50

CHAPTER 3
MODELING OF EXCITER AND SYCHRONOUS GENERATOR AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF THYRISTOR

In this chapter, modeling of exciter and synchronous generator and

characteristics of thyristor are fully described.

3.1. Exciter Modeling

It is to be noted that error voltage e= |𝑉|𝑟𝑒𝑓 - |V|. Assume that for some reason
the terminal voltage of the main generator decreases. This will result in decrease in
|V|. This immediately results in an increased “error voltage” e which in turn, causes
increased values ok 𝑉𝑅 , 𝑖𝑒 , 𝑉𝑓 and 𝑖𝑓 . As a result of the boost in 𝑖𝑓 the d axis generator
emf and hence the terminal voltage. Higher setting of |𝑉|𝑟𝑒𝑓 also will have the same
effect of increasing the terminal voltage.
Mathematical modeling of the exciter and its control follows. For the moment
we discard the stability compensator.
For the comparator ∆|𝑉|𝑟𝑒𝑓 - ∆|V| = ∆e (1)
Laplace transformation of this equation is
∆|𝑉|𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠)- ∆|V|(s) = ∆e(s) (2)
For the amplifier
∆𝑉𝑅 =𝐾𝐴 ∆e where 𝐾𝐴 is the amplifier gain. (3)
Laplace transformation of the above equation yields
∆𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) =𝐾𝐴 ∆e(s) (4)

This equation implies instantaneous amplifier response. But in reality, the

amplifier will have a time delay that can be represented by a time constant 𝑇𝐴 . Then
∆𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) and ∆e(s) are related as
𝐴 𝐾
∆𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) =1+𝑠𝑇 ∆e(s) (5)
. 𝐴

𝐾𝐴
where, = the transfer function of the amplifier, 𝐺𝐴 (s)
1+𝑠𝑇𝐴 .

The block diagram corresponding to equations (2) and (5) is shown below.
∆|𝑉|𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠)- ∆|V|(s) = ∆e(s) (2)
 51

𝐴 𝐾
∆𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) =1+𝑠𝑇 ∆e(s) (5)
. 𝐴

Figure 3.1. Block Diagram of Representing AVR Loops

Now we shall see the modeling of the exciter field. If 𝑅𝑒 and 𝐿𝑒 represent
respectively the resistance and inductance of the exciter field, then
𝑑
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝑒 + 𝐿𝑒 𝑑𝑡(𝑖𝑒 ) and hence
𝑑
∆𝑉𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒 ∆𝑖𝑒 + 𝐿𝑒 𝑑𝑡(∆𝑖𝑒 ) (6)

The exciter field current 𝑖𝑒 produces voltage 𝑉𝑓 , which is the rectified armature
voltage of the exciter. Then ∆𝑉𝑓 =𝐾1 ∆𝑖𝑒 (7)
Where 𝐾1 is the rectified armature volts per ampere of exciter field current.
Taking Laplace transformation of the above two equations and eliminating ∆𝑖𝑒 (𝑠),
𝑒𝐾
∆𝑉𝑓 (𝑠) =1+𝑠𝑇 ∆𝑉𝑅 (s) (8)
. 𝑒

𝐾 𝐿
where 𝐾𝑒 = 𝑅1 and 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒 (9)
𝑒 𝑒

𝑒 𝐾
Thus the transfer function of the exciter , 𝐺𝑒 (s) =1+𝑠𝑇 .
𝑒

Adding the representation of exciter as given by equation (8)

𝑒 𝐾
∆𝑉𝑓 (𝑠) =1+𝑠𝑇 ∆𝑉𝑅 (s) (8)
. 𝑒

Now we can draw the transfer function model of Comparator, Amplifier and
Exciter portion of the AVR loop. This is shown in Figure 3.2.
 52

Figure 3.2. Block diagram representation of comparator, amplifier and exciter

The time constants 𝑇𝐴 will be in the range of 0.02- 0.1 sec while 𝑇𝑒 will be in
the range of 0.5-1.0 sec.

