CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

1.1. GENERAL

This chapter deals with the introduction which is necessary for the present

investigation to understand the background and the present situation. The Sivaganga

graphite deposit is unique in the sense that it is crystalline flaky graphite and responded

well to the flotation beneficiation technique. The reserves are sustainable and has sufficient

infrastructure for producing special grade graphite for use in nascent technologies. Natural

graphite has become indispensable for a variety of end users in modern industries due to its

unique properties like high heat resistance, electrical conductivity, softness, refractoriness,

chemical inertness and low co-efficient of friction [1].

1.2. PROPERTIES AND USES [2]

Natural graphite forms from the metamorphism of organic carbon or carbonaceous

rocks, and is found in three commercial varieties such as (1) crystalline flaky found in

metamorphosed rocks as vein deposits. (2) microcrystalline or amorphous form in

metamorphosed coal beds and (3) crystalline vein or lump found as fissure filled veins.

Flaky graphite is the most widely mined variety and generally has better

conductivity and oxidation resistance than amorphous graphite. Amorphous graphite is not

really amorphous at all, it is highly crystalline, but the crystals are only visible under the

microscope and fixed carbon is high, usually more than 70%. Vein graphite is the rarest

form and it is only found in significant amounts in Srilanka. It is highly crystalline with

fixed carbon (F.C) more than 97% and it cannot be purified further. Graphite has unique

properties of both metals and non-metals. This amphoteric property makes it suitable for

many industrial applications. All graphite is malleable, absorbent and chemically inert,

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which has high electrical and thermal conductivity and excellent refractory properties. The

metallic properties include electrical and thermal conductivity. The non-metallic properties

include high thermal resistance, inertness and lubricity. The graphite has distinctive greasy

characteristics and low coefficient of friction that makes graphite a good lubricant. Because

it is a solid material, it is known as a dry lubricant. Graphite is the only non-metallic

element that is good conductor of heat and electricity and it has high refractoriness. It can

withstand the temperature up to 3500°C in an inert atmosphere, though in the presence of

oxygen it burns between 620 to 720°C, it is infusible in most common fluxes. It has a high

melting point of 3650°C and vaporizes at 4500°C. It is unaffected by most of the acids and

reagents but yield graphitic acid on treatment with a mixture of potassium nitrate and nitric

acid. Graphite has a low adsorption of X-rays and neutrons making it particularly useful

material in nuclear applications. The key properties of commercial graphite and various

form of graphite and its applications are given in Tables 1.1 and 1. 2.

Table 1.1
Key properties of the commercial grade graphite

Properties Commercial graphite

Bulk density (g/cm3 ) 1.3-1.95
Porosity (%) 0.7-53
Modulus of elasticity (GPa) 8-15
Compressive strength (MPa) 20-200
Flexural strength (MPa) 6.9-100
Coefficient of thermal expansion (x10-6 °C) 1.2-8.2
Thermal conductivity (W/m.K) 25-470
Specific heat capacity (J/kg.K) 710-830
Electrical resistivity (Ω.m) 5x10-6 -30x10-6

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 Table 1.2
Various forms of graphite and its applications

Natural Treated
Crystalline micro- Crystalline
Synthetic
flaky crystalline/ vein/lump Exfoliated Colloidal
amorphous
Carbon
Batteries Batteries Batteries Batteries Batteries
additives
Carbon Carbon
Carbon pans Coatings Lubricants Coverings
resistance film additives
Carbon Friction
- Foil Catalysts Electrodes
brushes materials
Flame Conductive
Catalysts Lubricants - Fuel cells
retardants suspensions
Hearting
Coatings Pencils - Gaskets Lubricants
systems
Crucibles Refractories - Insulation Metal alloys
Mould release
Foil - - Lubricants -
agents
Flame
- - Paint - -
retardants
Friction
- - Seals - -
materials
Fuel cells - - - - -
Lubricants - - - - -
Pencils - - - - -
Plastics/
- - - - -
Resins

1.3. FOREIGN RESOURCES

Natural graphite, the mineral form of graphitic carbon occurs worldwide. It is

estimated that the world recoverable reserves of graphite exceeds 800 million tons and

graphite is found in almost every country. The majority of graphite is produced in Brazil,

Canada, China, Austria, Norway, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Madagascar, Sri Lanka,

Mexico, South Korea, North Korea, USSR, USA and India and also in other countries [3].

