Bloom's taxonomy is a classification scheme designed to organize the learning objectives

within a classroom setting. It is an essential, foundational component of education

regardless of the learning material. Bloom's taxonomy stratifies learning upon six levels
of understanding, each requiring essential knowledge and skills from the lower levels.
Here is a brief list of the levels of learning and their definition. The lowest level (1)
requires the least prerequisite information, where the highest level (5), requires the most.
For each learning objective question, consider the style and type of question to
understand the level of prerequisite knowledge you must obtain before successfully
answering the question being asked. This will be the hallmark of success in any class you
take during your educational journey.

Levels of Learning and their Definition:

1. Knowledge: Remember previously learned information.
2. Comprehension: Demonstrate an understanding of the facts.
3. Application: Apply knowledge to actual situations.
4. Analysis: Break down objects or ideas into simpler parts and find evidence to
support generalizations.
5. Synthesis: Compile component ideas into a new whole or propose alternative
solutions.
6. Evaluation: Make and defend judgments based on internal evidence or external
criteria.

This class will ask you to evaluate, synthesize, analyze, apply and comprehend the
course material. Memory only will not allow you to pass this class!
 Lecture Learning Objectives for BIO 230

Suggested Use of Study Guides/Study Techniques for all lecture exams:

Ø Read the assigned book section before lecture and take notes during class
Ø Pay particular attention to any figures noted in the lecture and look over them
while studying. If I am talking about a figure, there is a high probability I will test
you on it!
Ø Look over lecture outlines before class. Look up any unfamiliar terms and learn
their definitions.
Ø Take notes on the lecture and/or record the lecture. Write down not only what is
written on the board, but also details and descriptions given verbally. Studies have
found that written notes are more likely to be learned than typewritten notes!
Ø Review your notes within 24 hours of the lecture; recopy lecture notes if they are
too messy. Clarify and organize notes for studying.
Ø Write down questions about confusing parts of the reading/lectures notes and
make a point to attend office hours to get clarification, or ask during class.
Ø Answer questions in the chapter, the back of the chapter, and the study guide
(using both your notes, the PowerPoint lecture, and your book as references).
Ø Write down the answers (good practice for exams!) and go over questions you are
not sure about in office hours, before, during or after class, or via email.
Ø When studying, challenge yourself to recall your notes instead of just looking
over them again and again. If you aren’t challenging your mind, you aren’t
learning!
Ø The Learning Objectives are the foundation of my lecture. The PowerPoint
lectures will complement these learning objectives but may introduce additional
learning material. You are responsible for all of this material we discuss in lecture
and lab!
Ø You should learn any new terminology you come across in the text, regardless if I
include it in this guide.

Note: Use these study guides as a general resource for course material. As the semester
continues I may add/delete course objectives to these study guides. I will make
announcements of these changes in class or on Blackboard. It is your responsibility to
attend class and take notes during lecture of all material covered. Some areas may be
assigned as independent reading/learning but I will always be available to help you
understand any content that is challenging or confusing.

The Five Steps of Learning

Read over the lecture notes, textbook and PowerPoint slides.
Create study guides, flash cards or other tools that make you a successful learner.
Study on a regular, weekly basis using your learning tools.
Challenge yourself on all material without having to look back over your notes.
Repeat this process each week to retain your knowledge while learning new material.
Review Material
Ø I will not be covering this material in class. To be successful in this class you
should be well versed in this material.
Ø This information has been broken down into the six levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy
so you can understand the level of learning and commitment you’ll need to
answer the question thoroughly. Pay attention to the action words (underlined) of
Bloom’s taxonomy.
Ø If you have a hard time answering these questions you are not prepared to take
this Anatomy class. General biology is the foundation for this class.

Learning Level: Knowledge

1. Memorize the four classes of complex organic molecules, their respective
monomers, polymers and functions in the human body.
2. Learn the name, structure and specific function(s) of all cellular organelles
3. Name the three major cell junctions and their functions (gap junctions, tight
junctions, desmosomes.)
4. Learn the structure and function of each cellular organelle.
5. Name the molecules that can be used for cellular metabolism.

Learning Level: Comprehension

1. Understand how the four monomers create a living cell.
2. Describe the arrangement of cellular organelles with respect to function.
3. Discuss the differences of metabolism of the four biomolecules (monomers).

Learning Level: Application

1. Based upon your knowledge of specific organelles and their respective functions,
predict which organelles would be abundant in a given cell type.

Learning Level: Analysis

1. Describe the molecular structure of the cell/plasma membrane and relate its
structure to the various types of transport mechanisms that move substances
across it.
2. Compare and contrast the structure, function and location of microvilli vs. cilia.
3. Describe the molecular structure of the three major types of intercellular
attachments (desmosomes, tight junctions, gap junctions); and list specific tissue
types that utilize each of them.

Learning Level: Synthesis and Evaluation

1. Summarize cellular metabolism under aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
2. Summarize the general functions of the plasmalemma and how it relates to
specific cell type and function.
Introduction (start of new course material)
Chapter 1: pgs. 2-5, 14-21

1. Define the following terms: microscopic anatomy: cytology vs. histology; gross
anatomy: surface anatomy, regional anatomy vs. systemic anatomy; homeostasis.
2. Describe the levels of organization.
3. Use directional terminology to describe the relative position of the body parts.
4. Define and learn each of the anatomical regions and landmarks of the body.
5. Describe the plans of division used to divide and image the body.
6. Learn the terminology used in sectional anatomy.
7. Describe the location of the various body cavities. Identify the major organ(s)
contained within each cavity and the affiliated serous membranes.
8. Understand the function of serous membranes found in the ventral body cavities.
How are they named? What are their names and which organs do they cover?
9. Memorize the nine abdomino-pelvic regions and describe their relative locations
using anatomical and directional terminology.
10. Learn how to recognize structures that have been cut via cross section vs.
longitudinal section.
11. Understand how 2D histology slides can represent a 3D tissue depending on the
type of cut used in histological preps.
12. Learn the difference between a cross-sectional cut and a longitudinal cut.

The Four Tissues, General Histology and the Histology of Connective

Tissue
Chapter 3: pgs. 54-60, 64 – 74, 78-80, 82, 84 – 86

1. Name the three primary germ layers of the embryo and those tissues each layer
give rise to. Include the origins of connective tissue and the development of organ
systems. (Embryology Summary: pgs: 82, 84-86)
2. Name the four main tissue types of the body and the functions they serve.
3. Learn the functions and classifications of connective tissue. We will learn the
other tissues later.
4. Describe the structural characteristics and organization of connective tissue
(scattered cells, extracellular matrix, vascularity, presence of extracellular fibers,
variety of cell types, etc).
5. Define the following terms associated with connective tissue: matrix, ground
substance, organic fibers (all three types), cell types, mesenchyme.
6. Describe the six main types of connective tissue and the cells associated with each
type.
7. Know the different ground substance and proteins fibers associated with each type
of connective tissue. How does the change in these factors influence the
characteristic of the connective tissue
8. Understand the structure, function, and location for each kind of connective tissue.
9. Understand the similarities and differences between the six different types of
connective tissues.
 10. Describe the basic structure of cartilage as well as the differences between hyaline,
fibro-, and elastic cartilage. Describe their respective functions and locations.
11. Compare and contrast between the structures of bone vs. cartilage both of which
are connective tissue.
12. Understand the mechanism behind cartilage growth (Appositional and Intersitital)
and the cells involved in each process.
13. Understand the difference between the perichondrium and periosteum. What cells
are associated with each membrane? How many layers compose each membrane.

Epithelial Tissue and Membranes

Chapter 3: pgs. 54 – 63, 75 - 77

1. Describe the general characteristics and organization of all epithelial tissues

(cellularity, polarity, basement membrane, avascularity, regeneration capability,
cell junctions).
2. List the 8 different types of epithelial tissue by name. Fully explain the structure,
function, and location for each type. Include: simple (squamous, cuboidal
columnar), pseudostratified ciliated columnar, stratified (squamous (keratnized vs.
nonkeratinized), cuboidal, columnar), transitional).
3. Describe how nutrients are delivered to epithelial tissues given their lack of a
direct blood supply.
4. With respect to glandular epithelium, explain the difference between: exocrine vs.
endocrine glands, merocrine, holocrine, vs. apocrine secretion. Cite an example
of each type.
5. Define the term: membrane. What level of organization does a membrane belong?
6. What two tissue types is a membrane composed of? Describe the structure,
function, and location of the four types of membranes found in the human body
(serous, mucous, synovial, and cutaneous). Give specific examples of serous
membranes and where you would find them in the body.
7. Understand the framework of connective tissue in the body, including superficial
fascia, deep fascia, and subserous fascia. Clearly delineate the location,
connective tissue and functions of each layer

The Integumentary System

Chapter 4: pgs. 91 – 98, 107 - 109

1. List the multiple function of the integumentary system and describe the specific
anatomical structures responsible for each function.
2. Describe the structural organization, tissue type and function of the 2 main layers
of skin (epidermis and dermis) and their various sublayers including the 5 strata
of the epidermis (basale/germinativum, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum,
corneum) and the 2 sublayers of the dermis (papillary, reticular).
3. Explain the differences between thick and thin skin including both structural
differences and location
4. Define epidermal ridges and lines of cleavage in the dermis and discuss their
clinical significance.
 5. Describe the microscopic structures (tissue types and accessory structures) and
function of the subcutaneous layer located deep to skin, called the
hypodermis/superficial fascia.
6. Explain the difference between keratinocytes and melanocytes, including their
respective functions and locations.
7. Describe the process of desquamation of dead, keratinized cells and the
replacement of those cells by mitosis. Where does each of these processes occur
(in which statum?) and what happens in the intervening strata to the cells? How
long does this process generally take?
8. Describe the 3 different factors that cause pigmentation of skin. Which of these
factors allows human skin color to vary widely between pinkish-white to dark-
brown in human populations? What ultimately determines ones’ skin color and
what cellular processes are involved?
9. Describe the blood supply to the skin (both plexuses).
10. Describe the structure, function, location of the accessory structures of skin,
including: arrector pili, hair follicle, sebaceous gland, sweat gland, tactile
(Meissner’s) corpuscle, lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscle.
11. Contrast the method of secretion for the 2 types of glands (apocrine and
merocrine).

The Skeletal System

Chapters 5: pgs. all
Chapter 6-7: pgs. all (to be studied in conjunction with required lab material)

1. Describe the structure of compact/dense bone tissue. Define all new terminology,
including but not limited to: periosteum, osteon, central canal, concentric
lamellae, lacunae, canaliculus, interstitial lamellae, circumferential lamellae,
perforating canal.
2. Describe the structure of spongy/cancellous/trabecular bone tissue. Define all new
terminology, including but not limited to: trabeculae, lamellae, endosteum.
3. Differentiate the following cell types by function: osteoprogenitor, osteoblasts,
osteocytes, and osteoclasts. Where are each located?
4. Describe the structural and functional difference between the periosteum and
endosteum. What cells are involved with each?
5. Define the axial vs. the appendicular skeleton.
6. Describe the 6 different classes of bones by shape. Give examples of each class of
bone and describe their location in the skeleton (use regional terminology and
axial vs. appendicular location terms).
7. Describe the gross and microscopic anatomy of a long bone.
8. Discuss the location of spongy bone tissue vs. compact bone tissue, red vs. yellow
bone marrow and medullary cavity (found in cancellous bone).
9. Understand the basic terminology of both internal and external gross anatomy.
10. Locate and structurally differentiate between the endosteum vs. periosteum.
11. Understand the difference between the epiphyseal plate vs. epiphyseal line. What
tissue makes up the epiphyseal plate?
 12. Describe the two methods of bone development, Intramembraneous vs.
Endochondral. Make note of the mechanism of each method of bone development
13. Differentiate between bone growth and bone development.
14. Which bones use Intramembranous development and which bones use
endochondral development?
15. Understand the difference between ossification and calcification.
16. Discuss the mechanism of bone elongation at the epiphyseal plate vs. that of bone
width growth (appositional).
17. Identify the role that cartilage plays during bone growth and development.
18. Know the difference between epiphyseal cartilage vs. articular cartilage. What
type of cartilage are these?
19. What nutrient factors are required for normal bone growth throughout life?
20. What hormones are required for normal bone growth? What are their functions?
21. Describe the function and relative location of dense vs. cancellous bone in a long
bone, its reason for being there, and how this contributes to bone strength,
remodeling and growth.
22. Discuss the difference between red vs. yellow bone marrow.
23. Learn the difference between bone remodeling, bone growth and bone
development. These are three different processes with different cellular
mechanisms.
24. What factors trigger bone remodeling throughout our lives?
25. Discuss bone repair after a fracture. What cells are involved and what role do they
play?
26. Learn the four steps to bone repair

Articulations
Chapter 8: pgs. 212 – 226, 228 – 233

1. Name and describe the 3 classes of joints found in the human body according to
the structural classification (bony, fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial).
2. What criterion is used to classify joints structurally?
3. Name and define the 3 functional classes of joints (synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis,
diarthrosis) and give an example of each.
4. Define the following terms and give an example of each: suture, syndesmosis,
gomphosis, synchondrosis, symphysis, synostosis.
5. Draw and label the distinguishing features of a simple synovial joint.
6. Differentiate and describe the various features in terms of their structure/histology,
function, and location: joint/articular capsule, synovial membrane, synovial/joint
cavity, synovial fluid, and articular cartilage.
7. Understand the 3 functions synovial fluid serves.
8. List and describe the structure including histology and function of all possible
accessory structures that may be found associated with a given synovial joints:
bursae, synovial tendon sheaths, menisci and articular discs, fat pads, ligaments,
and tendons.
9. Describe the four factors that contribute to the stability/strength of a synovial joint
and give an example of a joint that is primarily stabilized by each factor.
 10. What attribute is gained at the expense of stability and strength in synovial joints?
11. Learn the bones, bone markings, and ligaments that make up the following 5
joints: Temporomandibular, Glenohumeral joint, Elbow joint, Hip joint, Knee
joint. What classification do these joints fall under?
12. Distinguish the following 6 different structural classifications of synovial joints:
plane, hinge, pivot, condylar/ellipsoidal, saddle, and ball-and-socket joints.
13. Cite an example of a joint for each of the six structural classification of synovial
joints.
14. Describe the types of movement allowed and cite an example located in the
human body for each six types.
15. Distinguish the 4 following types of articular motion: gliding, angular,
circumduction, and rotation.
16. Define the following terms listed below and used to describe movement at a
synovial joint:
a. Gliding: gliding
b. Angular: flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction,
circumduction
c. Rotation: internal/medial, external/lateral, pronation, supination
d. Special: inversion, eversion, dorsiflexion (ankle flexion), plantar flexion
(ankle extension), protraction, retraction, elevation, depression,
opposition.

The Muscular System

Chapter 3: pgs. 78 – 79
Chapter 9: pgs. 244 – 257, 260, 262 – 263
Chapters 10-12: pgs. all (for lab study)

1. Compare and contrast the 3 types of muscle tissue (skeletal, cardiac, smooth).
Include information on their respective locations, functions, histological
organization (striations, nuclei, cell shape, branching), repair abilities, and
innervation.
2. Describe the characteristics and functions of skeletal muscle tissue.
3. Draw and label the gross anatomy of a skeletal muscle. Define each of the
following terms: origin, insertion, belly, epimysium, perimysium, fascicle,
endomysium, fiber, tendon, aponeurosis.
4. Describe the internal/cellular organization of skeletal muscle fibers (myofibers).
Include in your description: myofiber, sarcoplasm, sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic
reticulum, transverse tubules, triad, myofibril, myofilament. Which of these are
new organelles, unique to muscle cells? Define the functional role of each of the
listed cellular organelles/structures?
5. Consider the microanatomy of a myofiber and define the components of a
sarcomere. Identify the following structures, including the molecular components
and their function, in muscle contraction: Actin, myosin, Z-line, I band, M-line, H
band, and A band.
6. Explain how the molecular organization of a sarcomere relates to the striations
(dark vs. light bands) evident in histological sections of skeletal muscle tissue.
 7. Explain how the structure of a sarcomere changes during a muscle contraction.
What happens to the A-bands as opposed to the I-bands during a contraction?
8. Define a neuromuscular junction (synapse). Identify its structures, including:
synaptic terminal, synaptic vesicles, acetylcholine, actetylcholine esterase,
synaptic cleft, motor end plate.
9. Define and describe a motor unit. Given the number of myofibers located in a
muscle and the number of motor neurons innervating that muscle, be able to
understand how the number of activated motor units correlates with the work of a
muscle.
10. What is muscle tone and how is it maintained? What receptors are involved?
What functions does muscle tone serve the body?
11. Compare and contrast structural and functional characteristics of fast (twitch) vs.
slow (twitch) muscle fibers. You may ignore the intermediate fiber.

The Nervous System

Chapter 13: all (skip Neural regeneration, and Neuron Organization and Processing)

1. Describe neural tissue, its properties and the main cell types involved.
2. Make a running list of new vocabulary associated with the nervous system.
Attempt to define the words in terms of structure, function, location and/or
example (where appropriate). Use Table 13.1 as a reference, although we will not
be covering all these terms.
3. Understand and explain the structural and functional subdivisions of the nervous
system. Define the following terms: afferent, efferent, receptor, sensory, motor,
effectors, somatic autonomic, and visceral.
4. Draw a chemical synapse (vesicular synapse) between 2 neurons. Label the
presynaptic membrane, postsynaptic membrane with protein receptors, synaptic
knob/terminal bouton, synaptic cleft, telodendrion, and indicate the location of the
neurotransmitters inside vesicles. Define a neuroeffector junction and give 2
specific examples.
5. Describe the structure of a nerve. How does a tract differ from a nerve? Consider
both structure and location.
6. Describe the structural characteristics of 3 functional types of neurons: sensory,
motor, interneurons (association). List at least 2 specific types of sensory neurons
and 2 specific types of motor neurons and describe their locations (consider
visceral vs. somatic distinctions).
7. What is a neuroglial cell? How do neuroglia differ structurally and functionally
from neurons? Describe the structure, function and location of the 6 types of
neuroglia.
8. What function does myelin serve? Which cells provide myelination in the CNS vs.
the PNS?
9. Draw a cross section and a longitudinal section of a myelinated axon in the PNS.
Label the Schwann cell, neurolemma, nucleus, axon, axolemma, myelin sheath,
and node of Ranvier.
 10. Categorize the 3 types of receptors (exteroreceptors, proprioceptors, and
interoceptors), and different types of effectors (skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
muscle, glands, adipose tissue).
11. Trace the process by which a receptor activates a neuronal response, which in turn
coordinates an effector-mediated response.
12. Outline the anatomical organization of the nervous system. Use Figure 13.15 to
guide your study.
13. Describe 3 structural types of neurons: (pseudo)unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar.
Where is each type commonly found in the body and what pathway does it serve?
Possible pathways include sensory (afferent), motor (efferent), and special senses
(afferent)?

The Nervous System

Chapter 14: pgs. 368 – 377, 386 – 388
Chapter 15: pgs. 393 – 399
Chapter 16: pgs. 406 – 428, 436 – 437 (text reading will be limited to what is covered in
lecture)
Chapter 17: pgs. all (text reading will be limited to what is covered in lecture)
Chapter 18: pgs. 471 – 475 (rest of text will be for lab use only)

1. Outline the spinal meninges, their function, and location.

2. Draw the cross section of the spinal cord. Label the gray vs. white matter,
posterior, lateral, and anterior gray horns, posterior, lateral, and anterior white
columns, posterior and anterior spinal nerve roots, posterior root ganglia,
posterior and anterior rami, central canal, gray commissure, posterior median
sulcus and anterior median fissure.
3. Trace nerve impulses into, through, and out of the spinal cord depending up on
whether they are sensory or motor, somatic or autonomic.
4. Contrast the structure and function of ascending vs. descending spinal tracts.
Which belong to the somatic sensory vs. somatic motor pathway?
5. List the anatomical terms associated with spinal cord and spinal nerves (conus
medullaris, cauda equina, filum terminale, cervical and lumbar enlargements,
and all four nerve plexuses).
6. How many pairs of cervical vs. thoracic vs. lumbar vs. sacral vs. coccygeal spinal
nerves are present? How does this compare to the numbers of regional vertebrae
in the spinal column?
7. List the 4 classifications of reflexes (development, response, complexity,
processing site).
8. Draw and label a simple reflex arc, stretch reflex and the flexor-extensor reflex
(this reflex is not in your book but will be discussed in class).
9. List the 5 structural components of a spinal reflex arc. Explain the function of a
reflex arc and how signals to the brain are not required for their action.
10. Describe the principle ascending sensory tracts and the sensory information they
provide (Posterior columns, Spinothalamic tract, Spinocerebelar tract). Use
Table 15.1 as a resource but not all the information in this table is required.
11. Describe the principle descending motor tracts and the action they provide
(Corticopinal tracts, Subconscious motor pathways). Use Table 15.2 as a resource
but not all the information in this table is required.
12. List the 5 encephalons from rostral (superior, anterior end) to caudal (interior,
posterior end): telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, and
myelencephalon. List the brain structures located within each encephalon and
explain their function. Use Figure 16.1 as a guide.
13. Describe the 4 different mechanisms to protect and support the brain (cranium,
cranial meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and its circulation, blood-brain barrier).
14. Draw a cross section showing the cerebral cortex and the meninges that covers it.
Label the dura mater (including 2 sublayers), arachnoid membrane, pia mater,
subarachnoid space, and dural sinuses.
15. Compare and contrast the 3 cranial meninges and explain what happens to the
dura mater in the transverse and longitudinal fissures. List the specialized
membranes (falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli, falx cerebelli, diaphragm sellae).
16. How many ventricles are in the brain? What are their names, and where are they
located? Describe the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid around the brain and
spinal cord and through the ventricles.
17. What is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF); what is its function and where is it produced?
18. Using your preferred mnemonic, list the number and name of the 12 cranial
nerves. Consider their origin of the name and describe they type of nerve fibers
(sensory, motor, mixed). Pay attention to those that include ANS fibers?
a. Such mnemonics include:
i. On Old Olympus’ Towing Tops A French And Germans Viewed
Some Hops (not in correct order)
ii. Only Owls Observe Them Taking And Finding Voldemort’s
Guarded And Vexed Horcruxes (not in correct order)
iii. Or you can use the historic X-rated mnemonics found online. (I’ll
let you find it!)
19. Describe two pathways by which the nervous system exerts control over the
endocrine system.
20. Explain how the suprarenal medulla is linked both structurally and functionally to
the autonomic nervous system
21. Describe the two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions). Define dual innervation.
22. Trace the anatomical distribution of the sympathetic output. Define the following
terms: preganglionic nerve, postganglionic nerve, sympathetic chain ganglia, and
collateral ganglia.
23. Trace the anatomical distribution of the parasympathetic output. Which cranial
nerves are associated with this pathway?
24. Explain how the suprarenal (adrenal) medulla is linked both structurally and
functionally to the autonomic nervous system.
25. Describe the details of a visceral reflex, both long and short.
26. Compare and contrast the visceral reflex from the somatic reflex
27. What is the difference between a general sense and a special sense? Where do
these locate in the body?
 28. Name the four general sensory receptors (Nociceptors, Thermoreceptors,
Mechanoreceptors, Chemoreceptors). Give an example of where they can be
found and their function in the body.

The Cardiovascular System – the Heart

Chapter 21: pgs. all

1. Describe the gross anatomy of the thoracic cavity, pleural cavity, and pericardial
cavity including the mediastiunum, parietal and visceral pericardia.
2. Identify the layers and tissues composing the layers of the heart, from the
epicardium to the endocardium.
3. Draw a coronal section of the heart and label the four hear chambers, four heart
valves and all the great vessels entering and leaving the heart. Describe the path
of blood flow into the thru the hart. Label the three layers of the wall of the heart.
4. Compare and contrast the atrioventricular valves (AV) and semilunar valves (SL)
in terms of both their structure and their mechanism of function. Are both right
and left AV valves identical in structure? What about both semilunar valves? How
are these four valves named and what is the basis of their individual names?
5. Describe or draw the branching diagram of the coronary circulation. Describe the
location of each vessel on the heart based upon external anatomical landmarks
(anterior vs. posterior interventricular sulci, coronary sulcus, etc).
6. Identify and label the conduction pathways thru the heart. What specialized cell
types makes up this pathway? Where is it located in the heart (layer)?

The Cardiovascular System – the Blood Vessels

Chapter 22: pgs. 571 – 598

1. Understand the functional and structural differences between artery, vein,

capillary, arteriole, venule and portal vein.
2. Draw and label the generic structure of the wall of a blood vessel. Name the 3
layers and give the tissue type of each layer.
3. Make a table that indicates how the generic structure differs in arteries vs.
arterioles vs. capillaries vs. venules vs. veins. Justify the organization of these
tissues based upon their function on location in the wall of each organ.
4. How do continuous capillaries, fenestrated capillaries, and sinusoids differ from
each other?
5. Draw and label a capillary bed complete with a thoroughfare channel,
metarterioles, anastomoses and precapillary sphincters. Define the function of
each structure.
6. What mechanism causes blood to move through arteries? Through veins?
Describe any structural changes in veins that facilitate blood return to the heart.
7. What structures act as the body’s blood reservoir and what is the clinical
significance of the venous reserve?
The Lymphatic System
Chapter 23: pgs. 608 – 613, 616 – 625

1. List the specialized tissues and organs of the lymphoid system. Describe the
specific structure and function of each, including the major lymph-collecting
ducts (tonsils, cisterna chili, lymphatic capillaries, lymph fluid, lymph nodules,
thymus, spleen, bone marrow, etc).
2. What is the difference between lymph nodules and lymph nodes? Where are the
following examples of lymph nodules located? (tonsils, Peyers patch of
aggregated lymphoid nodules).
3. Name the 3 major lymphocytes, their site of origin and specific functions.
4. Trace the lymphatic vessel pathways from capillaries to the two lymph ducts.
5. Identify the nine lymphatic trunks and which region of the body they drain.
6. Identify where the two lymph ducts drain lymph back into the venous system.

Respiratory System
Chapter 24: pgs. all

1. Draw the respiratory tract, from external nares to alveoli, and label the organs
and/or macroscopic structures. Briefly describe the function of each organ and
structure in the tract.
2. Describe how the histology of the wall of the respiratory tract changes from one
organ or region to the next. Consider changes in the respiratory epithelium,
cartilage, and smooth muscle layers. You must learn to justify this organization
based upon local functions served by each organ.
3. Describe the respiratory (exchange) membrane where gases are exchanged
between blood in pulmonary capillaries and air inside of lungs. What layers form
this membrane and what tissue type are they? What is lung surfactant and where
is it located and what cell produced it?
4. Describe the Pleural cavities and pleural membranes, and the function they serve
in respiration.
5. Explain ventilation in terms of volume and pressure changes, muscle use and
open-air passageways. Which skeletal muscles are involved?

The Digestive System

Chapter 25: pgs. all

1. Draw the route that food takes from the mouth to anus. Label all organs and
regions of organs, including landmarks and feature unique to the organ. Add
accessory organs to your drawing and connect them by ducts to the correct organ
of the GI tract. Label all pertinent structures.
2. Draw a cross section of the wall of the GI tract. Label the four main layers
(mucusa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa or adventitia), the luman, and
the sublayers of the mucosa (mucosal epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis
mucosa), and of the muscularis externa (inner circular, outer longitundinal layers
 (oblique were appropriate). Identify where the location and functional differences
along the GI tract.
3. Consider the four main layers in the wall of the GI tract, one layer at a time.
Describe the basic structure (histology and gross anatomy) of each layer and
explain modification to this basic structure along the entire length of the tract
(organ by organ).
4. Describe the peritoneal cavity, the parietal peritoneum and visceral peritoneum,
and the affiliated membranes: mesentry proper, mesocolon, lesser omentum,
greater omentum, falciform ligament, coronary ligament and ligamentum teres.
What organ do they suspend and where do they arise from: the dorsal body wall
or the ventral?
5. List the mechanical and chemical digestion of food. Where each occurs and how
they modify food. List the specific secretions (by name), and where they are
produced (name cell, structure, organ/gland), where they enter the lumen of the
GI tract, and what effect they have on food.
6. What is the function of the liver? What is bile, where is it produced, where is it
stored, and what is its function?
7. Draw and label the biliary duct system that drains the liver, gallbladder and the
pancreas. Include its point of entry into the luman of the GI tract. Include:
common hepatic duct, cystic duct, common bile duct, pancreatic duct,
hepatopancreatic sphincter.

The Urinary System

Chapter 26: pgs. all

1. Draw and label the organs of the urinary tract. Describe the specific structure
(including histology) and the function of each organ (kidney, ureter, bladder,
urethra).
2. Describe the gross anatomy of the kidneys, both external features (hilus, renal
capsule, adipose capsule (perinephric or perirenal fat)), and internal features
(renal cortex, renal medulla, renal pyramids, renal papilla, renal columns, minor
calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis).
3. Draw and label the complete nephron. Alongside each labeled structure of the
nephron draw an individual cell representing the type of epithelium that lines that
portion of the renal tubule. Connect the end of the renal tubule to the collecting
system of tubules/ducts that lead to the renal pelvis; be sure to label them.
Describe the specific function of each labeled structure.
4. Describe or draw the pathway that brings blood to the kidneys, into and thru the
cortex and medulla, and back out of the organ to the inferior vena cava. Label all
vessels including peritubular capillaries and vasa recta.
5. Describe or draw the structural components of the juxtaglomerular complex.
What is the function of this structure?
The Reproductive System
Chapter 27: pgs. all