3.2. Synchronous Generator Modeling

We need to close the loop in Figure by establishing the missing dynamic link
between the field voltage 𝑉𝑓 and the synchronous generator terminal voltage |V|.
Considering the field of the synchronous generator, using KVL
d (if )
V f  R f i f  L ff (10)
dt
Taking Laplace transform V f ( s)  [ R f  sL f f ]i f ( s) (11)

As the terminal voltage equals to internal emf(electromotive force) minus the

voltage drop across the internal impedance, it is clear that the relationship between 𝑉𝑓
and |V| depends on the generator loading. The simplest possible relationship exists at
low or zero loading in which case V approximately equals to internal emf E.

In the generator, internal emf and the field currents are related as
L fai f
E (12)
2
where, 𝐿𝑓𝑎 is the mutual inductance coefficient between rotor field and stator
armature.

2
Thus i f  E (13)
L fa
Laplace transformation of above equation gives
 53

2
i f ( s)  E (s) (14)
L fa

Substituting the above equation (11), V f ( s)  [ R f  sL f f ]i f ( s)

Results in

2
V f ( s)  [ R  sL ff ]E ( s)
L fa f

L fa 1
Thus E ( s )   V f ( s )
2 R f  sL ff

From the above equation , the field voltage transfer ratio can be written as

E ( s )  | V | ( s ) L fa 1 Kf
    (15)
V f ( s ) V f ( s ) 2 R f  sL ff 1  sT 'do

L fa L ff
Where K f  and T 'do  (16)
2R f Rf

We can now complete the AVR loop as shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 Block diagram representation of AVR loop

The block diagram representation of AVR loop shown above can be simplified
as shown in Figure 3.4.
 54

Figure 3.4. Simplified block diagram representation of AVR loop

Here, the open loop transfer function G(s) equals
K
G( s)  (17)
(1  sTA )(1  sTe )(1  sT 'do )

Where, the open loop gain K is defined by

K  K A Ke K f (18)

Block diagram of Figure 3.5 can be further reduced as shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.5. Simplified block diagram representation of AVR loop

Figure 3.6. Reduced block diagram representation of AVR loop

 55

3.3. Thyristors
The thyristor is suitable for the control of large amounts of power because it is
light-weight, reliable, fast acting, turns on with a small power and is free from
mechanical difficulties because there are no moving parts. This switch does have
some disadvantages. When the thyristor is turned on and conducts current there is a
forward voltage drop of about 1.5 V. So these power devices are thermally limited.
Ratings are important. There can be localized heating during turn-on because of the
rate of rise of current at a density of 150 A 𝑐𝑚−2 with 1.5 V across it. There must be
protection against transient voltages. Turn-on is simple but turn-off can be
complicated.
In spite of the disadvantages more and more installations are utilizing
thyristors and larger and larger thyristors are being manufactured. Figure 3.7 gives an
approximate illustration of the maximum voltage rating , the maximum current rating
and the maximum safe power handling capability of individual thyristors developed
over a ten-year period. There is a conflict in design procedures that makes it
impossible that the thyristor with the highest voltage rating should have the highest
current and hence the highest power rating. Power ratings are given as one-third of the
product of the peak voltage and current ratings.
In 1968 the upper capability of production devices in the U.S.A. was 1200V
peak reverse voltage, 300A average half-cycle current and 1kHz switching frequency
limit for fast turn-off thyristors (less than 15μs).For slow turn-off thyristors, (greater
than 15μs) the ratings increased to 1800V and 550A. This was considered to be
somewhere near the limit economically. Higher voltage and higher current systems
could employ strings of thyristors in series and groups in parallel.
Thyristors are used to control electric drives ranging from the domestic
application of hand drills, mixers, blenders and air-conditioning to the static variable
frequency drives systems found in textile mills, 5MW of semiconductor controlled
capacity to excite turbo-alternators and 50MW installations in new steel mills.
 56

Figure 3.7. Growth of thyristor ratings

3.3.1. The direct current drive

The d.c. motor is popular even though it has a commutator and is larger than
the a.c. motor of equivalent rating. Its wide speed range by voltage control is the
reason Figure 3.8. illustrates how the d.c voltage at the motor terminals can be altered
if the supply is either direct current or alternating current when thyristors are used.
The thyristor effectively switches the supply on and off in a discontinuous manner.
Alternation of the ratio time-on to time-off adjust the average voltage across the
motor. The frequency of switching is rapid so that the motor only responds to the
average voltage level and not to the individual pulses.