1.4. INDIAN RESOURCES [3]

Both flaky and amorphous varieties of graphite are produced in the country.

Although graphite occurs in a number of states in the country, deposits of economic

importance are located in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkand, Karnataka, Kerala, Odisha, Rajasthan

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and Tamilnadu. Major production of graphite in the country is from Odisha and Tamilnadu.

Tamilnadu was the leading State contributing a major share of about 48% of the total

output during 2009-2010 followed by Odisha and Jharkand contributing 26% each. The

graphite ore production in the year 2010-2011 (from April 2010 to July 2011) was 1440584

tons *(Source of data IBM Nagpur).

As per the UNFC system, the total resources of graphite in the country as on

1.4.2005 are placed at about 168.77 million tons, comprising 10.75 million tons in the

reserved category and 158.02 million tons under remaining resource of inferred category.

Balance resources of 146.43 million tons of low grade graphite are placed under other

(unclassified grades) conditional resources located mainly in Arunachal Pradesh and

Jammu & Kashmir. Table 1.3 denote the reserves of graphite as on 1.4.2005. *(Source

Indian Minerals year book 2010).

Table 1. 3
Reserves of graphite as on 1.4.2005 (In tons)
(By Grades/States)

Grade/State Proved Probable Possible Total

All India : Total 5163505 1021869 4564534 10749908
By grades
+ 40% F.C 413639 77132 342807 833578
10-40% F.C 4733667 937943 3943249 9614859
Others 15574 6794 210952 233320
Unclassified - - 67526 67526
Not known 625 - - 625
By states - - - -
Andhra pradesh - - 1135 1135
Gujrat - - - -
Jharkand 442537 670448 2163106 3276091
Karnataka 1308 6794 188812 196914
Kerala - 8300 17762 26062
Odisha 1553293 336327 1217349 3106969
Rajasthan 47600 - 165920 213520
Tamil nadu 3118767 - 810450 3929217

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1.5. PRODUCTION OF GRAPHITE IN WORLD SCENARIO

Graphite process operation can take many years to become profitable, even with a

reliable source in steady economy. The world production of graphite was 2.1 million tons

in the year 2009. China is the principle graphite producer; accounting for 83% of the world

output followed by India is another leading producer, accounting for 5% and Brazil 4%,

Mexico 4% and other countries 4%. The present given favourable market conditions,

production may increase in future, particularly from countries like Brazil, Canada, China,

India and Mexico. Successful exploration, mine expansions and company acquisitions are

expected to result in increased graphite output in this decade, provided that markets can be

developed to sustain the new production. The world production data is given in Table 1.4.

* (Sources Indian Minerals year book 2010).

Table 1. 4
World production of graphite (tons)

Country Production Comments/grades

China # 1750000 Finished flaky + amorphous
India * 107000 run of mine
Brazil @ 75000 marketable
Mexico 5000 Amorphous + flaky
Ukraine 8000 amorphous + flaky
Russia 14000 amorphous + flaky
Canada 7000 flaky
Korea, Dem P.R.of 30000 amorphous + flaky
Zimbabwe 2000 flaky
Other countries 102000 Amorphous + flaky

# Including flaky graphite. * Crude graphite. @ Including beneficiated and

directly shipped material.

India is one of the fore runners and has ample potential for creating the sustainable

processing methods. It is easily flotable but difficult to refine by cleaners. It has dual

hardness varying with lattice orientation, posing problems in grinding. The flaky are not to

be broken/damaged during grinding for liberating finer graphite. Graphite is the only

5
mineral to exhibit clear dual liberation characterstics. These interesting factors naturally

attract the mineral researchers to work on natural graphite.

1.6. INDUSTRIES AND THEIR REQUIRED SPECIFICATION OF GRAPHITE

Since graphite has got its own unique property it attracts wide range of industrial

applications. The various specifications required for different industries for their utilization

as well as production of graphite based materials [4-6].

1.6.1. Crucibles

The manufacture of crucible is served best by flaky graphite, although crystalline

graphite is used. Graphite crucibles are manufactured by pressing a mixture of graphite,

clay and sand by fixing the pressed article at a high temperature. They are used for melting

non-ferrous metals, especially brass and aluminum. Graphite crucibles are used in steel-

making industries and in the production of non-ferrous and precious metals. Flaky graphite

is highly preferred compare with microcrystalline graphite because its oxidation rate is

slow and has high attrition resistance and imparts structural strength through the orientation

of the flaky. Crucible manufacturers are using graphite with average carbon content of 70

to 94 % and above 0.15 mm flaky size.

1.6.2. Foundry facings

The graphite with 40 to 70% fixed carbon is utilized for foundry facings. A

considerable quantity of graphite is used in foundry to prevent the moulding sands from

adhering to cast articles and fine graphite is preferred. For foundry applications such as

mould coating, graphite prevents the adhesion of metals. Foundry facing are usually made

of microcrystalline graphite, between 53 and 75 microns. The BIS (IS: 1305 – 1984) has

prescribed specifications for graphite use in foundry coatings. The physical requirements of

natural graphite and their details are given in Table 1.5.

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 Table 1.5
Specification of graphite for foundry facings

Characteristics Requirement % by mass

Grade-I Grade-II Grade-III
Moisture 1.0 1.0 1.0
Volatile matter (dry basis) 3.0 3.0 3.0
Ash (dry basis) 12.0 20.0 30.0
Fixed carbon (dry basis) 85.0 77.0 67.0
Non-graphite carbon 0.5 2.5 2.5
Particle size 100% less than 150 micron and 75% less than 75 micron

1.6.3 Refractory

Due to its high temperature stability and chemical inertness graphite is a good

candidate for refractory material. It is used in the production of “Magnesia-carbon”

refractory bricks. The graphite content of magnesia-carbon refractory bricks, which are

large users of flaky graphite, varies between 15-25% with an average carbon content of 80-

96% and an average flaky size of 0.15-0.71 mm. The bricks are used in high-temperature

and corrosion prone applications such as in steel furnace lining, ladles, slag-lines, hotpots,

nozzles, and blast furnaces. Graphite is used because of its thermal conductivity, thermal

and chemical resistance.

Graphite bricks of high purity are used as moderators in an atomic reactor. In

nuclear field, graphite is a good and convenient material as a moderator but this is only true

if the graphite is low in certain neutron absorbing elements notably boron and the rare

earths and is of consistent quality particularly with regard to density and orientation. The

latest invention in the use of graphite is in the blast furnace operation experimented by

Oesterreichisch-Alpine Mountagesllschaft, Austria. In view of the lack of coking coal in

Australia, it is likely that the use of graphite in blast furnace will be developed on a

commercial scale.

The refractory manufactures in India, required graphite having fixed carbon content

of 80-96 % F.C and ash content 2.5-18 %. The flaky graphite should be 1 mm size. The

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following 4 grades have been specified by the sub-committtee on refractory raw materials

appointed by the DGTD in their report (August 1985). The details are given in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6
Specification of graphite for refractory

Details Grade-I Grade-II Grade-III Grade-IV

Fixed carbon, % minimum 95 90 85 80
Fusion point of ash, °C 1550 1550 1400 -
Physical specifications The mineral should be flaky, the size range being
- 40 to + 60 mesh

1.6.4. Pencils

In the manufacture of lead pencils, natural graphite is used because of its marking

properties. The suitability of graphite for this purpose is judged by the dark streak it leaves

on the paper. It is best done by amorphous graphite. The finer the powder, the darker is the

smear. The blackness of the smear decreases with increase in flakiness of the graphite. The

degree of hardness of a pencil is determined by the clay to graphite ratio of its lead, softer

pencils use more graphite. High quality pencils use crystalline graphite, while cheaper

quality pencils use amorphous graphite. The lead is mixture of kaolin and bentonite mixed

with graphite and baked.

The BIS specification (IS: 2079-1982) prescribes the requirements for graphite of

two grades intended for use in the manufacture of pencil slips. Depending on the fineness

and ash content, graphite has been classified into two grades. For grade-I graphite should

have ash content of not more than 5% by mass. The particle size should be such that

minimum 90% of the materials pass through size of 53 microns. Grade-II should have ash

content of about 5% but not more than 10% by mass. The pencils are manufactured from

crystalline flaky graphite. The details regarding requirements have been mentioned in BIS

specifications (IS: 2079-1983).

