Mathematics

II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Boggarapu

Functions Mathematics II, Spring 2019

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity
Pradeep Boggarapu
Derivatives

Department of Mathematics, BITS-Pilani K. K. Birla Goa Campus

March 4, 2019
 Complex functions

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
A function defined on a subset of the set of complex numbers is
Pradeep
Boggarapu
called a complex function.
Functions

Limits and S ⊂ C a mapping f : S → C is called a complex function if it is

Continuity

Continuity
well defined.
Derivatives
The set S is called the domain of the function. Sometime if the
domain is not mentioned then the largest possible set where f is
well defined is taken to be the domain.
The set {f (z) : z ∈ S} ⊂ C is called the range of the function.
 Examples

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 f : C −→ C defined by f (z) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a0
Pradeep
Boggarapu
where ai ∈ C is called a polynomial function.
Functions
P(z)
Limits and 2 f = Q(z) where P, Q are polynomial functions, is called a
Continuity

Continuity
rational function, note that the domain of the function is all
Derivatives of complex plane except for the roots of Q.
3 f (z) = e z is the exponential function. Let z = x + iy then
e z = e x e iy = e x (cos y + i sin y ). Note that the domain is all
of the complex plane.
 Examples. cont

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019 1 If z = x + iy then define f (z) = x 2 − y 2 is a real valued function since
Pradeep
Boggarapu
the range is contained in the real line.
Functions 2 The function f (z) = z + z0 for some fixed complex number z0 is called a
Limits and translation.
Continuity

Continuity
3 f (z) = e iθ z is called a rotation since the image is z rotated by the angle
Derivatives
θ.
4 f (z) = az + b for some complex numbers a, b is called a linear function,
since it is an affine transformation of the real vector space C to itself.
5 f (z) = z is a reflection about the X axis.
 Howework

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
It is advisable to visualize the effect of a function by visualizing
Pradeep
Boggarapu
it’s effects on straight lines and circles on the complex plane.
Functions

Limits and
Continuity 1 Work out the effect of the function on the plane f (z) = z 2 .
Continuity
1
Derivatives 2 Do the same for the function f (z) = z+1 .
z−1
3 What is the effect of the function z+2 ?
 Limit

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Definition
Boggarapu
Let the function f be defined on a deleted neighborhood of a
Functions

Limits and point z0 then we say

Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
lim f (z) = w0
z→zo

If for each positive real number  there is a positive real number

δ such that

|f (z) − w0 | <  whenever |z − z0 | < δ

 Uniqueness

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
As we “move” closer to the point z0 the value of the function
Pradeep
Boggarapu
moves closer to the value wo . Note that a limit may or may not
Functions exist. But if it exists then one can show as in the next theorem
Limits and
Continuity that it is unique.
Continuity

Derivatives Theorem 1
If a limit lim f (z) exists then it is unique.
z→z0
 Uniqueness

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019 To prove the assertion let us assume if possible there are more than one
Pradeep
Boggarapu
limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits.
Functions
So for each positive  > 0 there are δ1 , δ2 positive such that
Limits and
Continuity

Continuity |f (z) − w1 | <  whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 and

Derivatives
|f (z) − w2 | <  whenever |z − z0 | < δ2
So whenever |z − z0 | < δ = min{δ1 , δ2 }, we have

|w1 − w2 | = |(f (z) − w2 ) − (f (z) − w1 )| ≤ |f (z) − w1 | + |f (z) − w2 |

< 2
Since  in the above was arbitrary, we must have w1 = w2 .
 Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
Theorem 2
Pradeep
Boggarapu Let us suppose that f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) where z = x + iy and u, v are
Functions
real valued functions of two real variables. And let us say z0 = x0 + iy0 and
Limits and w0 = u0 + iv0 then :
Continuity
lim f (z) = w0
Continuity z→z0
Derivatives
if and only if

lim u(x, y ) = u0 and lim v (x, y ) = v0 .