Figure 3.8. Direct current voltage modulation

 57

3.3.2. The Diode (or p-n junction)

A p-type material joined to an n-type material, so that there is a perfect
continuation of the crystal lattice, results in a p-n junction. This is the diode rectifier ,
symbolized in Figure 3.9. When p- and n-types are joined, excess electrons on the n
side diffuse into the p layer and excess holes on the p side diffuse into the n layer so
there develops a small electrostatic potential across the junction to oppose further
flow of charge.
To define some terms: the majority charge carrier in n-type materials is the
electron, so that the hole is the minority charge carrier. Accordingly for p-type
material the majority carrier is the hole and the minority carrier is the electron. Some
majority carriers with enough energy can across the junction barrier. Thus an electron
may cross over into the p-region where it can combine with a hole, or a hole may
cross into the n-region where it can combine with an electron.

Figure 3.9. The structure and symbol of diode rectifier

With an external forward bias voltage such that the anode is positive, the
junction barrier potential is decreased. Thermal current , that is, minority carrier flow,
is unaffected but many more majority carriers with lower energies overcome the
retarding electric field and flow in the external circuit. There is very little impedance
to the flow of current with forward bias.

Figure 3.10. Voltage-current characteristic of the diode

 58

3.4. Circuits to Turn on Thyristors

The circuits described below provide the necessary gate to cathode signal to
turn the thyristor on. The gate requirement is that the gate voltage should be between
2 and 10 V to cause current between 100μA and 1500mA to flow. High gate currents
are needed for thyristors of high power capacity. The characteristic provided by the
manufacturer will be somewhere within the crosshatched area of Figure 3.11. This
shows that there are minimum values of gate voltage and current, below which the
thyristor will not turn on. Three basic types can be categorized. They are d.c. firing
signals, pulse signals and a.c. phase signals.

Figure 3.11. Thyristor gate characteristics.

3.4.1. Rectification
Rectification system can transform the alternating input to the direct output.

Figure 3.12. Single phase type

Figure 3.13. Input and Output Waveform

 59

3.4.2. Thyristor automatic excitation control

For constant load condition it is normal for the synchronous motor excitation
to be set at a fixed value. In such a case a reduction in load or a decreases in the
applied armature voltage makes the motor power factor more leading. Figure 3.14.
shows the case of a reduced load, where the subscript 1 denotes the normal load
values and subscript 2 denotes the lower values.

Figure 3.14. Power factor change with load.

A reduced load means reduction in load angle from δ1 to δ2. This is indicated
in Equation for constant V, E and Xs. The power equation is
VE
P sin  per phase
Xs
V = the armature applied voltage per phase
E = the armature induced emf per phase
𝑋𝑠 =the synchronous reactance per phase and
δ =the load angle
Accordingly phasor Vx rotates through an angle β in the phasor diagram and
so does the current if the armature resistance is neglected. The power factor becomes
more leading. This compensates for a lagging load elsewhere in the system, so it is
tolerated but there is no control.
A change in load can be rapid so that the excitation control must give a fast
response. This can be provided by a thyristor amplifier, which is shown in block form
as a phase controlled , a.c. line commutated rectifier bridge in Figure 3.15. The
thyristor triggering signals are derived from the load current via a function generator ,
whose ideal characteristic might be that of Figure 3.16. The excitation is kept constant
for good power factor conditions until a certain load is reached and then rises in
proportion to the load.
 60

During starting, as an induction motor, it is necessary to inhibit the d.c. field

supply and to protect the thyristor rectifier from the high induced emfs at slip
frequency in the field winding. The voltage across the bridge will not be the open
circuit induced emf, which would necessitate high voltage ratings for the thyristors,
but the voltage drop caused by the resulting current through the shunt resistance. At a
particular minimum value, sensed across the shunt resistance, the gate signals can be
applied so that direct current can be fed to the field. The motor will then synchronize
and the function generator takes control.

Figure 3.15. Thyristor field control.

Figure 3.16. An ideal function generator characteristic.

3.1.6. Normal Consistency of Cement (ASTM C 187)

Table 3.12 shows the result of normal consistency test for Alpha
cement. The normal consistency test of Alpha cement is shown in Figure 3.4.
Table 3.12. Normal Consistency of Alpha Cement
Wt. of cement
Test No. Wt. of water (g) Normal Consistency (%)
(g)
1 300 88.5 29.5
2 300 88.5 29.5
3 300 91.5 30.5
 61

Average (%) 29.83

Figure 3.4. Normal Consistency of Cement

From the test result, the value of normal consistency of cement is 29.83%
which is the limit of 26 to 33 %.

3.1.7. Normal Consistency of Cement with Marble Powder (ASTM C 187)

Test results for normal consistency of both types of cement with various
percentages of marble powder are shown in Tables 3.13 to Table 3.16 and normal
consistency of cement with marble powder is shown in Figure 3.5.

Table 3.13. Normal Consistency of 95% Cement and 5% Marble Powder

Test Wt. of cement Wt. of marble Wt. of water Normal Consistency
No. (g) powder (g) (g) (%)
1 285 15 87 29
2 285 15 87 29
3 285 15 87.3 29.1
Average (%) 29.03
Table 3.14. Normal Consistency of 90% Cement and 10% Marble Powder

Test Wt. of cement Wt. of marble Wt. of water Normal Consistency

No. (g) powder (g) (g) (%)

1 270 30 85.5 28.5

2 270 30 85.5 28.5

 62

3 270 30 87 29

Average (%) 28.67

Table 3.15. Normal Consistency of 85% Cement and 15% Marble Powder

Test Wt. of cement Wt. of marble Wt. of water Normal Consistency

No. (g) powder (g) (g) (%)

1 255 45 84 28

2 255 45 84.3 28.1

3 255 45 84.3 28.1

Average (%) 28.07

Table 3.16. Normal Consistency of 80% Cement and 20% Marble Powder

Test Wt. of cement Wt. of marble Wt. of water Normal Consistency

No. (g) powder (g) (g) (%)

1 240 60 82.5 27.5

2 240 60 82.8 27.6

3 240 60 82.8 27.6

Average (%) 27.57

 63

Figure 3.5. Normal Consistency of Cement and Marble Powder

From the test results, all of the values of normal consistency of cement with
replacement percentages of marble powder are within the limit of 26 to 33 percent.

3.1.8. Setting Time of Cement (ASTM C 191)

The result of setting time for Alpha cement is shown in Table 3.17. The
specimen for setting time of cement is shown in Figure 3.6 and 3.7.

Table 3.17. Setting Time of Alpha Cement

Test No. I II III
Weight of Cement (g) 300 300 300
Water Volume (cm3) 88.5 88.5 91.5
Starting Time of Supply of Water (hr:min) 11:10 10:22 11:25
Time Observed Initial Setting Time (hr:min) 12:40 11:46 12:55
Initial Setting Time (min) 60 54 60
Time Observed Final Setting Time (hr:min) 15:12 14:31 15:36
Final Setting Time (min) 212 219 221
Average Initial Setting Time (min) 58
Average Final Setting Time (min) 217
 64

Figure 3.6. Initial Setting Time of Cement Figure 3.7. Final Setting Time of Cement

From the test results, the initial and final setting times of cement are 58 min
and 217 min which are within the ranges of "49 to 202 min" and "185 to 312 min".

3.1.9. Setting Time of Cement with Marble Powder

Test results for initial and final setting time of cement with various
replacements of marble powder are shown in Tables 3.18 to Table 3.21 and the initial
and final setting times of cement with marble powder is shown in Figure 3.8.

Table 3.18. Setting Time of 95% Cement and 5% Marble Powder

Test No. I II III

Weight of Cement (g) 285 285 285

Weight of Marble Powder (g) 15 15 15

Weight of Water (g) 87 87 87.3

Starting Time of Supply of Water (hr:min) 11:15 11:25 10:40

Time Observed Initial Setting Time (hr:min) 13:15 13:30 12:50

Initial Setting Time (min) 90 95 100

Time Observed Final Setting Time (hr:min) 15:18 15:29 15:10

Final Setting Time (min) 213 214 240

Average Initial Setting Time (min) 95

Average Final Setting Time (min) 222

 65

Table 3.19. Setting Time of 90% Cement and 10% Marble Powder

Test No. I II III

Weight of Cement (g) 270 270 270

Weight of Marble Powder (g) 30 30 30

Weight of Water (g) 85.5 85.5 87

Starting Time of Supply of Water (hr:min) 10:59 11:45 11:52

Time Observed Initial Setting Time (hr:min) 13:19 13:35 14:13

Initial Setting Time (min) 110 80 110

Time Observed Final Setting Time (hr:min) 15:08 15:48 16:45

Final Setting Time (min) 219 213 263

Average Initial Setting Time (min) 100

Average Final Setting Time (min) 232

Table 3.20. Setting Time of 85% Cement and 15% Marble Powder

Test No. I II III

Weight of Cement (g) 255 255 255

Weight of Marble Powder (g) 45 45 45

Weight of Water (g) 84 84.3 84.3

Starting Time of Supply of Water (hr:min) 10:47 11:15 11:34

Time Observed Initial Setting Time (hr:min) 12:57 13:50 14:04

Initial Setting Time (min) 100 115 120

Time Observed Final Setting Time (hr:min) 15:40 16:16 16:02

Final Setting Time (min) 263 271 238

Average Initial Setting Time (min) 112

Average Final Setting Time (min) 257

 66

Table 3.21. Setting Time of 80% Cement and 20% Marble Powder

Test No. I II III

Weight of Cement (g) 240 240 240

Weight of Marble Powder (g) 60 60 60

Weight of Water (g) 82.5 82.8 82.8

Starting Time of Supply of Water (hr:min) 11:15 10:05 10:40

Time Observed Initial Setting Time (hr:min) 13:45 12:30 13:07

Initial Setting Time (min) 120 115 117

Time Observed Final Setting Time (hr:min) 16:10 15:00 15:40

Final Setting Time (min) 265 265 270

Average Initial Setting Time (min) 117

Average Final Setting Time (min) 267

Figure 3.8. Initial and Final Setting Time of Cement and Marble Powder

According to the test results, both the initial and final setting times of cement
with various replacement percentages of marble powder are within the ranges of "49
to 202 min" and "185 to 312 min". When the greater amount of percentages of marble
powder are replaced in cement, both the initial and final setting times are increased.
 67

3.1.10. Soundness Test

The test result of soundness for Alpha cement is shown in Table 3.22 and the
specimen use for the soundness test is shown in Figure 3.9.

Table 3.22. Soundness of Alpha Cement

Number of test I II III

Before boiling (cm) 2.07 1.48 1.9

After boiling (cm) 2.10 1.5 1.93

Difference (cm) 0.03 0.02 0.03

Average (mm) 0.27

From the test result, the soundness of cement is 0.27 mm which is less than the
limit of 10 mm.

Figure 3.9. Soundness of Cement

3.1.11. Soundness of Cement with Marble Powder

The test results of soundness of cement are shown in Tables 3.23 to 3.26 and
the test results of soundness of Alpha cement with marble powder is shown in Figure
3.10.
 68

Table 3.23. Soundness of 95% Cement and 5% Marble Powder

Number of test I II III
Before boiling (cm) 1.4 1.54 4.8
After boiling (cm) 1.437 1.577 4.838

Difference (cm) 0.037 0.037 0.038

Average (mm) 0.37

Table 3.24. Soundness of 90% Cement and 10% Marble Powder

Number of test I II III
Before boiling (cm) 2.32 1.57 1.08

After boiling (cm) 2.37 1.63 1.15

Difference (cm) 0.05 0.06 0.07

Average (mm) 0.6

Table 3.25. Soundness of 85% Cement and 15% Marble Powder

Number of test I II III

Before boiling (cm) 1.53 0.51 2.14

After boiling (cm) 2.19 2.34 2.2

Difference (cm) 0.08 0.05 0.06

Average (mm) 0.63

Table 3.26. Soundness of 80% Cement and 20% Marble Powder

Number of test I II III

Before boiling (cm) 2.3 0.96 0.69

After boiling (cm) 2.37 1.02 0.77

Difference (cm) 0.07 0.06 0.08

Average (mm) 0.7

 69

Figure 3.10. Soundness of Cement and Marble Powder

From the above figure, the soundness increases when the greater replacement
percentages of marble powder are added in cement.

3.2. Properties of Aggregates

Fine aggregate is obtained from Ayeyarwady River and coarse aggregate is
collected from Hton Bo, Mandalay. For aggregates, the following tests are carried out.
1. Specific Gravity Test
2. Water Absorption Test
3. Sieve Analysis of fine and coarse aggregate Test

3.2.1. Specific Gravity of Fine Aggregate (ASTM C 128)

The result of specific gravity of fine aggregate is shown in Table 3.27, the
result for specific gravity test of fine aggregates and the performance of making
saturated-surface-dry aggregate are shown in Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12.

Table 3.27. Specific Gravity of Fine Aggregate for mortar and concrete

Test No. I II III

Weight of fine aggregate (SSD), S (g) 500 500 500

 70

Table 3.27 (Continued)

Weight of pycnometer (g) 165.2 165.2 165.2

Weight of pycnometer filled with water, 660.8 656.7 660.6

B (g)

Weight of pycnometer filled with fine 970 965.1 969.7

aggregate and water, C (g)

S 2.62 2.61 2.62

Specific gravity = B+S-C

Average 2.62

The result of specific gravity of fine aggregate is 2.62 which is within 2.4 and
2.9.

Figure 3.11 Performance of making saturated-surface-dry fine aggregates

Figure 3.12 Specific gravity of fine aggregates

 71

3.2.2. Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate (ASTM C 128)

The test results of water absorption for fine aggregates of mortar and concrete
used in this research are shown in Table 3.28 and 3.29.

Table 3.28. Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate for mortar

Test No. I II III

Wt. of container + fine aggregate (SSD) (g) 1158.4 1160 1290

Wt. of container + dry fine aggregate (OD) (g) 1150.8 1152.5 1282.2

Wt. of container (g) 116 136.8 232.8

Wt. of fine aggregate (S.S.D), S (g) 1042.4 1023.2 1057.2

Wt. of dry sand, A (g) 1034.8 1015.7 1049.4

S-A
Absorption = ( ) × 100% 0.73 0.74 0.74
A

Average (%) 0.74

Table 3.29. Water Absorption of Fine Aggregates for concrete

Test No. I II III

Wt. of container + fine aggregate (SSD) (g) 1156.2 1163.6 1177.1

Wt. of container + dry fine aggregate (OD) (g) 1146 1153.6 1166.9

Wt. of container (g) 116 136.8 124.7

Wt. of fine aggregate (S.S.D), S (g) 1040.2 1023.8 1052.4

Wt. of dry sand, A (g) 1030 1016.8 1042.2

S-A
Absorption = ( ) × 100% 0.99 0.98 0.98
A

Average (%) 0.98

 72

3.2.3. Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate (ASTM C 136)

Table 3.30 and Table 3.31 show the results of grading of fine aggregates for
mortar and concrete. The specimen for sieving of fine aggregate is shown in Figure
3.13 and the grading curve of fine aggregate is shown in Figure 3.14.
Table 3.30. Grading of Standard Fine Aggregate (No. 20 ~ No. 30 sieve) for mortar
ASTM
Sieve Weight Percent Accumulated C778
Sieve Finer
opening retained Retained Percent Percent
No. (%)
(mm) (g) (%) retained (%) Passing
(%)
4 4.75 - - - 100 -
8 2.36 - - - 100 -
16 1.18 - - - 100 100
20 0.85 5.3 1.06 1.06 100 85-100
30 0.6 487.9 97.58 98.64 98.94 0-5
50 0.3 6.8 1.36 100 1.36 -
100 0.15 - - 100 0 -
Pan - - - - 0 -
Total - 500.00 100.00 300 -

