Osmosis
• spontaneous process
• diffusion of water across a semi-
permeable membrane
• semi-permeable membrane
allows passage of solvent but not
solute
Osmosis
• movement of solvent from lower
solute concentration to higher
solute concentration
• movement of solvent from
higher solvent concentration to
lower solvent concentration
Osmosis
Osmotic Pressure
• Pressure required to stop
osmosis
• depends on the number of
solute particles
Non-electrolytes – molecules
Electrolytes – ions
Solutions to be mixed with body
fluid should have the same
osmotic pressure. WHY?
for greater comfort
efficacy
safety
Body
fluids:
Osmotic
pressure
0.9%
NaCl
• blood solution
• lachrymal fluid
Iso-osmotic
- solutions which have the same
osmotic pressure
- solute can diffuse through
biological membrane
Isotonic
- solutions which have the same
osmotic pressure and tone
- implies biological compatibility
Ex.
1.9% w/v H3BO3 solution
• iso-osmotic with blood and
lachrymal fluid
• isotonic with lachrymal fluid
H3BO3 can pass freely through
the erythrocyte membrane
regardless of concentration which
causes hemolysis.
Solution types relative to a cell:
Isotonic –solute concentration
of solution equal to that of cell
Hypotonic - solute concentration
of solution lower than cell
Hypertonic- solute concentration
of solution higher than of cell
Hemolysis Crenation
METHODS OF ADJUSTING
SOLUTION TO ISOTONICITY
Class I:
A. Cryoscopic Method
B. Sodium chloride equivalent Method
Class II:
A. White-Vincent Method
B. Sprowl’s Method
Cryoscopic Method
• Freezing point of human blood and
lachrymal fluid = - 0.52°C
• for hypotonic solution (Tf above - 0.52°C);
add therapeutically active solute such as
NaCl, dextrose, KNO3, H3BO3
•For hypertonic solution
(Tf below - 0.52°C);
dilute the solution
Cryoscopic Method
Procedure:
1. Find the difference between the
freezing point depression (ΔTf or ‘D’ in °C) of
the drug and the body fluid.
2. Calculate the amount of NaCl
needed to render the solution
isotonic based on the ΔTf or ‘D’
of a 0.9% NaCl solution.
NaCl Equivalent Method
NaCl Equivalent (‘E’)
– the weight in gram of NaCl that will
produce the same osmotic effect as 1 g of
the drug
Ex. E of H3BO3 = 0.52
0.52 g of NaCl will
produce the same osmotic
effect as 1 g of H3BO3
Calculate the NaCl Equivalent
of a Drug
MW NaCl i subs.
E X
i NaCl MW subs.
KCl is a 2-ion electrolyte dissociating 80% in a
certain concentration. Calculate its dissociation
value (i).
80 K+ ion
80 Cl- ion
20 undissociated particles
180 particles represent 1.8 times as many
particles as there were before dissociation, i = 1.8
ZnCl2 is a 3-ion electrolyte dissociating 80%
in a certain concentration. Calculate its
dissociation value (i).
80 Zn+ + ion
80 Cl- ion
80 Cl- ion
20 undissociated particles
260 particles represent 2.6 times as
many particles as there were before
dissociation, i = 2.6
Dissociation values (i)
Non-electrolytes 1.0
Electrolytes (2 –ion) 1.8
Electrolytes (3 –ion) 2.6
Electrolytes (4 –ion) 3.4
Electrolytes (5 –ion) 4.2
Papaverine HCl (MW 376) is a 2-ion
electrolyte dissociating 80% in a given
concentration. Calculate its NaCl equivalent.
value (i).
MW NaCl i subs.
E X
i NaCl MW subs.
58.5 1.8
E X
1.8 376
E 0.156
NaCl Equivalent Method
Procedure:
1. Calculate the amount of NaCl represented
by the ingredients in the Rx.
Amount of the ingredient X its E
2. Calculate the amount of NaCl represented
an isotonic solution based on the volume
specified in the Rx.
0.009 X volume of Rx
NaCl Equivalent Method
3. Calculate the amount of NaCl to be added
to make an isotonic solution.
Step 2 – Step 1
4. If the agent to be used in adjusting the
solution is other than NaCl, divide the
amount of NaCl by the E of the other
substance.
amount of NaCl to be added
E of the other substance
1. A 500-mL solution of a drug (E = 0.21)
contains 3 g of the drug. How much sodium
chloride is needed to render the solution
isotonic?
a. Calculate the amount of NaCl represented
the 3 g of the drug.
Wt. of drug (g) x its E
= 3 g x 0.21 = 0.63g (wt. of NaCl that
exerts the same osmotic pressure as 3 g of
the drug)
c. Calculate for the amount of NaCl to be
added to make the Rx isotonic.
b – a = 4.5 – 0.63 = 3.87 g (wt. of NaCl
needed to make the 500- mL solution isotonic)
2. Rx Fluorouracil 1g
Sterile water qs ad 100 mL
M ft. topical solution
Calculate the amount of boric acid
needed to render the solution isotonic.
E of Fluorouracil = 0.18
E of Boric acid = 0.5
a. Calculate the amount of NaCl represented
the 1 g of the drug.
Wt. of drug (g) x its E
= 1 g x 0.18 = 0.18g (wt. of NaCl that
exerts the same osmotic pressure as 1 g of
Fluorouracil)
b. Calculate the amount of NaCl
represented in 100 mL of an isotonic
solution.
0.9 g (wt. of NaCl that should be present
in 100 mL of an isotonic solution)
c. Calculate for the amount of NaCl
needed to make the Rx isotonic.
b – a = 0.9 – 0.18 = 0.72 g (wt. of
NaCl needed to make the 100- mL
solution isotonic)
White - Vincent Method
• involves the addition of water to the drugs
to make an isotonic solution
• followed by the addition of an isotonic or
isotonic-buffered diluting solution to bring
the solution to final volume
• Example of isotonic or isotonic-buffered
diluting solution
Dextrose solution 5.6%
Sodium nitrate solution 1.3%
Isotonic NaCl solution USP
Sprowl’s Method
• A simplification of White-Vincent Method
where the weight of drug is fixed as 0.3 g
for one fluidounce of a 1% solution
followed by the addition of an isotonic or isotonic-
buffered diluting solution to bring the solution to final
volume
Example of isotonic or isotonic-buffered diluting
solution
Dextrose solution 5.6%
Sodium nitrate solution 1.3%
Isotonic NaCl solution
