Vector Spaces
Anisa Fathima
June 2019
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Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Vector Spaces 1
2.1 THEOREM : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 Examples of Vector Spaces 2
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1 Introduction
This chapter introduces the underlying structure of linear algebra, that of a
finite-dimensional vector [Link] definition of a vector space V, whose ele-
ments are called vectors, involves an arbitrary field K, whose elements are called
[Link] following notation will be used (unless otherwise stated or implied ):
V the given vector space
u,v,w vectors in V
K the given number field
a,b,c or K scalars in K
Almost nothing essential is lost if the reader assumes that K is the real field
R or the complex field C. The reader might suspect that the real line R has
’dimension’ one, the cartesian plane R2 has ’dimension’ two and the space R3
has the’ dimension’ [Link] chapter formalises the notion of ’dimension’ and
this definition will agree with the reader’s intuition. Throughout this text we
will use the following notation:
a ∈ A Element a belong to the set A
a,b ∈ A Elements a,b belong to the set A
∀x ∈ A For every x in A
∃x ∈ A There exists an x in A
A ⊆ B A is a subset of B
A ∩ B Intersection of A and B
A ∪ B Union of A and B
φ Empty Set
2 Vector Spaces
The following defines the notion of a vector space V where K is the field of
scalars.
DEFINITION:Let V be a non empty set with two operations:
1. Vector Addition: This assigns to any u, v ∈ V a sum u+v in v.
2. Scalar Multiplication: This assigns to any u ∈ V, k ∈ K a product ku
∈ V.
Then V is called a vector space (over the field K) if the following axioms hold
for any vectors u,v,w ∈ V.
[A1 ] (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
[A2 ] There is a vector in V, denoted by 0 and called the zero vector, such
that, for any u ∈ V,
u+0=0+u=u
[A3 ] For every u ∈ V, there is a vector in V, denoted by −u and called the
negative of u, such that,
u + (−u) = (−u) + u = 0
[A4 ] u + v = v + u
[M1 ] k(u + v) = ku + kv, for any scalar k ∈ K
[M2 ] (a + b)u = au + bu, for any scalars a,b ∈ K
[M3 ] (ab)u = a(bu), for any scalars a,b ∈ K
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[M4 ] 1u = u, for the unit scalar 1 ∈ K
The above axioms naturally split into two sets (as indicated by the labeling
of the axioms).The first four are concerned only with the additive structure of V
and can be summarized by saying V is a commutative group under [Link]
means
(a) Any sum v1 + v2 + v3 + ........vm of vectors requires no parentheses and
does not depend on the order of the summands.
(b) The zero vector 0 is unique ,and the negative −u of a vector u is unique.
(c) (Cancellation Law) If u + w = v + w , thenu = v.
Also, subtraction in V defined by u − v = u + (−v), where −v is the unoque
negative of v.
On the other hand , the remaining four axioms are concerned with the
”action” of the field K of scalars on the vector space V. Using these additional
axioms, we prove (Problem 4.2) the following simple properties of vector space.
2.1 THEOREM :
Let V be the vector space over a field K.
(i) For any scalar k ∈ K and 0 ∈ V, k0 = 0.
(ii) For 0 ∈ K and any vector u ∈ V, 0u = 0.
(iii) If ku = 0, where k ∈ K and u ∈ V, then k = 0 or u = 0.
(iv) For any k ∈ K and any u ∈ V, (−k)u = k(−u) = −ku.
3 Examples of Vector Spaces
This section lists important examples of vector spaces that will be used through-
out the text.
Space K n
Let K be any arbitrary field. The notation K n is frequently used to denote
the set of all n-tuples of elements in K. Here K n is a vector space over K using
the following operations:
(i) Vector Addition: (a1 , a2 , ...., an ) + (b1 , b2 , ...., bn ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 +
b2 , ...., an + bn )
(ii) Scalar Multiplication: k(a! , a2 , ...., an ) = (ka1 , ka2 , ...., kan )
The zero vectors in K n is the n-tuple of zeroes, 0 = (0, 0, ...., 0) and the
negative of a vector is defined by −(a1 , a2 , ...., an ) = (−a1 , −a2 , ...., −an )
Polynomial Space P(t)
Let P(t) denote the set of all polynomials of the form p(t) = a0 +a1 t+a2 t2 +
.... + as ts (s=1, 2, .....) where the coefficients of ai belong to a field K. Then
P(t) is a vector space over K using the following operations:
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(i) Vector Addition: Here p(t) + q(t) in P(t) is the usual operation of
addition of polynomials.
(ii) Scalar Multiplication: Here kp(t) in P(t) is the usual operation of
product of a scalar k and a polynomial p(t).
The zero polynomial 0 is the zero vector in P(t).
Polynomial Space Pn (t)
Let Pn (t) denote the set of all polynomials p(t) over a field K, where the
degree of p(t) is less than or equal to n; that is, p(t) = a0 + a1 t + a2 t2 + .... + as ts
where s ≤ n. Then Pn (t) is a vector space over K with respect to the usual
operations of addition of polynomials and of multiplication of a polynomial by
a constant (just like the vector space P(t) above).
We include the zero polynomia 0 as an element of Pn (t), even though its
degree is undefined.
Matrix Space Mm,n
The notation Mm,n , or simply M, will be used to denote the set of all m × n
matrices with entries in a field K. Then Mm,n is a vector space over K with
respect to the usual operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication of
matrices as indicated by Theorem 2.1.
Function Space F(X)
Let X be a non empty set K be an arbitrary field. Let F(X) denote the set of
all functions of X into K. [Note that F(X) is nonempty, because X is nonempty.]
Then F(X) is a vector space over K with respect to the following operations:
(i) Vector Addition: The sum of two functions f and g in F(X) is the
function f + g in F(X) defined by (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) ∀x ∈ X
(ii) Scalar Multiplication: The product of a scalar k ∈ K and a function f
in F(X) is the function kf in F(X) defined by (kf )(x) = kf (x) ∀x ∈ X
The zero vector in F(X) is the zero function 0, which maps every x ∈ X into
the zero element 0 ∈ K; 0(x) = 0 ∀x ∈ X
Also, for any function f in F(X), negative of f is the function −f in F(X)
defined by (−f )(x) = −f (x) ∀x ∈ X
Fields and Subfields
Suppose a field E is an extension of a field K ; that is, suppose E is a field
that contains K as a subfield . Then E may be viewed as a vector space over K
using the following operations:
(i) Vector Addition: Here u + v in E is the usual addition in E.
(ii) Scalar Multiplication: Here ku in E, where k ∈ K and u ∈ E, is the
usual product of k and u as elements of E.
That is, the eight axioms of a vector space are satisfied by E and its subfield
K with respect to the above two operations.