Total sand retained = 299.7%

∑ Accumulate d percent retained

Fineness Modulus = = 2.99~3
100
Table 3.31. Grading of Fine Aggregates for concrete
ASTM
Sieve Weight Percent Accumulated C33
Sieve Finer
opening retained Retained Percent Percent
No. (%)
(mm) (g) (%) retained (%) Passing
(%)
4 4.75 - - - 100 95~100

8 2.36 10 2 2 98 80~100

16 1.18 96.2 19.24 21.24 78.76 50~85

30 0.6 178.0 35.60 56.84 43.16 25~60

50 0.3 153.7 30.74 87.58 12.42 5~30

 73

Table 3.31 (Continued)

100 0.15 56.2 11.24 98.82 1.18 0~10

Pan - 5.9 1.18 - --

Total - 500.00 100.00 266.48 -

Total sand retained = 266.48%

Fineness Modulus =
 Accumulate d percent retained = 2.66
100

Figure 3.13. Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregates

100
90
80
PERCENT FINER(%)

70 ASTM
60 Lower Limit
50
ASTM
40 Upper Limit
30
20 Sand
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
SIEVE OPENING(MM)
Figure 3.14. Grading Curve of Fine Aggregates for concrete
 74

From the test results, the values of fineness modulus of fine aggregate for
concrete is 2.66 which is between the allowable limits of 2.3 and 3. Moreover, the
values of percent finer are also within the upper limit and lower limit of ASTM C 33.

3.2.4. Specific Gravity and Water Absorption of Coarse Aggregates (ASTM C 127)
The specific gravity and absorption of coarse aggregate used in this
experimental are estimated on the basis of weight of saturated-surface dry aggregate.
Test results are shown in Table 3.32 and Table 3.33.

Table 3.32. Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregates

Test No. I II III

Wt. of saturated surface dry sample in air, B (g) 4000 4000 4000
Wt. of saturated surface dry sample in water, C (g) 2571 2567 2556
B
Specific gravity = B-C 2.8 2.79 2.77
Average (%) 2.79

Table 3.33. Water Absorption of Coarse Aggregates

Test No. I II III

Wt. of saturated surface dry sample in air, B (g) 4000 4000 4000

Wt. of oven dry sample, A (g) 3986 3987 3986

B-A
Absorption (%) = × 100 0.35 0.33 0.35
A

Average (%) 0.34

From the test results, it is found that the specific gravity and water absorption
of coarse aggregate are 2.79 which is within 2.4 and 2.9 and 0.34% which is within
the limit of 0% and 2% respectively.

3.2.5. Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate (ASTM C 136)

Test result of grading of coarse aggregate are shown in Table 3.34.
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Table 3.34. Grading of Coarse Aggregates

ASTM
Sieve Weight of Percent Accumulated Percent C33
Sieve
opening aggregate retained percent Passing Percent
No.
(mm) retained (g) (%) retained (%) (%) Passing
(%)
1 ½ in 37.5 - - - 100 -
¾ in 19.0 96.8 9.68 9.68 90.32 90~100
3/8 in 9.50 689.5 68.95 78.63 21.37 20~55
4 4.75 213.7 21.37 100 0 0~10
8 2.36 - - 100 0 0~5
16 1.18 - - 100 0 -
30 0.6 - - 100 0 -
50 0.3 - - 100 0 -
100 0.15 - - 100 0 -
Pan - - - - - -
Total - 1000 100 688.31 - -

Total aggregate retained = 688.31%

∑ Accumulate d percent retained

Fineness Modulus = = 6.88
100
From the test result, the value of fineness modulus of coarse aggregate is 6.88
and it is within the range of 6.5 to 8.