full text.

Visit the WIT eLibrary at

http://library.witpress.com
 ...for scientists by scientists

Advances in Fluid Mechanics VIII

Edited by: M. RAHMAN, Dalhousie University, Canada and C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute
of Technology, UK

This book discusses the basic formulations of fluid mechanics and their
computer modelling, as well as the relationship between experimental and
analytical results. Containing papers from the Eighth International Conference
on Advances in Fluid Mechanics, the book will be a seminal text to scientists,
engineers and other professionals interested in the latest developments in
theoretical and computational fluid mechanics.
The conference covered a wide range of topics, with emphasis on new
applications and research currently in progress, which include: Computational
Methods; Experimental Measurements; Hydrodynamics; Fluid Structure
Interaction; Multiphase Flow; Applications in Biology; Electronic Components
Cooling.
WIT Transactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 69
ISBN: 978-1-84564-476-5 eISBN: 978-1-84564-477-2
Published 2010 / 608pp / £231.00

Mechanics of Real Fluids

Edited by M. RAHMAN, Dalhousie University, Canada

This book on an important area of applied mathematics is a compendium of

the work of many pioneering authors and of research works from throughout
the author’s career. It explains theory clearly and provides applications. It is
intended to provide background for young scientists and graduate students
as well as applied mathematicians and professional engineers.
ISBN-13: 978-1-84564-502-1 eISBN: 978-1-84564-503-8
Forthcoming 2011 / apx 240pp / apx £89.00

All prices correct at time of going to press but

subject to change.
WIT Press books are available through your
bookseller or direct from the publisher.
 ...for scientists by scientists

Monitoring, Simulation, Prevention and Remediation of

Dense and Debris Flows III
Edited by: D. DE WRACHIEN, State University of Milan, Italy and C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex
Institute of Technology, UK

Due to the increased frequency with which debris and hyper-concentrated flows
occur and the impact they have on both the environment and human life, these
extreme events and related processes have attracted increasing attention from
research groups and land planning and management professionals. A full
understanding of these phenomena leads to an integrated risk management
approach which provides measures for preventing a hazard turning into a natural
disaster. A series of meetings provides a forum for engineers, scientists and
managers from laboratories, industry, government and academia to interchange
knowledge and expertise in the field of dense and hyper-concentrated flows.
This book contains papers from the Third International Conference on Debris
Flow. Papers have been grouped into the following subject areas: Debris Flow
Modelling; Debris Flow Triggering; Risk Assessment and Hazard Mitigation;
and Sediment Transport and Debris Flow Monitoring and Analysis.
WIT Transactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 67
ISBN: 978-1-84564-442-0 eISBN: 978-1-84564-443-7
Published 2010 / 288pp / £109.00

WITPress
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