(x,y )→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
 Algebra of Limits

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Theorem
Boggarapu
Let us assume lim f (z) = w0 and lim g (z) = p0 Then:
Functions z→z0 z→z0
Limits and
Continuity 1 lim (f (z) + g (z)) = w0 + p0
Continuity
z→z0
Derivatives
2 lim f (z)g (z) = w0 p0
z→z0
f (z) w0
3 If p0 6= 0 then limz→z0 g (z) = p0
 Limit to infinity

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Theorem
Boggarapu
1
Functions 1 limz→z0 f (z) = ∞ if and only if limz→z0 f (z) =0
Limits and
Continuity

Continuity 2 limz→∞ f (z) = w0 if and only if limz→0 f ( z1 ) = w0 .

Derivatives

1
3 limz→∞ f (z) = ∞ if and only if limz→0 f (1/z) =0
 Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Definition
Boggarapu
A complex function is called continuous at a point z0 if the
Functions

Limits and
following conditions are satisfied:
Continuity

Continuity
1 lim f (z) exists.
z→z0
Derivatives

2 f (z0 ) exists.

3 lim f (z) = f (z0 ).

z→z0
 Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
, δ definition
Boggarapu
Given  > 0 real number there is a δ > 0 real number such that
Functions

Limits and |z − z0 | < δ =⇒ |f (z) − f (z0 )| < .

Continuity

Continuity We sometime say “f is a continuous function” to mean that the

Derivatives
function is continuous at all the points of it’s domain or the
region in context.
 Properties of continuous functions

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
Let f (z), g (z) be two functions defined on a domain D with
Pradeep
Boggarapu
z0 ∈ D, continuous at z0 , then:
Functions

Limits and
1 f (z) + g (z), f (z) − g (z) are continuous at z0 .
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
2 f (z)g (z) is continuous at z0 .

3If g (z0 ) 6= 0 then the quotient f (z)/g (z) is continuous at z0 .

Corollary A polynomial function is continuous at any point z0 .
 Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Theorem
Boggarapu
Let f : D1 → C , g : D2 → C be two continuous functions and
Functions

Limits and
the image of the function g is contained in the domain D1 , then
Continuity

Continuity
Composition f ◦ g is continuous.
Derivatives
 Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
Theorem
Pradeep
Boggarapu
If a function f is continuous and non-zero at a point z0 then
Functions
there is a neighborhood around z0 where the function is non-zero.
Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Theorem
Boggarapu
A function f (x + iy ) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) is continuous at
Functions

Limits and
x0 + iy0 if and only if the functions u(x, y ), v (x, y ) are
Continuity

Continuity
continuous at (x0 , y0 ).
Derivatives
 Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Theorem
Boggarapu
If a function f is continuous in a closed and bounded region R,
Functions

Limits and
then there is a real number M > 0 such that |f (z)| ≤ M for all
Continuity

Continuity
z ∈ R and |f (z)| = M for at least one z ∈ R.
Derivatives
 Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Definition
Boggarapu
Let f be a function defined in a neighborhood of a point z0 .
Functions

Limits and
Derivative of f (z) at z0 is defined to be the limit
Continuity

Continuity f (z) − f (z0 )

Derivatives f 0 (z0 ) = lim
z→z0 z − z0

If we use a new variable ∆z = z − z0 then we have:

f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )
f 0 (z0 ) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z
 Differentiation formulas

Mathematics
d n
II, Spring 2019
1
dz z = nz n−1 for any natural number n.
Pradeep
Boggarapu
d d d
Functions 2
dz (f (z) + g (z)) = dz f (z) + dz g (z).
Limits and
Continuity
d d d
Continuity 3
dz f (z)g (z) = f (z) dz g (z) + g (z) dz f (z).
Derivatives

d d
4
dz cf (z) = c dz f (z) for any c ∈ C.
d d
d f (z) g (z) dz f (z)−f (z) dz g (z)
5
dz g (z) = g (z) 2 .
 The chain rule

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
F (z) = g (f (z)) writing w = f (z) then
Pradeep
Boggarapu
d d d
Functions F (z) = g (w ) f (z)
Limits and dz dw dz
Continuity

Continuity
Sometime we write f 0 (z) for d
dz f (z). With this notation in mind
Derivatives
the chain rule becomes:

F 0 (z) = g 0 (f (z))f 0 (z).

 Mathematics
II, Spring 2019 1 f (z) = z1 .
Pradeep
Boggarapu
z−1
Functions
2 f (z) = 2z+1 , z 6= − 12 .
Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives