Load Flow Analysis

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Overview
Mother of all Studies
• Load Flow Analysis is an Engineering Art
• The Art of duplicating and understanding
the steady-state behavior of Power Systems
• First studies to be done to validate the project model
• Last studies to be done to validate other studies
• Has contradictory objectives with SC & TS studies
• Need to consider past, present & future conditions
• Need to consider all possible operating conditions
• Compare limits & duties for the correct operation of
the power systems apparatus
Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL
 Overview
Objectives
• To Protect the System Against:
– Electrical Limits
• Over/Under Voltage conditions
• Over Load conditions
• Voltage and Current Limits
– Mechanical
• Tension & Stress Levels
• Life Time
– Thermal
• Steady-State Temperature Limits
• Emergency Temperature Limits

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Overview
Objectives
• Steady-State Operating Conditions
 Voltage Profile
 Power Flows
 Current Flows
 Power Factors
 Voltage Drops
 Generator’s Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
 Generator’s MW Demand
 Total Generation & Demand
 MW & Mvar Losses

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Overview
Capabilities
Handle any kind of Integrated Network
No Limitations for the followings
 Connectivity / Subsystems
 DC, AC (1P-1W, 1P-2W, 2P-2W, 2P-3W, 3P-3W, 3P-4W
 Nominal Voltage
 Frequency
 Phase Connection
 Bus Number – 1,000,000+ tested

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Basic Concept
• Power in Balanced 3-Phase Systems
*
S 1  V LN I
S 3  3  S 1
 3 V LL I*
 P  jQ

 Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.

 Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor Leading Power Factor Current and Voltage

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
• 3-Phase Per Unit System
 Three phase power equation

S  3VI 
 

V  3 ZI 


 Base calculations
kVA B
IB 
3kVB
(kVB ) 2
ZB 
M VAB

 Per Unit calculations

I actual Vactual
I pu  Vpu  2
IB VB V o
  S Bn 
Z n
pu  Z 
o
pu
B
n
  o 
Z pu 
Zactual
Spu 
Sactual V B   SB 
ZB SB

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
• Example:
 Base voltage calculation across a transformer in ETAP:

 Branch impedances in LF report are in percentage

 Turn ratio: N1/N2 = 3.31

 X/R = 12.14

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
• Example (cont’d):
0.065(12.14) 0.06478
X pu   0.06478 R pu   0.005336
1  (12.14) 2 12.14

 Impedance conversion to 100 MVA base

 “n” stands for new & “O” stands for old values
2
o  VB   S Bn 
2
 13.8   100 
o
Z pu  Z pu  n 
n
 o   (5.33 10 3  j 0.06478)     (0.1115  j1.3538)
 VB   B
S  13.5   5 
%Z  100  Zpu  11.15  j135.38

 The base voltage of the branch impedance (Z1) determined by

transformer turn ratio
kVutility 13.5 VB2 (4.0695) 2
VB    4.0695 ZB    0.165608
  3.31
N 1 MVA 100
 N 2 

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
• Example (cont’d) :
Zactual (0.1  j1)
Zpu    (0.6038  j6.0382)
ZB 0.1656
%Z  100  Zpu  60.38  j603.8

 Load flow report generated by ETAP for branches:

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Methodology
Goal
A healthy operation under different conditions
*** Size Equipments & Determine Parameters ***
 Cable
 Lines
 Capacitor
 Transformer MVA Rating
 Transformer Tap Setting & Limits
 Current Limiting Reactor Ratings
 MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings
 Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)
 Generator’s Mvar Demand
 Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV
Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL
 Methodology
• Verify operation conditions within limits
 Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
 Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits of Equipment
 Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the Maximum Ratings
 Acceptable System MW & Mvar Losses
 Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
 Steady State Stability Limits

• Validation of data in steady state condition

 Comparison of real time metered data with load flow results

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Methodology
• Load Flow Problem
 Given:
 Power consumption at all buses
 Branch impedances in the network
 Network Topology (Configuration)
 Generation and load VAriation

 Output:
 Voltage magnitude and angle at all buses
 Power flows on all the branches including power factors
 Losses on all branches

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Methodology
• Load Flow Calculation Methods
 Newton-Raphson
 Fast in speed, but high requirement on initial values
 First order derivative is used to speed up calculation

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Methodology
• Load Flow Calculation Methods
 Adaptive Newton-Raphson
 Fast in speed, but high requirement on initial values
 First order derivative is used to speed up calculation