1. Draw and label the male reproductive tract (the pathway that spermatozoa follow
from formation to ejaculation). Describe the specific function of each organ of the
tract.
2. Locate and describe the following terms: dartos muscle, inguinal canal, spermatic
cord, cremaster muscle, tunica albuginea, semiferous tubules, Sertoli cells,
interstitial cells (of Leydig), epididymis, ejaculatory duct, glans penis, prepuce,
urogenital diaphragm, prostatic vs. membranous vs. spongy(penile) urethra.
3. Describe the histology of the scrotum, testis, epididymis, urethra and penis
4. Describe the three accessory glands that produce seminal fluid in the male.
Identify their locations and where it communicates with the tract. List the specific
contribution of each gland to the seminal fluid and the function it serves.
5. Draw and label the female reproductive tract (the pathway that an ovum follows
from formation to release from body). Describe the specific function of each
organ.
6. Locate and describe the following terms:
a. Ovary: primordial follicle, mature/Graafian follicle, corpus luteum,
corpus albicans
b. Uterine tubes: infundibulum, ampulla, isthmus, and fimbriae
c. Uterus: fundus, body, isthmus, cervix, vesicouterine puch, rectouterine
puch, endometrium (functional vs. basilar layer/zone), myometrium,
perimetrium
d. Vagina: fornix and hymen
e. Female external genitalia: vulva (pudendum), labia majora, labia minora,
clitoris, vestibule
7. Describe the histology of each of the following organs: ovary, uterine (Fallopian)
tubes, uterus, vagina.
8. Locate the ligaments/membranes that support the female reproductive tract: broad,
suspensory, ovarian, and round ligaments, and mesovarium.
9. Describe the ovarian cycle and contrast it with the uterine cycle. What structural
changes occur in both the ovaries and uterus during these respective cycles?
Which cycle corresponds with the menstrual cycle? Note: You do not need to
know how hormones play a role in these cycles.
10. Compare and contrast the reproductive organs in the male vs. female. Discuss
their gross anatomy and/or histology as it accommodates function. Compare and
contrast the external genitalia of males vs. female with regards to the structural
deviations during development.
Learning Activities (optional)
These are a list of helpful activities that you can choose to supplement and, hopefully,
enhance your studying. These are optional and will not be graded. These activities do not
cover every chapter but the basic concepts can be applied for learning any content learned
in this class. Only do these if you feel you are learning from them. These are designed to
get you thinking of different ways you can organize your lecture notes and study material.
Find what works best for you and exploit it!

Learning Activity #1 – Chapter 1

This activity is designed to help you memorize the anatomical terms found in Chapter 1
and your lab manual. Memorization comes via repetition. One memorized you can begin
to comprehend the material
Ø Make your own set of flashcards with the anatomical landmarks with the common
name on one side and the anatomical landmark name on the other. Use distributed
learning to memorize this information: that is study in short concentrated sessions
spaced out over time
Ø An alternative approach: Write the anatomical landmarks three times by making
three columns on each page of paper with corresponding common name and
anatomical name. The purpose of the repetition is in order to shift the words into
your long-term memory. This option is designed particularly for students who
may have difficulty with spelling. Check your spelling each time you write the
word.

Learning Activity #2 – Chapter 3

This activity is designed to help you learn about the use of tables in learning and
organizing content.
Ø Design a table that describes the major types of connective tissue. Organize this
based on the following: Specialized cells, predominant protein fibers, ground
substance, location, and function
Ø Design a table or create flash cards that organize the types of epithelial cells by
their cell shape, the number of layers, their location, and function.

Learning Activity #3 – Chapter 5

This activity is designed to help you formulate your throughts for a short answer/essay
style questions.
Ø Compare and contrast Endochondral Ossification and bone elongation at the
epiphyseal plate.
Ø Outline the 5 steps of Endochondral ossification. When does this process occur?
What cells and tissues are used in this process? Define terms that distinguish this
from intramembranous ossification.
Ø Outline the process of bone elongation at the epiphyseal plate. When does this
process occur? What cells and tissues are used in this process?
Learning Activity #4 – Chapter 8
This activity is designed to help you learn about the use of tables in learning and
organizing content.
Ø Design a table that describes the major types of connective tissue. Organize this
based on the following: joints discussed in lecture lab, their ligaments and
capsular structures, types of movement, synovial joint classification, and general
function

Learning Activity #5 – Chapter 9

This activity is designed to help you understand the structure of the sarcomere and learn
how creating your own diagrams and pictures can help you learn the material.
Ø Draw a sarcomere when the muscle is relaxed and when the muscle is contracting.
Label the following proteins, bands and lines for each process
o Z line, I band, A band, H band, M line, Actin, Myosin

Learning Activity #6 – Chapter 13

This activity is designed to help you learn different ways to learn anatomical terminology.
You will use general nervous system, as outlined in Chapter 13, for this example. You
will be using this language as we learn the Nervous System throughout all the chapter.
Learning this language early will help you in the future!
Ø Define the following terms. Create your study tool of choice (flash cards, table,
diagram, etc) to place meaning behind these terms:
Ø Central Nervous System
Ø Peripheral Nervous System
o Somatic Nervous System
o Autonomic Nervous System
§ Sympathetic Nervous System
§ Parasympathetic Nervous System
Ø Afferent Division
Ø Efferent Division
Ø Receptor
o Somatic Sensory
o Special Sensory
o Visceral Sensory
Ø Effector
o Somatic
o Visceral
Ø Gray Matter
o Ganglia
o Neural cortex
o Nuclei
o Centers
Ø White Matter
o Nerves
o Tracts
o Columns
 Ø Pathways
o Ascending
o Descending

Learning Activity #7 – Chapter 14

This activity is designed for you to learn how creating your own diagrams can help you
learn complicated processes. We will be learning the organization of the sensory and
motor pathways into and from the spinal cord. We will be performing part of this activity
during class but doing this beforehand may allow you to understand it more completely.

Diagram the following structures and trace the proper nerves through these structures:
1. Dorsal root
2. Dorsal root gangion
3. Ventral root
4. Ventral ramus
5. Dorsal ramus
6. Spinal nerve
7. Gray ramus
8. White ramus
9. Somatic sensory fiber
10. Visceral sensory fiber
11. Visceral motor fiber
12. Postganglionic fiber leading to visceral organs
13. Postganglionic fiber leading to body wall (skin on front and back)
14. Somatic motor nerve
15. Posterior gray horn
16. Lateral gray horn
17. Anterior gray horn
18. Posterior median sulcus
19. Anterior median fissure
20. Sympathetic chain ganglion

Learning Activity #8 – Chapter 16

This activity is designed to help you organize the arrangement of the cranial nerves
around the brain through use of diagramming. You do not need to be an art major to use
diagrams to help you learn; but rather the will and patience to create a drawing that helps
you learn challenging concepts
Ø Create a diagram that shows the placement on all 12 cranial nerves on the brain.
How you choose to do this is up to you. For each cranial nerve, identify the region
of the brain it leaves, its specific function, and where each nerve ends.
Ø Make up your own, or find one online, mnemonic that will help you learn the
order of the cranial nerves as well as their general function (sensory, motor, or
mixed).
Learning Activity #9 – Chapter 21-22
This activity is designed to help you learn how traces, through an organ system, can help
you learn and identify the appropriate structures in their proper order. Trace the blood
vessels throughout the cardiovascular system. You may choose any format for describing
this blood flow so long as it adequately describes the major arteries and veins. Use the
following examples:
Ø Trace blood coming from the left ventricle of the heart to the cranium and back to
the heart. Include the major arteries heading to the brain including both arterial
pathways (vertebral and internal carotid arteries), eventually ending at the
Cerebral Arterial Circle. Identify each artery that makes up the cerebral arterial
circle. You may continue with venous blood return starting at the 4 major dural
sinuses and heading back out of the head (include the major veins leaving this
region) and down to the left ventricle of the heart from where you started.
Ø Trace blood coming from the left ventricle of the heart to the large and small
intestines to pick up digested nutrients. Differentiate blood flow to the small vs.
the large intestines. Continue with venous blood return from these same regions,
entering the liver, until you reach the left ventricle of the heart from where you
started.

Learning Activity #10 – Chapter 23

This activity uses the concept of traces or diagraming to help you learn concepts
Ø Organize the two lymphatic ducts into the several trunks that drain into them.
Include the region of the bodies each duct, and their individual trunks drain, as
well as the site of lymph return into the venous system.

Learning Activity #11 – Chapter 24

This activity uses the concept of traces or diagraming to help you learn concepts
Ø Trace the hisotology tract of the respiratory tract as you go through each section
of the Respiratory System. Include the organization of cartilage (Larynx to
Alveoli), organization of smooth muscle (Trachea to Alveoli), organization of
elastic tissue (Trachea to Alveoli) for each stage
1. Nasal Cavity
2. Nasopharynx
3. Oropharynx
4. Laryngopharynx
5. Larynx
6. Trachea
7. Primary Bronchi
8. Secondary Bronchi
9. Tertiary Bronchi
10. Primary Bronchioles
11. Terminal Bronchioles
12. Respiratory Bronchioles
13. Alveolar Ducts/Sacs
Learning Activity #12 – Chapter 25
This activity uses the concept of traces or diagraming to help you learn concepts
Ø Trace the histology tract of the digestive system as you go through each organ of
the Digestive System. You may create a table or diagram. Make sure to include
the following items:
1. The 5 layers (Mucosa, Muscularis mucosae, Submucosa, Muscularis
Externa, Serous/Adventita at each organ
2. Differentiate whether the organ is surrounded by a serous membrane or
adventitia
3. Differentiate how many layers (type of layers) in the muscle layers in each
organ, including the class of muscle tissue (skeletal/smooth).
4. Any structural landmarks (sphincters, crypts, vili, plica, pits, etc) that may
be present in each organ or at organ junctions.
5. Any specialized cells and the layer they belong in that differentiates each
organ tissue from one another
Organs of Digestive Tract to Include:
1. Mouth
2. Esophagus
3. Stomach
4. Duodenum
5. Jejunum
6. Ileum
7. Colon
8. Rectum
9. Anus

Learning Activity #13 – Chapter 26

This activity uses the concept of traces or diagraming to help you learn concepts
Ø Trace the blood flow starting at the renal artery and ending at the renal vein. Make
sure you include all major arteries and veins that travel in the kidney and enter
and exit the nephron. Include both capillary networks.
Ø Trace the histology of urinary tract, including the specific tissue that makes up the
mucosal layers. Include the following
1. Cell types in the epithelial layer
2. Connective tissue at mucosal and submucosal layer, if applicable.
3. Class of muscle, if applicable at each organ site, and its function.
4. Differentiate the histological differences in the urethra between males and
females.
Organs of the Urinary Tract include:
1. Ureter
2. Bladder
3. Urethra
Learning Activity #14 – Chapter 27
This activity uses the concept of traces or diagraming to help you learn concepts
Ø Trace the histological change in epithelial lining, and their respective functions,
along the tract of the male reproductive system. Include the site of entry from the
three major glands (Seminal, Prostate, and Bulbo-urethral). Include the layers in
the Ductus deferens and the specialized cells, and their function, found in the
testis.
Ø Trace the histological tract of the female reproductive system. Include the layers
of the uterus and the changes in epithelial lining throughout and their respective
functions.
Organs of the Male Reproductive Tract:
1. Testis
2. Epididymis
3. Ductus (Vas) deferens
4. Prostatic Urethra
5. Membranous urethra
6. Spongy/Penile urethra
Organs of the Female Reproductive Tract:
1. Ovary (histology not needed)
2. Uterine tube
3. Uterus
4. Vagina