Session 4

Operating a Ham Station

Figures in this course book are

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
Typical Amateur Station Layout

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Typical Amateur Packet Station

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CW Transmitters are the Simplest

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Block Diagram of FM
Transmitter

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Schematic of FM transmitter

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 Receivers
•  Radio receivers demodulate the signal - they
retrieve the information from the RF wave.
•  Receivers convert radio signals into audio
signals.
•  The heart of the receiver is the detector.
•  Modern receivers are very sensitive and
very complex - use feedback to increase
signal strength

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Simple AM Crystal Set

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Superheterodyne Receiver

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Low Pass Filter

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High Pass Filter

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 Band Pass Filter
= low + high in series

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CW Receiver

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AM Receiver

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FM Receiver

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Data Modes

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Use of Phonetic Alphabet
Improves Understanding

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 Antennas & Feed lines

(Chapter 4)

Figures in this course book are

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 Antennas - General
Information
•  We convert electrical current into radio waves
with an antenna.
•  The purpose of the antenna is to radiate the
energy, propagate the radio wave.
•  When receiving, the antenna converts a radio wave
into an electrical current.
•  A good antenna is worth more than a big amplifier!
•  It pays also to have good, clean connections to
prevent power losses.

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 Transmission or Feed Lines
•  Special cables or wires that connect the
transceiver to the antenna.
•  Feed lines, like antennas, have a
characteristic impedance which needs to
be matched to the transceiver and antenna.
•  Matching devices are used to adapt one
impedance to another.
•  Coaxial cable and parallel conductor (twin
lead) are the two most common feed lines.

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
Coaxial Cable
•  Impedance 50 Ω: RG-58, RG-8
RG-213
•  Impedance 72 Ω: RG-59 RG-11
•  Thick cable (RG-8, RG-11) and
good shielding reduces losses.
•  Advantages are:
–  weather resistance
–  it can be buried
–  it can be bent or coiled
–  it can be next to metal
–  impedance matches most
antennas.
•  Disadvantage is cost.

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
Twin Lead (ladder line)
•  Impedance is 300-450 Ω
•  Major advantage is low losses
(can have a long run).
•  Disadvantages are:
–  cannot be coiled.
–  cannot be run near metal.
–  impedance doesn’t match
modern transmitters.
–  Limited to less than 30 MHz

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Cable Attenuation

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 Connectors are Important
•  BNC connectors are compact, often used for hand held
radios
–  designed for use with RG-58
–  low loss, quick connect.
•  PL-259/SO-259 commonly used for HF and VHF applications.
•  N-Type, designed for RG-213 and RG-8,
–  low loss
–  used for UHF applications
•  Good soldering technique and careful construction are
critical to making good connections of cable to connectors.
If solder joint is dull, not a good connection (“cold solder”)
Best if it’s shiny

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 Impedance Matching
•  Devices are networks of capacitors and inductors.
•  Transmatch is a device that has adjustable
characteristics so it can be used on several bands.
•  SWR (standing wave ratio) meter is used to
measure impedance matching. It is connected
between the transmitter and the transmatch.
•  A balun (balanced to unbalanced) is a device to
couple a balanced load to an unbalanced load.
•  Balanced: e.g.twin lead, dipoles, neither side to
ground.
•  Unbalanced: e.g.coax and verticals, one side to
ground.

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Impedance Matching Hookup

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 Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
•  Ideally, all the forward power from the
transmitter should be emitted by the antenna, if
the impedances are matched.
•  We want all the forward power to radiate from
the antenna and none of it to be reflected.
•  SWR is the ratio of the maximum voltage on the
line to the minimum, ideally, 1:1.
•  SWR of less than 2 is acceptable. Higher than 4
indicates a problem.
•  Modern transmitters are designed to match a 52
Ω load. Will shut down power if SWR > 2
•  Good matching improves performance!

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 SWR Meters
•  Used to measure impedance matching of transmitter
and feed line and the resonant frequency of an
antenna.
•  Need to determine frequencies the meter was
designed for. Outside that range they will not be
accurate.
•  Problems with antennas can be found with the SWR
meter:
–  erratic measurements could indicate loose connections.
–  extremely high could indicate shorts or gross dimension
problems
–  change with time (months) could indicate corrosion.
•  Tuning an antenna is probably the most common use.

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 Half-Wave Dipole Antenna

•  The length of the half-

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 Dipole Stuff
•  Insulators are needed for the center and the ends. Can be
bought (cheap) or can be home-brewed from plastic.
•  Wire choice is important. Best is copper clad steel. 12-14
gauge is suitable. Small gauge wire will will stretch.
•  Cut wires a little longer than calculated to allow for
connections and to allow fine tuning.
•  Use good coax with >95% shielding. RG-58 works just fine
for runs up to about 100 feet.
•  Dipoles radiate most perpendicular to the wire. Alignment
may be important.
•  Get it as high as you can. Preferable 1/2λ above ground.
•  Inverted V and slopers work just fine.

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 More Dipole Stuff
•  Use your imagination to get lines into trees. Bow
and arrow, rocks and slingshots work well. Send up
a light line, then pull through the support ropes.
•  Don’t use polypropylene line; it deteriorates.
Nylon is better, and dacron is best.
•  If you can, support the middle as well as the ends,
it makes for a sturdier installation.
•  Make sure your antenna is a long way from metal
things, flag poles, gutters, etc.
•  NEVER NEVER put your antenna near power lines.

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 Tuning with an SWR Meter
•  Install SWR meter
at antenna feed
point.
•  Set transmitter to
low power.
•  Adjust meter and
take series of
measurements across
frequency band.
•  A “dip” indicates the
resonant frequency
(lowest is best!).
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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 More Tuning With a SWR
•  If there is no dip, you
must look at the slope of
the SWR curve. It
slopes down toward the
resonant frequency.
•  If the minimum is at the
low frequency end, the
antenna is too long.
•  If the minimum is at the
high frequency end, the
antenna is too short (so
make them a little long
to start!!)

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 Multi-Band Dipoles
•  A simple three band dipole can
be built from ladder line in a
manner similar the the simple
dipole.
•  Advantage is that a single
antenna can be used on several
bands.
•  You will need a transmatch.
•  Be careful, this kind of antenna
can radiate on several
wavelengths. Be sure your
transmitter is properly
adjusted.

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 Quarter-Wave Vertical
•  This is an unbalanced antenna, one
side is grounded.
•  Omni-directional that tends to
shoot signals toward horizon.
•  Radiator is 1/4λ = 234/f(MHz).
•  This is accurate for < 30MHz, end
effects and radiator diameter to
frequency ratio make it
overestimate for higher
frequencies
•  Connect center conductor to
radiator and shield to ground.

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 Ground Plane Antenna
Easy to build, good outdoors (and indoors)
Gives an “effective” ground not at true ground

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 Beam Antennas
•  Directional antennas which provide a lot of gain in the
direction pointed. Beam in direction of shortest piece!
•  The more elements, the bigger front to back power ratio
•  Driven element is 1/2 λ, making it impractical for 80 and 40
meters.

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Antenna Polarization

•  Polarization: Direction
of the electric force
lines in a radio wave
•  Vertical antennas are
vertically polarized
•  Dipoles are horizontally
polarized.
•  Best results are
obtained with
transmitting and
receiving antennas
having same
polarization.

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
Cubical Quad and Delta Loop

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 Other Antennas
•  Handy Talkies often use a “rubber duck.” This
design is compact, but a compromise design.
Lower performance (lots shorter than 1/4 λ)
•  Better performance can be had with 1/4 and
5/8 λ telescoping antennas.
•  Roof mounted 5/8 λ antenna has better gain
than the others. Car roof is a great ground
plane!

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 Repeater Overview
•  Simplex operation- two stations are talking directly on the same
frequency. (standards are 146.52 (2m) and 446.000 (70cm)
•  Duplex operation - two stations communicating transmitting and
receiving on different frequencies.
•  Repeater operations - use standard frequency offsets from the
receiving mode. This is automated in most VHF and UHF
equipment.
•  There is a listing of all amateur repeaters which can be used to
find useful frequencies. Many repeaters have special features.
•  Repeater frequencies are mostly coordinated to minimize
overlap and possible interference.
•  Most repeaters are “open”, anyone can use them.
•  Often incorporate CTCSS or PL tones to avoid interference. If
you don’t have the right tone set, you can hear them but they
can’t hear you. Check a repeater directory.
•  Setting “memories” on your rig has it remember the proper
tones!
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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 Repeater Operations
•  Don’t call CQ on a repeater, simply say: “AB5OX
listening”
•  Turn down your squelch then back up to just cover
the noise level. (be sure noone else is talking!)
•  To join a conversation simply say your call sign
during a break and wait to be acknowledged.
•  “Break” means that you have emergency traffic,
don’t use it unless you need it.
•  Most repeaters have a courtesy beep which
indicates that the transmitting station has
released the PTT.
•  Most repeaters also have a time out feature to
protect the transmitter.
•  Be Courteous, it’s more fun that way. 127
PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
CW (Morse Code) Operations
•  Listen before transmitting “QRL?”
•  Send at a speed that you can easily read.
•  Calling CQ, use the “3 X 3” call:
–  CQ CQ CQ DE AB5OX AB5OX AB5OX K
•  To answer, use “2 X 2” format:
–  AB5OX AB5OX DE K5CXH K5CXH AR
•  Use appropriate prosigns, Q signals and abbreviations:
–  K5CXH DE AB5OX BT TNX FOR CALL BT UR RST 559
BT NAME JOHN QTH CAMP STRAKE NR HOUSTON BK
•  Close the conversation as follows:
–  TNX QSO ES 73 BT CUAGN K5CXH DE AB5OX SK

(Use similar prosigns for PSK31)

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 129
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Common Prosigns

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Single Sideband (SSB) Operations
• Voice communications are known as “phone”: SSB, AM,
FM.
• SSB is the most common phone mode on HF.
• Initiate a contact with “3 X 3” call as with CW, but
use phonetics for your call sign.
• Reply with the calling station’s call sign, this is , then
your call phonetically.
• Keep your conversation plain and simple. Be courteous.
• Don’t use prosigns or Q signals and don’t use CB
jargon.
• Signal reports are only “RS”.
• Listen before you talk, use VOX or PTT and listen to
make sure you are not doubling.

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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 Data Emissions - RTTY
•  RTTY - Radio Teletype , narrow band direct printing
telegraphy - continuous signal modulated between
two frequencies.
–  FSK - frequency shift keying - CW carrier shifted 170Hz
(HF)
–  ASFK - audio-frequency shift keying - shifting audio tone
transmitted by FM (VHF). MCW (modified CW).
•  Only 1 QSO can be maintained on a given frequency
and it requires operator control of transmissions.
•  Modern systems use computers and modems.
•  Baud rates are typically 300 (HF) and up to 1200
(VHF).
•  Call CQ with the “3-6 X 3” method.
•  Use prosigns and Q signals.
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PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 Data Emissions – PSK-31
•  Allows conversations with more background noise
than a voice conversation (will get through when
Phone won’t). Always uses UPPER sideband (USB)
•  Several conversations on one frequency, just using
different frequency tones. See where everyone is
using the “waterfall”.
•  System is controlled with a computer using its
sound card to interpret and send. Special
software, generally free or cheap.
•  PSK means “phase shift keying” to key the 0’s and
1’s. “31” means 31 baud (slow but efficient for HF)
•  Standard frequencies:
–  7.017.15 40m
–  14.070 (14.035 at night) 20m
–  28.120 10m 134
PHYS 401 Physics of Ham Radio
 Sending photos and video
•  Video (Slow Scan TV) takes a higher frequency so
can send data at a faster rate.
•  Scans the picture across, one horizontal line at a
time. First was only 128 lines but now also you can
get 256.
•  System is controlled with a computer and special
software.
•  Tone coding. “tee-del-ee”
•  Standard frequencies:
–  3.845 80m
–  7.170 40m
–  14.230 20m
–  28.680 10m

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