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 The general requirements of the required material is that it shall be of good quality,

dry, soft, dark, powder with smooth feel. It should be free from grit, grease and visible

impurities. The specific requirement is as follows:

• Loss in mass on heating shall not exceed 3%

• Petroleum ether soluble matter shall not exceed 0.5 % by mass
• Water soluble matter shall not exceed 1.25 % by mass
• Ash content of the material for Grade-I shall not be more than 5% by mass and for
Grade-II above 5% but not more than 10% by mass
• Ash should not fuse below 1100°C
• The non-graphitic carbon content of the material shall not exceed 3% by mass
• The blackness shall not be more than 30%

It has been indicated by some consumers of graphite in pencil industry that the

required material shoud have fixed carbon content of 96-97% F.C, Ash 3-4%, SiO2 0.95%,

Al2O3 0.75%, CaO 0.22% and MgO 0.05%. About 90% of the material should be 45

micron. Synthetic graphite, though it has less ash content and a fine particle size, produces

very little smear is therefore, unsuitable for pencil manufacture.

1.6.5. Lubricants

All grades of graphite, especially high grade amorphous and crystalline graphite

having colloidal property i.e. remaining suspension in oil are used as lubricants. Graphite

has an extraordinarily low co-efficient of friction under practically all working conditions.

It diminishes friction and tends to keep the moving surface cool. Dry graphite as well as

graphite mixed with grease and oil is utilized as a lubricant for heavy and light bearings.

Graphite grease is used as a heavy duty lubricant where high temperatures may tend to

remove the grease.

Lubricants for industrial usage are also made from graphite because of its softness,

low friction, inertness, and heat resistance. High purity graphite (98 to 99%) and size of 53

to 106 microns is used.

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 BIS specifications (IS: 495-1967) prescribed the requirement, method of sampling

and test for flaky graphite intended chiefly for use in the manufacture of lubricants. The

material should be good quality graphite, dry, and steel grey in colour, having metallic

lusture, smooth and soapy feel. It should be free from grit, grease and other impurities.

Indian standard sieve and not more than 50% by weight of the material should be retained

on 125 microns.

The BIS standard does not specify the carbon content of the graphite flaky.

However, carbon content varying from 94 to 99% is usually considered suitable for the

purpose. The detailed requirement, which the material should comply are mentioned in

Table 1.7.

Table 1.7
Requirement of graphite flaky for lubricant

Characteristic Requirement
Pass on heating percent by wt. maximum 1.25
Petroleum ether soluble matter percent by weight,
0.50
maximum
Water soluble matter present by weight, maximum 1.25
to specify the requirement of the
Acidity of water extract
test
Ash, percent by weight, maximum 5.00
Non-graphite carbon, percent by weight, maximum 3.00
Freedom for abrasive matter present by weight, to pass the test
maximum

1.6.6. Paints

Finely powdered lump graphite of 70% purity is generally employed in paint

manufacture. Graphite is a great water repellent and thus makes an ideal protective coating

for wood. The specification for graphite for use in the paint industry as per the BIS

specification IS: 62-1950 standards are given in Table 1.8.

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 Table 1.8
Requirement of graphite for paints

Characteristic Requirement
Volatile matter Not more than 2%
Oil absorption Within 5% of the approved sample
Colour Close match to approved sample
a) Staining power Not inferior to the approved samples
b) Tone Equal to the approved samples
Matter soluble in water Not more than 1%
Ash Not more than 40%
As agreed with the purchaser subject to the special
Marking & Delivery
requirement for the lead free pigment when specified

According to the IS specifications only flaky graphite is prescribed for the paint

industry. However, the amorphous graphite generally containing between 50 to 55%

carbon, which also contains 20 to 25% silica, is considered to be suitable for paints. Silica

enhances the distribution of graphite particles throughout the paint, whereas impurities like

pyrite and mica tend to affect the longevity of the paint. The graphitic paint is used to

protect metal surfaces exposed to a corrosive environment and to eliminate the

accumulation of static electricity in floor coatings. Micro-crystalline graphite of low carbon

content of 50 to 55% is usually required.