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Methodology
• Load Flow Calculation Methods
 Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method
 Low Requirements on initial values
 Slow in speed

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Methodology
• Load Flow Calculation Methods
 Fast-Decoupled Method
 Two sets of iteration equations: real power – voltage angle,
reactive power – voltage magnitude in speed, but high
requirement on initial values
 Fast in speed, but low in solution precision
 Better for radial systems and systems with long lines

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Methodology
• Possible Convergence Issues
 Negative Impedance
 Zero or Very Small Impedance
 Widely Different Branch Impedance Values
 Long Radial System Configurations
 Improper Initial Bus Voltage Values
 Imbalance of demand/supply in the system

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Generator Operation Modes

• Synchronous Generator & Control System

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Generator Operation Modes

• Governor Operating Modes

 Isochronous:
 This governor setting allows the generator’s power output to be
adjusted based on the system demand
 Frequency (speed) is constant per system’s nominal frequency
 Droop:
 This governor setting allows the generator to be Base Loaded, meaning
that the MW output is fixed at

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Generator Modes in ETAP
• Generator/Power Grid operating modes used in LF calculation
 Swing Mode
 Governor in Isochronous mode
 Automatic Voltage Regulator

 Voltage Control
 Governor in Droop Mode
 Automatic Voltage Regulator

 Mvar Control
 Governor in Droop Mode
 Fixed Field Excitation (no AVR action)

 PF Control
 Governor in Droop Mode
 AVR Adjusts to Power Factor Setting

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Generator Limits
• Generator Capability Curve
 Based on generator MVA rating
 Q>0 in lagging mode
 Q<0 in leading mode
 P>0 in generator mode
 P<0 in motoring mode
 Curve AB; Field Heating limit
 Curve BC; Stator Heating
 Curve CD; Stator Core End
Heating
 Point B; Rated Power Factor
 More limitation with no AVR

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Generator Modes in ETAP
• Generator Capability Curve (Cont’d):

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Toolbar
• Load Flow Toolbar buttons:
 Run Load Flow
 Auto Run on/off
 Halt Current Calculation
 Alert View
 Report Manager
 Load Flow Result Analyzer
 Load Flow Comparator
 Display Options
 Unit Show
 Result Options
 Voltage Unit Option
 Load Terminal Voltages

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Study Case
• Study Case - Info Page:
 ID
 Method
 Select the mathematical
calculation method
 Report
 Select the display unit for
reporting
 Options
 Select the method for specifying
initial voltages
 Update
 Select certain fields to updated
as the result of load flow

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Study Case
• Study Case - Loading Page:
 Loading Category
 Select specific category to be
considered for the calculation
 Generation Category
 Select specific category to be
considered for the calculation
 Load Diversity Factor
 Charger Loading
 Apply charger loading per
operating load or selected
loading category

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Study Case
• Study Case - Adjustment
Page:
 Impedance Tolerance
 Apply positive tolerance for
transformer, reactor and/or
overload heater
 Length Tolerance
 Apply positive tolerance for
cable and/or transmission line
lengths
 Resistance temperature
Correction
 Apply Max. temperature for
cable and/or transmission line

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Study Case
• Study Case – Alert Page:
 Loading
 Specify critical/marginal loading
% for alerting
 Bus Voltage
 Specify critical/marginal
over/under voltage limits
 Generator/Power Grid Excitation
 Specify critical/marginal
over/under excitation limits
 Auto Display
 Display alerts automatically
right after load flow run

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Alerts

Load Flow Analysis

© 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 70
©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL
 Reports
• Example (Bus Voltage Display):

Bus4 voltage in Percent:

kVCalculated  13.5 kVNomin al  13.8
kVCalculated
V%  100  97.83%
kVNo min al

Bus5 voltage in percent:

kVCalculated  4.03 kVNomin al  4.16
kVCalculated
V%  100  96.85%
kVNo min al

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Reports
• ETAP Report Types:

Report Manager Report Types Remarks

Crystal Report Complete Including all input/output data
MS Excel Input Only input data
Ms Word Result Only output results
PDF Summary Including alerts, losses, loading, etc.
Text
Report Analyzer Report Types Remarks
Table (Grid) of multiple General Comparison of multiple reports in a table
reports displaying input/output data based on
Bus Results
different equipment types, ratings, flow
Branch Results results and specified alerts
(loading/voltage drop)
Loads
Sources

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Reports
• Report Manager:

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

 Reports
• Load Flow Analyzer:

Load Flow Analysis ©2015 ETAP PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL