ASSIGNMENT ON SAMPLING AND SAMPLING METHODS

(ASSIGNMENT FOR RESEARCH METHODOLOGY)

Submitted by Guide
Vishal Varia Dr. B.B. RAMANUJ
B.B.A., B.Ed. Associate Professor & DEAN

Department of Education
Saurashtra University, Rajkot
(MARCH – 2012)

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1. Short Questions:

1. Why should we select sample?

Answer:
We have to select sample for the purpose of research as regards the following:
 At times we do not know the actual size of population. So we have work on the available
sample only.
 Even after having the size of population, we cannot work on the entire population and so
we need to select a portion of the population that is sample.
 Many a times, a solution on the sample will work similarly on the population as well.

2. How can we increase the efficiency of Accidental Sample?

Answer:
We can increase the efficiency of Accidental Sample by having accidental selection means
and methods at every stage of sampling.

3. When can we use Planned Sampling

Answer:
We can use planned sampling when we know the size of population.

4. Explain the requirement of sampling that is best representing the

population
Answer:
We must select the sample that is best representing he population so that the generalization of
the conclusion can be easily applied to the population with minimum sampling error.

2. Explain the following terms:

1. Census Inquiry – When the inquiry is on the entire population.

2. Sample Inquiry – When the inquiry is done on a portion of population that best
represents it.
3. S.E. of Sample – The difference between estimated result of the research and the actual
result of research on the sample is called standard error of sample.
4. Population – The entire group of candidate or articles on whom the result of research is
applicable is called the population.
5. Sample – The small portion of candidate or articles that are best representing the
population.

3. Answer in brief:

1. Explain Sample Selection

Answer:
The process of deriving a small portion of candidates or articles from the population that is
best representing the population is called sample selection.

2. Explain importance of sample selection

Answer:
We select the sample for the purpose of research because of the following reasons:
 At times we do not know the actual size of population. So we have work on the available
sample only.
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  Even after having the size of population, we cannot work on the entire population and so
we need to select a portion of the population that is sample.
 Many a times, a solution on the sample will work similarly on the population as well.

3. Explain the features of a good sample

Answer:
The following are the feature of a good sample:

 Goal Orientation - the sampling design should be based on the study's goals and
objectives
 Measurability - the sampling design provides the data necessary for analysis
(enables valid inferences to be made about the population from the sample)
 Practicality - the actual activities of sampling have been identified and are
feasible in the actual situation
 Economy - research objectives can be met with available resources (time, money,
etc.)

4. What point should be considered while cluster sampling

Answer:
Cluster sampling means the selection of groups of elements, called clusters, rather than single
elements; all elements of a cluster are included in the sample, and the clusters are selected
randomly from the larger population of clusters.

The following points should be considered while cluster sampling:

 The population should be able to be classified into different clusters
 The cluster should be possibly in equal size
 The cluster should contain similar entities only.
 While choosing the cluster the researcher should be non – biased.

5. How to do stratification in stratified accidental sample. What should be

the size of sample of each strata.
Answer:
Stratified Random Sampling - a sampling procedure in which the population is divided into
subpopulations (strata) and the elements for the sample are randomly selected from each
stratum.

Equal Allocation - equal numbers are selected from each stratum regardless of the size of the
strata -- produces unequal sampling fractions from each stratum if the strata are unequal in
size.

Proportional Allocation - selecting the sample in a manner so that the sample size is divided
among the strata proportionally to population sizes of the strata (i.e. the sampling fraction is
equal for each stratum).

If there are k strata:

n n1 n2 n3 nk
─── = ──── = ──── = ──── = . . . . . = ────
N N1 N2 N3 Nk

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4. Explain in detail the Advantages & Dis-advantages of different sampling
methods
Sampling techniques: Advantages and disadvantages
Techniqu Descriptions Advantages Disadvantages
e
Simple Random sample Highly representative Not possible without
random from whole if all subjects complete list of
population participate; the ideal population members;
potentially uneconomical
to achieve; can be
disruptive to isolate
members from a group;
time-scale may be too
long, data/sample could
change
Stratified Random sample Can ensure that More complex, requires
random from identifiable specific groups are greater effort than simple
groups (strata), represented, even random; strata must be
subgroups, etc. proportionally, in the carefully defined
sample(s) (e.g., by
gender), by selecting
individuals from strata
list
Cluster Random samples of Possible to select Clusters in a level must
successive clusters randomly when no be equivalent and some
of subjects (e.g., by single list of population natural ones are not for
institution) until members exists, but essential characteristics
small groups are local lists do; data (e.g., geographic:
chosen as units collected on groups numbers equal, but
may avoid introduction unemployment rates
of confounding by differ)
isolating members
Stage Combination of Can make up Complex, combines
cluster (randomly probability sample by limitations of cluster and
selecting clusters) random at stages and stratified random
and random or within groups; possible sampling
stratified random to select random
sampling of sample when
individuals population lists are
very localized
Purposive Hand-pick subjects Ensures balance of Samples are not easily
on the basis of group sizes when defensible as being
specific multiple groups are to representative of
characteristics be selected populations due to
potential subjectivity of
researcher
Quota Select individuals Ensures selection of Not possible to prove that
as they come to fill adequate numbers of the sample is
a quota by subjects with representative of
characteristics appropriate designated population
proportional to characteristics
populations
Snowball Subjects with Possible to include No way of knowing
desired traits or members of groups whether the sample is
characteristics give where no lists or representative of the

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 names of further identifiable clusters population
appropriate even exist (e.g., drug
subjects abusers, criminals)
Volunteer, Either asking for Inexpensive way of Can be highly
accidental, volunteers, or the ensuring sufficient unrepresentative
convenien consequence of not numbers of a study
ce all those selected
finally participating,
or a set of subjects
who just happen to
be available
Source: Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research
design, measurement, and statistics. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. (p. 118)

5. Explain the following:

1. Explain the four different methods of probable sampling
Answer:

1. Probability Samples

The idea behind this type is random selection. More specifically, each sample from the population of
interest has a known probability of selection under a given sampling scheme. There are four
categories of probability samples described below.

2. Simple Random Sampling

The most widely known type of a random sample is the simple random sample (SRS). This is
characterized by the fact that the probability of selection is the same for every case in the population.
Simple random sampling is a method of selecting n units from a population of size N such that every
possible sample of size an has equal chance of being drawn.

3. 1. Stratified Random Sampling

In this form of sampling, the population is first divided into two or more mutually exclusive
segments based on some categories of variables of interest in the research. It is designed to organize
the population into homogenous subsets before sampling, then drawing a random sample within each
subset. With stratified random sampling the population of N units is divided into subpopulations of
units respectively. These subpopulations, called strata, are non-overlapping and together they
comprise the whole of the population. When these have been determined, a sample is drawn from
each, with a separate draw for each of the different strata. The sample sizes within the strata are
denoted by respectively. If a SRS is taken within each stratum, then the whole sampling procedure is
described as stratified random sampling.

3.2. Systematic Sampling

This method of sampling is at first glance very different from SRS. In practice, it is a variant of
simple random sampling that involves some listing of elements - every nth element of list is then
drawn for inclusion in the sample. Say you have a list of 10,000 people and you want a sample of
1,000.

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Creating such a sample includes three steps:

1. Divide number of cases in the population by the desired sample size. In this example,
dividing 10,000 by 1,000 gives a value of 10.
2. Select a random number between one and the value attained in Step 1. In this example, we
choose a number between 1 and 10 - say we pick 7.
3. Starting with case number chosen in Step 2, take every tenth record (7, 17, 27, etc.).

More generally, suppose that the N units in the population are ranked 1 to N in some order (e.g.,
alphabetic). To select a sample of n units, we take a unit at random, from the 1st k units and take
every k-th unit thereafter.

The advantages of systematic sampling method over simple random sampling include:

1. It is easier to draw a sample and often easier to execute without mistakes. This is a particular
advantage when the drawing is done in the field.
2. Intuitively, you might think that systematic sampling might be more precise than SRS. In
effect it stratifies the population into n strata, consisting of the 1st k units, the 2nd k units, and
so on. Thus, we might expect the systematic sample to be as precise as a stratified random
sample with one unit per stratum. The difference is that with the systematic one the units
occur at the same relative position in the stratum whereas with the stratified, the position in
the stratum is determined separately by randomization within each stratum.

4. Cluster Sampling

In some instances the sampling unit consists of a group or cluster of smaller units that we call
elements or subunits (these are the units of analysis for your study). There are two main reasons for
the widespread application of cluster sampling. Although the first intention may be to use the
elements as sampling units, it is found in many surveys that no reliable list of elements in the
population is available and that it would be prohibitively expensive to construct such a list. In many
countries there are no complete and updated lists of the people, the houses or the farms in any large
geographical region.

Even when a list of individual houses is available, economic considerations may point to the choice
of a larger cluster unit. For a given size of sample, a small unit usually gives more precise results
than a large unit. For example a SRS of 600 houses covers a town more evenly than 20 city blocks
containing an average of 30 houses apiece. But greater field costs are incurred in locating 600 houses
and in traveling between them than in covering 20 city blocks. When cost is balanced against
precision, the larger unit may prove superior.

Important things about cluster sampling:

1. Most large scale surveys are done using cluster sampling;

2. Clustering may be combined with stratification, typically by clustering within strata;
3. In general, for a given sample size n cluster samples are less accurate than the other types of
sampling in the sense that the parameters you estimate will have greater variability than an
SRS, stratified random or systematic sample.
2. Explain the three different methods of Non – Probable sampling
Answer:

There are four primary types of non-probability sampling methods:

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1. Availability Sampling

Availability sampling is a method of choosing subjects who are available or easy to find. This
method is also sometimes referred to as haphazard, accidental, or convenience sampling. The
primary advantage of the method is that it is very easy to carry out, relative to other methods. A
researcher can merely stand out on his/her favorite street corner or in his/her favorite tavern and hand
out surveys. One place this used to show up often is in university courses. Years ago, researchers
often would conduct surveys of students in their large lecture courses. For example, all students
taking introductory sociology courses would have been given a survey and compelled to fill it out.
There are some advantages to this design - it is easy to do, particularly with a captive audience, and
in some schools you can attain a large number of interviews through this method.

2. Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is designed to overcome the most obvious flaw of availability sampling. Rather than
taking just anyone, you set quotas to ensure that the sample you get represents certain characteristics
in proportion to their prevalence in the population. Note that for this method, you have to know
something about the characteristics of the population ahead of time. Say you want to make sure you
have a sample proportional to the population in terms of gender - you have to know what percentage
of the population is male and female, then collect sample until yours matches. Marketing studies are
particularly fond of this form of research design.

3. Purposive Sampling

Purposive sampling is a sampling method in which elements are chosen based on purpose of the
study. Purposive sampling may involve studying the entire population of some limited group
(sociology faculty at Columbia) or a subset of a population (Columbia faculty who have won Nobel
Prizes). As with other non-probability sampling methods, purposive sampling does not produce a
sample that is representative of a larger population, but it can be exactly what is needed in some
cases - study of organization, community, or some other clearly defined and relatively limited group.

4. Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is a method in which a researcher identifies one member of some population of
interest, speaks to him/her, then asks that person to identify others in the population that the
researcher might speak to. This person is then asked to refer the researcher to yet another person, and
so on.

Snowball sampling is very good for cases where members of a special population are difficult to
locate. For example, several studies of Mexican migrants in Los Angeles have used snowball
sampling to get respondents.

6. Differentiate:
1. Stratified Vs. Cluster Sampling
Cluster Sampling
 When natural groupings are evident in a statistical population, cluster sampling technique is
used.
 Cluster sampling can be opted if the group consists of homogeneous members.
 The advantages of cluster sampling over other sampling methods is, it is cheaper as compared
to the other methods.

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  The main disadvantage of cluster sampling is, it introduces higher sampling error. This
sampling error can be represented as design effect.

Stratified Sampling
 Stratified sampling is a method where in, the member of a group are grouped into relatively
homogeneous groups.
 For heterogeneous members in the groups, stratified sampling is a good option.
 The advantages of stratified sampling are, this method ignores the irrelevant ones and focuses
on the crucial sub populations. Another advantage is, with this method, for different sub
populations, you can opt for different sampling techniques. This sampling method also helps
in improving the efficiency and accuracy of the estimation. This sampling method allows
greater balancing of statistical power of tests.
 The disadvantages of this sampling method are, it requires choice of relevant stratification
variables which can be tough at times. When there are homogeneous subgroups, it is not
much useful. Its implementation is expensive. If not provided with accurate information
about the population, then an error may be introduced.

2. Probable Vs. Non – Probable Sampling

Probability Sampling

• You have a complete sampling frame. You have contact information for the entire population.

• You can select a random sample from your population. Since all persons (or “units”) have an
equal chance of being selected for your survey, you can randomly select participants without missing
entire portions of your audience.

• You can generalize your results from a random sample. With this data collection method and a
decent response rate, you can extrapolate your results to the entire population.

• Can be more expensive and time-consuming than convenience or purposive sampling.

Nonprobability Sampling

• Used when there isn’t an exhaustive population list available. Some units are unable to be
selected, therefore you have no way of knowing the size and effect of sampling error (missed
persons, unequal representation, etc.).

• Not random.

• Can be effective when trying to generate ideas and getting feedback, but you cannot generalize
your results to an entire population with a high level of confidence. Quota samples (males and
females, etc.) are an example.

•More convenient and less costly, but doesn’t hold up to expectations of probability theory.

7. Explain the formulae of sampling for proportionate sample size of stratified

sample

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Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of observations or replicates to include
in a statistical sample. The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study in which the
goal is to make inferences about a population from a sample. In practice, the sample size used in a
study is determined based on the expense of data collection, and the need to have sufficient statistical
power. In complicated studies there may be several different sample sizes involved in the study: for
example, in as survey sampling involving stratified sampling there would be different sample sizes
for each population. In a census, data are collected on the entire population, hence the sample size is
equal to the population size. In experimental design, where a study may be divided into different
treatment groups, there may be different sample sizes for each group.

Sample sizes may be chosen in several different ways:

 expedience - For example, include those items readily available or convenient to collect. A
choice of small sample sizes, though sometimes necessary, can result in wide confidence
intervals or risks of errors in statistical hypothesis testing.
 using a target variance for an estimate to be derived from the sample eventually obtained
 using a target for the power of a statistical test to be applied once the sample is collected.

How to Assign Sample to Strata

One approach is proportionate stratification. With proportionate stratification, the sample size of each
stratum is proportionate to the population size of the stratum. Strata sample sizes are determined by
the following equation :

nh = ( Nh / N ) * n

where nh is the sample size for stratum h, Nh is the population size for stratum h, N is total
population size, and n is total sample size.

Another approach is disproportionate stratification, which can be a better choice (e.g., less cost, more
precision) if sample elements are assigned correctly to strata. To take advantage of disproportionate
stratification, researchers need to answer such questions as:

 Given a fixed budget, how should sample be allocated to get the most precision from a
stratified sample?
 Given a fixed sample size, how should sample be allocated to get the most precision from a
stratified sample?
 Given a fixed budget, what is the most precision that I can get from a stratified sample?
 Given a fixed sample size, what is the most precision that I can get from a stratified sample?
 What is the smallest sample size that will provide a given level of survey precision?
 What is the minimum cost to achieve a given level of survey precision?
 Given a particular sample allocation plan, what level of precision can I expect?
 And so on.

Although a consideration of all these questions is beyond the scope of this tutorial, the remainder of
this lesson does address the first two questions.

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