1.6.7. Brake lining

Most of the manufactures use a blend of natural and synthetic graphite in the ratio

of 3:2. The leading manufacturers require a minimum carbon content of 98% F.C and at

least 95% of the particles should be 75 micron. Graphite having carbon content of 90%

could be used provided the level of the abrasive impurities is low. The use of graphite in

brake lining reduces the wear rate. High purity crystalline graphite below 75 microns is

used with a minimum carbon content of 98% F.C, although a concentrate of 90% F.C can

be used if abrasive impurities such as silica are at the low level.

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1.6.8. Stoppers / Nozzles / Ladle

Graphite is one of the most common materials used in the production of functional

refractories for the continuous casting of steel. In this application, graphite flaky is mixed

with alumina and zirconia and then iso-statically pressed to form components such as

stopper rods, subentry nozzles and ladle shrouds used in both regulating flow of molten

steel and protecting against oxidation. This type of material may also be used as shielding

for pyrometers. Its structural strength at temperature, thermal shock resistance, high

thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion and good chemical resistance are of

paramount importance in this application.

1.6.9. Electrodes

The electrodes used in many electrical and metallurgical furnaces are manufactured

from graphite such as the electric arc furnaces used for processing steel.

1.6.10. Brushes

Natural and artificial graphite in different combinations are used along with the

other raw materials in the manufacture of brushes. The carbon content in graphite should be

95% F.C preferably 53 micron.

1.6.11. Batteries

It is reported that cell performance is influenced by carbon content, structure,

crystallographic orientation and size of the particles. Generally speaking the Indian

consumers are using graphite having 90% F.C, ash 8 to 13%, less than 0.5% iron, water

less than 3% and sedimentation volume 4 cc.

1.6.12. Chemical industry

There are many high temperature uses for graphite in the chemical industry such as

in the production of phosphorus and calcium carbide in arc furnaces. Graphite is used as

12
anodes in some aqueous electrolytic processes such as in the production of halogens

(chlorine and fluorine).

1.6.13. Nuclear industry

High purity electro-graphite is used in large amount for the production of moderator

rods and reflector components in nuclear reactors. Their suitability arises from low

absorption of neutrons, high thermal conductivity and their high strength at temperature.

1.6.14. Electrical motor component

The main application for graphite as an electrical material is in the manufacture of

carbon brushes in electric motors. In this application, the performance and lifetime of the

component is very much dependent on grade and structure. Electric motor components use

a wide variety of graphite either natural or synthetic. Powdered graphite of size

150 microns with a minimum carbon content of 95 to 99% F.C is required. Lump graphite,

low silica microcrystalline graphite and synthetic graphite are suitable.

1.6.15. Powder metallurgy

In powder metallurgy, where steel is reinforced by the absorption of carbon, high

purity graphite is required for sintering. It also acts as a lubricant and source of carbon. Dry

powder graphite should be of an average particle size of 5 microns and must have a carbon

content ranging from 96 to 99% F.C.

1.6.16. Iron foundry

Iron foundries use microcrystalline graphite as a recarburizer for raising the carbon

content of iron melted in electrical furnaces from charges containing large proportions of

scrap. A wide variety of materials, such as synthetic graphite and coke, may serve as a

substitute.

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1.6.17. Dry cells

Natural graphite having carbon content not less than 95% F.C is used in the

manufacture of carbon rods for dry battery cells. Graphite has traditionally been used in dry

cell zinc carbon batteries due to its electrical conductivity. Fine-grain carbon with 85% F.C

below 75 microns or microcrystalline graphite with a minimum carbon content of 88% F.C

is required. Alkaline batteries require pure natural graphite of very fine-grain size with a

carbon content of at least 98% F.C or a synthetic grade. Carbon material should be free of

metallic impurities such as copper, cobalt, arsenic and antimony.

1.6.18. Expanded graphite

Growing market includes “expanded” flaky graphite rolled into sheet (grafoil, also

called flexible graphite foil) for the manufacture of gaskets and seals used in the

automotive industry and heat exchangers.

1.6.19. Fuel cell

New and developing applications are providing demand growth for graphite. In

particular, there is considerable potential for high purity, high carbon graphite in battery

industries sector and also in fuel cells, which could offer good long term growth. A

research group associated with the University of New South Wales in Sydney has

developed a new form of very high density graphite (VHD) that has advantages over

conventional graphite on four key areas such as porosity, composition, electrical and

thermal conductivity. The VHD graphite can be manufactured at lower temperature than

conventional graphite and the processing time is order of magnitude shorter.

1.6.20. Nano composites

When intercalated expanded graphite nano-flaky are produced with a thickness of

20-50 nanometers. The potential end use of graphite nano-flaky would be in the aerospace,

automobile and conductive plastics sectors.

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1.6.21. Mechanical applications

Graphite is used widely an engineering material over a variety of applications

includes piston rings, thrust bearings, journal bearings and vanes. Carbon based seals are

used in the shafts and fuel pumps of many aircraft jet engines.

1.6.22. Steel sector

Graphitized alumina refractories are used in the process of continuous casting of

crude steel and secondary refining. They are essentially used to control and protect the

metal flowing from the ladle to the water cooled mould. Graphite imparts two most

importants properties to alumina refractories; a combination of corrosion resistance and

thermal shock resistance. Graphite with a minimum carbon content of 80% F.C is used. As

the flaky size is more significant than the purity, the graphite should be in the range of -500

to +150 micron.

1.6.23. Other applications

The material can be used in many applications from cryogenics at -200°C to an

elevated temperature of +3000°C. It has an excellent chemical resistance and is suitable for

most organic and inorganic chemicals with the exception of strong oxidising compounds. It

is non-toxic and can be used in contact with food stuffs and potable water. Flexible graphite

products, such as grafoil (thin graphite cloth), will probably be the fastest growing market

for the manufacture of gaskets and seals used in the automotive industry, heat exchangers

and other. Pure expanded flexible mineral graphite has superior properties to asbestos

fibres and many man made fibres. It is a non-fibrous material and has none of the health or

handling hazards associated with asbestos. It has low sulphur content with a carbon ash

content of less than 0.5% in the mineral. Excellent in thermal, electrical conductivity and it

prevents build up of static with very good creep resistance providing no cold or hot flow.

15
The low coefficient of friction provides excellent sealing properties at low loadings and

does not harden or age with unlimited shelf life.

In the present scenario, demand of high purity natural graphite is going on for

special applications, metal powders, motor brushes, colloidal graphite etc. The advanced

technology now allows natural graphite material to be upgraded to more than 99.5% F.C.

The advent of hybrid and electric vehicles is expected to bring increased demand for high-

purity graphite in fuel cell and battery applications. One optimistic prediction is that the

demand for high-quality carbon graphite could increase to more than 1,00,000 metric tons

per year for fuel cell and battery applications alone. The global demand for graphite used in

batteries may be doubled to more than 25,000 metric tons in the next 5 years. This demand

is expected to be spread between two main consuming sectors; alkaline batteries and

lithium-metal ion batteries. Synthetic and natural graphite are both used in these batteries.

In alkaline batteries, graphite is the conductive material in the cathode. Until

recently, synthetic graphite was dominantly used in these batteries, but with the advent of

new purification techniques and more efficient processing methods, it has become possible

to improve the conductivity of most natural graphite to the point where it can be used in

batteries. The decision whether to use synthetic or natural graphite will be a balancing act

between price and performance. The growth of the lithium-ion battery market could have a

more dramatic effect on the graphite market as the demand for mobile energy storage

systems rises.

1.7. PROBLEMS IN GRAPHITE FLOTATION TECHNIQUES

Graphite has got wide range of industrial applications, but there are many problems

associated with graphite beneficiation which is enumerated below. It is very easy to obtain

a crude graphite concentrate but very difficult to refine it up to the desired extent [7- 9].

16
i) Because of high premium for coarse flaky graphite, the problems in milling to liberate

graphite from the gangue mineral without excessive size reduction and damage of

graphite flaky. This is rather difficult, as during grinding, the graphite flaky is

destroyed by associated quartz and other sharp edge gangue minerals. However, this

can be tackled by pre-concentration, multi stage as well as autogenous grinding etc.

Major portion of abrasive minerals like quartz can be removed at coarser size and

crude graphite concentrate could be further refined by regrinding in pebble mills, and

reflotation without excessive damage to graphite flaky.

ii) The graphite concentrate with very high fixed carbon content becomes difficult to

obtain mainly due to soft nature of graphite. Relatively pure grains of quartz, mica,

calcite and other associated gangue minerals inadvertently become smeared with soft

fine graphite during grinding and tend to float with graphite, necessitating multistage

cleaning. However, this problem can be tackled by gravity separation i.e. crude

flotation concentrate can be further cleaned on shaking tables.

iii) The third problem faced in processing of some graphite deposits are stems. The

graphite flaky which report to coarse fractions are easily liberated whereas the graphite

which report to the fine fraction is not easily liberated. This is opposite to the

liberation characteristics of many other minerals. This problem can be tackled by

classification and regrinding of the finer fractions to liberate graphite. Coarse flaky (1

to 2 mm size) can also be recovered by flash flotation and clean graphite concentrate

from fine reground fraction could be obtained by employing flotation columns instead

of conventional cells. Many research laboratories in the world and also IMMT,

Bhubaneshwar in India have carried out some work in this regard and claim to have

achieved success in graphite beneficiation employing flotation columns.

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1.8. IMPORTANCE, OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

Tamilnadu Minerals Limited (TAMIN) has graphite beneficiation plant at

Sivaganga in Tamilnadu. The plant was designed with rated capacity of 200 tons per day to

process feed material with an average grade of 14 to 15% fixed carbon (F.C) to produce

28 tons per day of graphite concentrate having 96% F.C at recovery of 92.2%. As the plant

did not attain the rated designed capacity, the research work was carried out to optimize the

plant and also to find out the technical bottle neck of the process. The mining industries in

the world is struggling with increasing cost of production and reducing ore grade recovery.

By using flotation method, it is possible to overcome the above problems by selection of

chemical reagents like frothers, collectors, depressants, modifiers and also through

combination of dosage which is very much essential according to their function in flotation.

The ore is considered to be an aggregation of minerals from which associated minerals can

be recovered economically on a commercial scale. In the world wide graphite beneficaiton

techniques, the manufactures are using various types and mixture of reagents. The dosage

of frothers like pine oil, eucalyptus oil, Nalco-9840 chemical, MIBC and collectors like

kerosene and diesel oil in the froth flotation process are used. In addition to that sodium

carbonate and sodium silicate solutions are being added as pH regulator and depressing

agent respectively. In order to produce optimum conditions highly selective and efficient

flotation process, various flotation reagents are added. In practice, flotation is almost

impossible without the use of flotation reagents. Flotation reagents alter the surface

properties of the minerals over a wide range and make the mineral particles either-avid or

water repellent. [10-12].

Since Sivaganga graphite deposit is unique and it is crystalline, flaky graphite with

little clay association, it has responded well to the flotation process. The deposit reserves

are sustainable and has sufficient infrastructure for producing special grade graphite for use

18
in nascent technologies. As such M/s. Tamilnadu Minerals Limited, being a Government

enterprise encourages in-house/domestic Research and Development work for proper use of

the mineral.

1.8.1. Objective of the present work

It is envisaged that the present investigation is to carry out a study on the

characteristics of the graphite sample and to identify the proper chemical reagents to be

used for flotation of graphite from Sivaganga deposits. The objectives of the present studies

are:

• Characterization of graphite sample and different surfactants using by X-ray

diffraction analysis (XRD), Zeta potential measurements(ZP) and Fourier

Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) methods

• Effect of different surfactants on gas hold-up

• Effect of dosage of surfactant on gas hold-up

• Technology transfer of above micro level data to bench scale, simulating plant

conditions.

1.8.2. Scope of the study

The scope of the present work is as follows:

• Collection of representative graphite samples from the rod mill feed and discharge

followed by diagnostic characterization of the sample

• Collection of surfactants and water followed by its characterization

• Selection and optimization of the surfactant dosage

• Bench scale flotation tests under above optimized conditions and simulating the
plant conditions for their evaluation.

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